中国大学英语教学与“行为—认知”教学法
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摘要
我国虽然是一个有着5000年文明史的泱泱大国,但对第二语言习得的研究(主要是外语教学领域和对外汉语教学领域)还是近十多年的事,多数研究是以引进和介绍西方学者的成果为主,随之涌现了大量有关语言本质、语言习得规律及语言教学方法的理论、流派。由于对中国国情下外语学习的民族特性及对成年人语言习得的心理机制了解、重视不够,我国的外语教学发展受到一定的困扰。随着时代的发展,社会对人才的需求标准正越来越高,如今社会迫切呼唤那些素质完备、具有开拓进取和创造力的人才。就英语而言,那些高分低能的学生已经不能满足时代需要,而运用能力强和具备多文化知识背景和多角度思维方式的学生广泛受到欢迎。从客观上说,我国是一个非英语的语言国度,在这种情况下学习外语(尤其是英语)更多依靠的是课堂环境下老师的讲授,如何将社会需求同现实条件结合起来,使外语教学不仅在实质上提高学生的双语交际能力而且成为素质教育的强大支撑,是摆在我们每一位外语教学工作者和理论研究者面前的重大课题。本文运用语言学、教育学、生理学、认知心理学、心理语言学等多学科理论和为期半年的教学实验试图说明一种新型的“行为—认知”教学法对指导实现外语教学目标、促进民族振兴的重要意义。当然,同任何理论的提出一样,“行为—认知”教学法还需要经过长期的实验证明、理论论证,不断修改和完善。尽管如此,就目前我国外语教学的状况来看,我们似乎应该朝着两个方向努力,一是加强理论创新,在多方吸收和借鉴各国语言教学优秀理论和科学方法的基础上,密切联系国内实际大胆开创具有中国特色的外语教学新论;二是广泛实践,充分利用我国广大外语教师的丰富实践经验,在科学原则的指导下,大力开展形式多样的实验、尝试,使抽象理论转变为具体成效。总之,让理论与实践相得益彰,共同推动我国外语教学事业的发展。可以说,培养学生的语言运用能力是语言教学的终极目标,一切有利于实现此目标的有效方法都应该努力尝试。
As a giant country with a civilization over 5,000 years, China has contributed significantly to the development of humanity through the arts, science and education. However, research on Second Language Acquisition (hereafter abbreviated as SLA) was initiated only a decade ago, focusing on teaching foreign languages to Chinese students and teaching Chinese to foreign learners. In the last few years, Chinese Foreign language Teaching (hereafter abbreviated as FLT) in higher education appears to be driven, at least in intent by learning from western teaching conventions. Introducing and translating the western researchers' work has become a dominant model since the 1980s. However, there is now much skepticism as to whether these theories or teaching methods are useful to Chinese universities considering our current teaching conditions and the specific psychological characteristics of young adults. There is a need to make sense of the proliferation of FLT ideas as the knowledge base of western ideas has grown in universities and schools. At the same time, any system of FLT is shaped by its political, social and cultural contexts. The dilemma is global vs. local. Thus, we should locate FLT in the general context of education in China since most learners still study English in classrooms and such contextualization is often lacking in western accounts of SLA. We need to draw attention to some characteristically Chinese features about how a foreign language (like English) is learned and how foreign language teaching is developed as well as what psycholinguistic processes are involved when students engage in learning the target language.
This thesis starts from basic concepts and theories of language learning and teaching and extends into the domains specifically linked to the current situation of English teaching in China's universities. The principal focus is nonetheless on "Behavior-Cognition" approach designed specifically for young adult learners (mainly college students) in China. As an innovation in ELT area, the author provides a comprehensive overview of the theoretical issues and empirical findings of this method. Moving beyond the explanation and discussion of "Behavior-Cognition", the author inspires researchers and instructors in higher education to further investigate how to improve the quality of ELT in Chinese universities.
Chapter One lays the foundations. It covers some of the central ideas that have emerged from studies of language learning. The author explores the nature of language and its implication on pedagogical practice as well as procedures involved in language learning. A grasp of the linguistic views of language and psychological theories of language learning is indispensable for a complete understanding of the arguments about the nature and methodology of teaching that follow in Chapter Two. In this chapter the author reviews the historical development of foreign language teaching with a brief introduction from traditional Grammar-Translation Method to the more popular Communicative Approach, and in turn, assesses the teaching objectives, procedures and principles reflected by altered emphasis on the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. Chapter Three changes the focus from theoretical study to a practical goal. It takes a close look at the status quo of English language teaching in Chinese universities. The author reports results of two surveys: one on the current situation of classroom foreign language teaching and the other on employers' expectations of graduate's foreign language level. The survey indicates that there is an urgent need for us to change the test-oriented teaching to a professional, evidence-based approach. Chapter Four shows how to use the "Behavior-Cognition" approach to enhance student learning and explains the theoretical bases and teaching ideology of the method. Starting with a reflection on some important issues in foreign language teaching, it follows a sequence of introducing the teaching objective, principle, content, procedure, and particular teaching strategies and techniques. The overall description exemplifies the idea that when teaching foreign languages to the Chinese college students we need to be always open to modify our teaching according to the ever changing practical situation. Chapter Five deals with classroom experiments using "Behavior-Cognition" and shows the effects on students' attitudes and tests results. The concluding chapter discusses the advantages and weaknesses of this approach and calls for more efforts on the investigation and application of ELT in China.
As a giant country with a civilization over 5,000 years, China has contributed significantly to the development of humanity through the arts, science and education. However, research on Second Language Acquisition (hereafter abbreviated as SLA) was initiated only a decade ago, focusing on teaching foreign languages to Chinese students and teaching Chinese to foreign learners. In the last few years, Chinese Foreign language Teaching (hereafter abbreviated as FLT) in higher education appears to be driven, at least in intent by learning from western teaching conventions. Introducing and translating the western researchers' work has become a dominant model since the 1980s. However, there is now much skepticism as to whether these theories or teaching methods are useful to Chinese universities considering our current teaching conditions and the specific psychological characteristics of young adults. There is a need to make sense of the proliferation of FLT ideas as the knowledge base of western ideas has grown in universities and schools. At the same time, any system of FLT is shaped by its political, social and cultural contexts. The dilemma is global vs. local. Thus, we should locate FLT in the general context of education in China since most learners still study English in classrooms and such contextualization is often lacking in western accounts of SLA. We need to draw attention to some characteristically Chinese features about how a foreign language (like English) is learned and how foreign language teaching is developed as well as what psycholinguistic processes are involved when students engage in learning the target language.
This thesis starts from basic concepts and theories of language learning and teaching and extends into the domains specifically linked to the current situation of English teaching in China's universities. The principal focus is nonetheless on "Behavior-Cognition" approach designed specifically for young adult learners (mainly college students) in China. As an innovation in ELT area, the author provides a comprehensive overview of the theoretical issues and empirical findings of this method. Moving beyond the explanation and discussion of "Behavior-Cognition", the author inspires researchers and instructors in higher education to further investigate how to improve the quality of ELT in Chinese universities.
Chapter One lays the foundations. It covers some of the central ideas that have emerged from studies of language learning. The author explores the nature of language and its implication on pedagogical practice as well as procedures involved in language learning. A grasp of the linguistic views of language and psychological theories of language learning is indispensable for a complete understanding of the arguments about the nature and methodology of teaching that follow in Chapter Two. In this chapter the author reviews the historical development of foreign language teaching with a brief introduction from traditional Grammar-Translation Method to the more popular Communicative Approach, and in turn, assesses the teaching objectives, procedures and principles reflected by altered emphasis on the four skills of speaking, listening, reading and writing. Chapter Three changes the focus from theoretical study to a practical goal. It takes a close look at the status quo of English language teaching in Chinese universities. The author reports results of two surveys: one on the current situation of classroom foreign language teaching and the other on employers' expectations of graduate's foreign language level. The survey indicates that there is an urgent need for us to change the test-oriented teaching to a professional, evidence-based approach. Chapter Four shows how to use the "Behavior-Cognition" approach to enhance student learning and explains the theoretical bases and teaching ideology of the method. Starting with a reflection on some important issues in foreign language teaching, it follows a sequence of introducing the teaching objective, principle, content, procedure, and particular teaching strategies and techniques. The overall description exemplifies the idea that when teaching foreign languages to the Chinese college students we need to be always open to modify our teaching according to the ever changing practical situation. Chapter Five deals with classroom experiments using "Behavior-Cognition" and shows the effects on students' attitudes and tests results. The concluding chapter discusses the advantages and weaknesses of this approach and calls for more efforts on the investigation and application of ELT in China.
引文
[1]岑建君,转变思想观念,再创一流业绩.外语界[J],1998,(2).
[2]李国宏,论英语语言习得中的“认知一知识语言双元结构”,西华大学学报[J],2005,6
[3]李蜜,以学为本,因学论教.云梦学刊.[J]2006,(2).
[4]吕叔湘,中学教师的语法修养,《中学教学语法讲话》,吕叔湘,张志公等编,济南:山东教育出版社,页1-8,1985
[5]施良方、崔允漷,《教学理论:课堂教学的原理、策略与研究》[M]上海:华东师范大学出版社 1999,8
[6]束定芳.外语教学改革:问题与对策(M]上海:上海外语教育出版社2004.6
[7]王闻博,《大学学习学》[M]北京:中国纺织出版社1996
[8]武和平,二语习得中“逻辑问题”的逻辑与普遍语法可及性假说[J],外语学刊,2004,(3)
[9]尹德谟,研究生英语教学新模式在教学中的运用.高等农业教育,[J],(6)页75-78,1997
[10]余文森、吴刚平、刘良华,《解读教与学的意义》[M]上海:华东师范大学出版社2005,7
[11]Allwright,D.& Bailey,K.M.1991.Focus on the Language Classroom:An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers.Cambridge:CUP.
[12]Badger R.& White G.A process genre approach to teaching writing [J].ELT Journal,54(2),2000:153-160.
[13]Bachman,L.F.,& Palmer,A.S.Language testing in practice.Oxford:Oxford University Press.1996.
[14]Bialystok,E.& Sharwood-Smith,M.Interlanguage is not a state of mind:An evaluation of the construct for second language acquisition.Applied Linguisitics,1985.6,101-107
[15]Byrnes,n.The role of listening comprehension:a theoretical base.[J].Foreign Language Annals,1984,17:317-329
[16]Byrne,D.Teaching Oral English.[M]Harlow:Longman,1986
[17]Canale,M.and Swain,M.'Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing',Applied Linguistics,1980,1:1-47
[18]Chastain K.Developing second -language skills:Theory and practice (3~(rd)ed.)[M].New York:Harcourt Brace Jouanovich,1988
[19]Dewey,J.Democracy and Education:An Introduction into the Philosophy of Education.[M]New Work:Mcmillan,1916
[20]Donald J.G.Directions for future research and its application[A].Donald J.G.& Sullivan A.M.Using research to improve teaching[C].San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1985.95-104
[21]Dornyei,Z.Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom.Modern Language Journal,[M].78,273-284,1994.
[22]Elaine Tarone & George Yule,Focus on the Language Learner.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.
[23]Freeman,Yvonne S.and David Freeman,ESL/EFL Teaching:Principles for Success[M],Portsmouth:Heinemann,1998:27
[24]Guy Cook & Barbara Seidlhofer.Principles & Practice in Applied Linguistics.[M]Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[25]H.G.Widdowson.Aspects of Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[26]H.H.Stern,Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[27]H.H.Stern,Issues and Options in Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[28]Johnson,P.Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text.[J].TESOL Quarterly,1981,15(2):169-181
[29]Maslow,A.H.Motivation and Personality.New York:Harper& Row,1957.
[30]Noam Chomsky,New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind.[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2002.
[31]Oxford,R.L.Where are we with language learning motivation? Modern Language Journal,[M].78,512-514,1994
[32]Patsy M.Lightbown and Nina Spada,How Languages are learned.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.
[33]Paul Davies & Eric Pearse.Success in English Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.
[34]Peter Skehan.A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[35]Richards,J.and Rodgers,T.Approaches and Method in Language Teaching:A Description and Analysis.[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986
[36]Rod Ellis.Understanding Second Language Acquisition.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[37]Short,D.TESOL.ESL Standards for K-12 Students.Http//:www.TESOL,org,1997
[38]Thomas Scovel.Psycholinguistics.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.
[39]Watkins,D.& Gerong,A.Language of response and the spontaneous self-concept:A test of the cultural accommodation hypothesis.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,30,115-121.1999
[40]White,L.,Adams,A.,Maylath B.& Couzijin,[M].Language Awareness:A History and Implementations.Amsterdam:Amsterdam,University Press.2000.
[41]William Littlewood,Foreign And Second Language Learning.[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2000.
[1]Allwright,D.& Bailey,K.M.1991.Focus on the Language Classroom:An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers.Cambridge:CUP.
[2]Anderson,J.(1983)The Architecture of Cognition,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[3]Bachman,L.F.(1990).Fundamental considerations in language testing.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[4]Bachman,L.F.,& Palmer,A.S.(1996).Language testing in practice.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[5]Bialystok,E.& Sharwood-Smith,M.(1985).Interlanguage is not a state of mind:An evaluation of the construct for second language acquisition.Applied Linguisitics,6,101-107
[6]Canale,M.and Swain,M.(1980)' Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing',Applied Linguistics,1:1-47
[7]Canale,M.(1983).On some dimension of language proficiency.In J.Oller(Ed.),Issues in language testing research(pp.333-342).Rowley,MA:Newbury House.
[8]Ellis,R.(1994).The study of second language acquisition.Oxford,England:Oxford University Press.
[9]Johnson,P.Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text.TESOL Quarterly,1981,15(2):169-181
[10]Kim,K.H.S.,Relkin,N.R.,Lee,K.M.,and Hirsch,J.,Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages,Nature,388/1997,171-174
[11]Kramsch,C.(1993).Context and Culture in Language Teaching.Oxford,England:Oxford University Press.
[12]Onwuegbuzie,A.J.,Bailey,P.,& Daley,C.E.(1999).Factors associated with foreign language anxiety.Applied Psycholinguistics,20,217-239.
[13]Osbom,T.A.(2006).Teaching world languages for social justice:A sourcebook of principles and practices.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
[14]Richards,J.and Rodgers,T.Approaches and Method in Language Teaching:A Description and Analvsis.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986
[15]Schmidt,R.(1990).The role of consciousness in second language learning.Applied Linduistics,11,129-158
[16]Smith,D.I.(2001).The spirit of the foreign language classroom.Nottingham,England:The Stapleford Centre.
[17]Stern,H.H.(1983)Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching,Oxford University Press.
[18]Swain,M.(1985).Communicative competence:Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development.In S.M.Gass & C.Madden(Eds.).Input in second language acquisition(pp.235-253).Rowley,MA:Newbury House.
[18]Towell,R.and Hawkins,R.(1994)Approaches to Second Language Acquisition.Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
[19]Van Lier,L.(1994).Forks and hope:Pursuing understanding in different ways.Applied Linguistics,15
[20]Van Patten,B.(1996).Input processing and grammar instruction.Norwood,NJ:Ablex.
[21]Vygotsky,L.S.(1978)Mind in society:the development of higher psychological processes,Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press
[22]Widdowson,H.G.(1989).Knowledge of language and ability for use.Applied Linguisitics,10,128-137
[23]William Littlewood,Foreign and Second Language Learning[M].Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.2000.10
[24]Williams,R.(1977).Marxism and Literature.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[25]Willis,J.& Willis,D.(eds.).Challenge and Change in Language Teaching.Oxford:Heinemann,1996
[26]岑建君,转变思想观念,再创一流业绩.外语界[J],1998,(2).
[27]李国宏,论英语语言习得中的“认知-知识语言双元结构”,西华大学学报[J],2005.6
[28]李蜜,以学为本,因学论教.云梦学刊.[J]2006,(2).
[29]尹德谟,研究生英语教学新模式在教学中的运用.高等农业教育,[J],(6)页75-
78,1997
[30]尹德谟,语言习得与“行为-认知”教学法.西华大学学报,[J],(4),页48-53.2004
[2]李国宏,论英语语言习得中的“认知一知识语言双元结构”,西华大学学报[J],2005,6
[3]李蜜,以学为本,因学论教.云梦学刊.[J]2006,(2).
[4]吕叔湘,中学教师的语法修养,《中学教学语法讲话》,吕叔湘,张志公等编,济南:山东教育出版社,页1-8,1985
[5]施良方、崔允漷,《教学理论:课堂教学的原理、策略与研究》[M]上海:华东师范大学出版社 1999,8
[6]束定芳.外语教学改革:问题与对策(M]上海:上海外语教育出版社2004.6
[7]王闻博,《大学学习学》[M]北京:中国纺织出版社1996
[8]武和平,二语习得中“逻辑问题”的逻辑与普遍语法可及性假说[J],外语学刊,2004,(3)
[9]尹德谟,研究生英语教学新模式在教学中的运用.高等农业教育,[J],(6)页75-78,1997
[10]余文森、吴刚平、刘良华,《解读教与学的意义》[M]上海:华东师范大学出版社2005,7
[11]Allwright,D.& Bailey,K.M.1991.Focus on the Language Classroom:An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers.Cambridge:CUP.
[12]Badger R.& White G.A process genre approach to teaching writing [J].ELT Journal,54(2),2000:153-160.
[13]Bachman,L.F.,& Palmer,A.S.Language testing in practice.Oxford:Oxford University Press.1996.
[14]Bialystok,E.& Sharwood-Smith,M.Interlanguage is not a state of mind:An evaluation of the construct for second language acquisition.Applied Linguisitics,1985.6,101-107
[15]Byrnes,n.The role of listening comprehension:a theoretical base.[J].Foreign Language Annals,1984,17:317-329
[16]Byrne,D.Teaching Oral English.[M]Harlow:Longman,1986
[17]Canale,M.and Swain,M.'Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing',Applied Linguistics,1980,1:1-47
[18]Chastain K.Developing second -language skills:Theory and practice (3~(rd)ed.)[M].New York:Harcourt Brace Jouanovich,1988
[19]Dewey,J.Democracy and Education:An Introduction into the Philosophy of Education.[M]New Work:Mcmillan,1916
[20]Donald J.G.Directions for future research and its application[A].Donald J.G.& Sullivan A.M.Using research to improve teaching[C].San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1985.95-104
[21]Dornyei,Z.Motivation and motivating in the foreign language classroom.Modern Language Journal,[M].78,273-284,1994.
[22]Elaine Tarone & George Yule,Focus on the Language Learner.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.
[23]Freeman,Yvonne S.and David Freeman,ESL/EFL Teaching:Principles for Success[M],Portsmouth:Heinemann,1998:27
[24]Guy Cook & Barbara Seidlhofer.Principles & Practice in Applied Linguistics.[M]Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[25]H.G.Widdowson.Aspects of Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[26]H.H.Stern,Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[27]H.H.Stern,Issues and Options in Language Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[28]Johnson,P.Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text.[J].TESOL Quarterly,1981,15(2):169-181
[29]Maslow,A.H.Motivation and Personality.New York:Harper& Row,1957.
[30]Noam Chomsky,New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind.[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2002.
[31]Oxford,R.L.Where are we with language learning motivation? Modern Language Journal,[M].78,512-514,1994
[32]Patsy M.Lightbown and Nina Spada,How Languages are learned.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.
[33]Paul Davies & Eric Pearse.Success in English Teaching.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2002.
[34]Peter Skehan.A Cognitive Approach to Language Learning.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[35]Richards,J.and Rodgers,T.Approaches and Method in Language Teaching:A Description and Analysis.[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986
[36]Rod Ellis.Understanding Second Language Acquisition.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,1999.
[37]Short,D.TESOL.ESL Standards for K-12 Students.Http//:www.TESOL,org,1997
[38]Thomas Scovel.Psycholinguistics.[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2000.
[39]Watkins,D.& Gerong,A.Language of response and the spontaneous self-concept:A test of the cultural accommodation hypothesis.Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology,30,115-121.1999
[40]White,L.,Adams,A.,Maylath B.& Couzijin,[M].Language Awareness:A History and Implementations.Amsterdam:Amsterdam,University Press.2000.
[41]William Littlewood,Foreign And Second Language Learning.[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,2000.
[1]Allwright,D.& Bailey,K.M.1991.Focus on the Language Classroom:An Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers.Cambridge:CUP.
[2]Anderson,J.(1983)The Architecture of Cognition,Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
[3]Bachman,L.F.(1990).Fundamental considerations in language testing.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[4]Bachman,L.F.,& Palmer,A.S.(1996).Language testing in practice.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
[5]Bialystok,E.& Sharwood-Smith,M.(1985).Interlanguage is not a state of mind:An evaluation of the construct for second language acquisition.Applied Linguisitics,6,101-107
[6]Canale,M.and Swain,M.(1980)' Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing',Applied Linguistics,1:1-47
[7]Canale,M.(1983).On some dimension of language proficiency.In J.Oller(Ed.),Issues in language testing research(pp.333-342).Rowley,MA:Newbury House.
[8]Ellis,R.(1994).The study of second language acquisition.Oxford,England:Oxford University Press.
[9]Johnson,P.Effects on reading comprehension of language complexity and cultural background of a text.TESOL Quarterly,1981,15(2):169-181
[10]Kim,K.H.S.,Relkin,N.R.,Lee,K.M.,and Hirsch,J.,Distinct cortical areas associated with native and second languages,Nature,388/1997,171-174
[11]Kramsch,C.(1993).Context and Culture in Language Teaching.Oxford,England:Oxford University Press.
[12]Onwuegbuzie,A.J.,Bailey,P.,& Daley,C.E.(1999).Factors associated with foreign language anxiety.Applied Psycholinguistics,20,217-239.
[13]Osbom,T.A.(2006).Teaching world languages for social justice:A sourcebook of principles and practices.Mahwah,NJ:Erlbaum.
[14]Richards,J.and Rodgers,T.Approaches and Method in Language Teaching:A Description and Analvsis.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1986
[15]Schmidt,R.(1990).The role of consciousness in second language learning.Applied Linduistics,11,129-158
[16]Smith,D.I.(2001).The spirit of the foreign language classroom.Nottingham,England:The Stapleford Centre.
[17]Stern,H.H.(1983)Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching,Oxford University Press.
[18]Swain,M.(1985).Communicative competence:Some roles of comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development.In S.M.Gass & C.Madden(Eds.).Input in second language acquisition(pp.235-253).Rowley,MA:Newbury House.
[18]Towell,R.and Hawkins,R.(1994)Approaches to Second Language Acquisition.Clevedon:Multilingual Matters.
[19]Van Lier,L.(1994).Forks and hope:Pursuing understanding in different ways.Applied Linguistics,15
[20]Van Patten,B.(1996).Input processing and grammar instruction.Norwood,NJ:Ablex.
[21]Vygotsky,L.S.(1978)Mind in society:the development of higher psychological processes,Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press
[22]Widdowson,H.G.(1989).Knowledge of language and ability for use.Applied Linguisitics,10,128-137
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