大学英语口语考试的反拨作用研究
摘要
反拨作用通常指考试对教学所产生的影响，属语言测试的社会质量标准。根据其影响的性质与程度，反拨作用有正、负之分。国外对反拨作用理论到实践进行了大量的研究。其研究成果不仅丰富了测试理论，而且有效地指导了语言教学，但国内在这方面的研究甚少。本文借鉴国外对反拨作用研究的成果，结合我国教学实践，探讨大学英语口语考试对大学英语教学的反拨作用。采用描述性研究的方法，对350多名大学英语学习者和教师进行了抽样调 查、个别访谈和随堂听课观察。研究结果表明，旨在测量中国大学生用英语进行口头交际能力的大学英语口语考试是有效的、可靠的，对大学英语教学的正反拨作用大于其负反拨作用。但是，大学英语口语考试的反拨作用在考官教师和考生学习者与非考官教师和非考生学习者之间，以及在大学英语教师和学习者的态度与行为之间存在差异。论文探讨了产生这些差异的原因，并且对如何缩小差异、如何促进大学英语口语考试的正反拨作用提出了建议。
Being an aspect of the quality of impact of a language test, washback is usually referred to the effect of testing on teaching and learning. There are both positive and negative washback, about which a lot of researches have been conducted abroad from theory to practice. Yet in China, research of the kind is rare. This dissertation studies the washback effect of CET Spoken Rnglish Test (CET-SET) on college English (CE) teaching and learning by adopting a descriptive research method. Data collected from over 350 CE learners and teachers through questionnaire, interview and classroom observation have shown that CET-SET is both valid and reliable with an obvious positive washback effect. Meanwhile, research results indicate that CET-SET washback varies from examiner teachers and test-taker learners to non-examiner teachers and non-test-taker learners, and that it also varies from CE teachers/learners' attitudes to CE teachers/learners' actions. The dissertation explores the possible reasons for this existing gap: the position of speaking in the CE teaching objectives, the infancy of CET-SET, and the powerful College English Test washback, and advances some suggestions to narrow the gap so as to promote its positive washback in future practice that self-assessment be carried out; score reporting be perfected; microlinguistic skills, routine skills and improvisation skills be developed in CE learners.
Being an aspect of the quality of impact of a language test, washback is usually referred to the effect of testing on teaching and learning. There are both positive and negative washback, about which a lot of researches have been conducted abroad from theory to practice. Yet in China, research of the kind is rare. This dissertation studies the washback effect of CET Spoken Rnglish Test (CET-SET) on college English (CE) teaching and learning by adopting a descriptive research method. Data collected from over 350 CE learners and teachers through questionnaire, interview and classroom observation have shown that CET-SET is both valid and reliable with an obvious positive washback effect. Meanwhile, research results indicate that CET-SET washback varies from examiner teachers and test-taker learners to non-examiner teachers and non-test-taker learners, and that it also varies from CE teachers/learners' attitudes to CE teachers/learners' actions. The dissertation explores the possible reasons for this existing gap: the position of speaking in the CE teaching objectives, the infancy of CET-SET, and the powerful College English Test washback, and advances some suggestions to narrow the gap so as to promote its positive washback in future practice that self-assessment be carried out; score reporting be perfected; microlinguistic skills, routine skills and improvisation skills be developed in CE learners.
引文
Alderson, J.C. & D. Wall. 1993． Does washback exist? [J]. Applied Linguistics 14, 115-129．
Alderson, J.C. & L. Hamp-Lyons. 1996． TOEFL preparation courses: a study of wasback [J]. Language Testing 13, 280-297．
Alderson, J.C., C. Clapham & D. Wall. 1995． Language Test Construction and Evaluation [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allen, K. 1994． English education in Zimbabwe: testing communicative competence [A]. In Hill, C. & K. Parry (eds.). From Testing to Assessment: English as an International Language [C]. Harlow: Longman, 149-173．
Andrews, S. & J. Fullilove. 1994． Assessing spoken English in public examinations-How and why? [A]. In Boyle, J. & P. Falvey (eds.). English Language Testing in Hong Kong [C]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 57-85．
Bachman, L.F. & A.S. Palmer. 1996． Language Testing in Practice [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L.F. 1990． Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bailey, K.M. 1996． Working for washback: a review of the washback concept in language testing [J]. Language Testing 13, 257-289．
Boyle, J. & D.L.K.. Suen. 1994． Communicative considerations in a large-scale listening test [A]. In Boyle, J. & P. Falvey (eds.). English Language Testing in Hong Kong [C]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 31-56．
Burrows, C. 1999． Adopters, adaptors and resisters: Did the assessment of the certificates in spoken and written English change teaching in the AMEP? [P], JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium.
Bygate, M. 1987． Speaking [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cheng Liying. 1995． How does possible washback effect work? [P]. 17th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Long Beach, California.
Cheng Liying. 1998． The washback effect of public examination change on classroom teaching [P].
20th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Monterey, California.
Cheng Liying. 2000． Context and methods in washback studies [P]. 22th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Davies, A. 1985． Follow my leader: Is that what language tests do? [A]. In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low (eds.) New Directions in Language Testing [C]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 3-13．
Hamp-Lyons, L. 1997． Washback, impact and validity: ethnical concerns [J]. Language Testing 14, 295-303．
Heaton, J.B. 1990． Classroom Testing [M]. Harlow: Longman.
Hughes, A. 1989． Testing for Language Teachers [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huhta, A., A. Pitkanen-Huhta. & P. Kalaja. 1999． Taking a high-stakes test-exploring its meaning(s) for an individual [P]. JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium.
Kirkland, M.C. 1971． The effect of tests on students and schools [J]. Review of Educational Research 41,303-350．
Lam, H.P. 1993． Washback-Can it be quantified? [MA]. England: University of Leeds.
Li Xiaoju. 1990． How powerful can a language test be? The MET in China [J]. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 11, 393-404．
Madaus, G.F. 1988． The influence of testing on the curriculum [A]. In Tanner, L.N (ed.). Critical Issues in Curriculum: Eighty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education [C]. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 83-121．
Messick, S. 1996． Validity and washback in language testing [J]. Language Testing 13, 241-256．
Milanovic, M. & N. Saville. 1998． Investigating the impact of IELTS [P]. 20th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Monterey, California
Pearson, I. 1988． Tests as levers for change [A]. In Chamberlin, D. & R. Baumgardner (eds.). ESP in the Classroom: Practice and Education [C]. ELT Documents 128． Hayes, Mddx: Modern English Publications, 98-107．
Peirce, B.N. 1992． Demystifying the TOEFL reading test [J]. TESOL Quarterly 26, 665-689．
Priest, J. 1996． Testing washback in the reading classroom [MA]. England: University of Surrey. Prodromou, L. 1995． The backwash effect: from testing to teaching [J]. ELT Journal 49, 13-25．
Qi Luxia. 2000． The study of the intended washback of the National Matriculation English Test in China [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Raimes, A. 1990． The TOEFL test of written English: causes for concern [J]. TESOL Quarterly 24, 427-442．
Saville, N. & P. Hargreaves. 1999． Assessing speaking in the revised FCE [J]. ELT Journal 53, 42-53．
Saville, N. 2000． The impact study by UCLES [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Scaramucci, M. 1999． A study of washback in Brazil [P]. JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium
Shohamy, E. 1993． The power of tests: the impact of language tests on teaching and learning [A]. In NFLC Occasional Papers [C]. June. Washington D.C.: The National Foreign Language Center.
Shohamy, E., S. Donitsa-Schmidt & I. Ferman. 1996． Test impact revisted: washback effect over time [J]. Language Testing 13, 298-317．
Shohamy, E., T. Reves & Y. Bejarano. 1986． Introducing a new comprehensive test of oral proficiency [J]. ELT Journal 40, 212-220．
Shohmy, E. 1992． Beyond proficiency testing: a diagnostic feedback testing model for assessing foreign language learning [J]. The Modern Language Journal 76, 513-521．
Spolsky, B. 1990． Social aspects of individual assessment [A]. In de Jong, J.H.A.L. & D.K. Stevenson (eds.). Individualizing the Assessment of Language Abilities [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 3-15．
Swain, M. 1985． Large-scale communicative testing: a case study [A]. In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low (eds.) New Directions in Language Testing [C]. Hong Kong: Pergamon Press, 35-46．
Turner, C.E. 2000． The initial steps of a study investigating washback from empirically derived rating scales for ESL speaking in Quebec provincial exams [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia
von Eleck, T. 1985． A test of Swedish as a second language: an experiment in self-assessment [A].
In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low(eds.). New Dimensions in Language Testing[C].Oxford: Pergamon Press, 47-58.
Wall, D. & J.C. Alderson. 1993. Examing washback: the Sri Lankan impact study[J]. Language Testing 10, 41-69.
Wall, D. 1996. Introducing new tests into traditional systems: insights from general education and from innovation theory[J]. Language Testing 13, 334-353.
Wall, D. 1997. Impact and washback in language testing[A]. In Clapham, C. & D. Corson (eds.). Language Testing and Assessment[C]. Encyclopedia of Language and Education Vol. 7. Dordrecht: Kulwer Academic Publishers, 291-302.
Watanabe, Y. 1996. Does grammar translation come from the entrance examination? Preliminary findings from classroom-based research[J]. Language Testing 13, 318-333.
Weir, C.J. 1993. Understanding and Developing Language Tests[M]. New York: Prentice Hall.
Wesche, M.B. 1987. Second language performance testing: the Ontario test of ESL as an example[J]. Language Testing 4, 28-47.
Wideen, M. 2000. The impact of large-scale testing on instructional activity in British Columbia[P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
《大学英语教学大纲》修订工作组，1985，《大学英语教学大纲》(高等学校理工科本科用)[H]。北京：高等教育出版社。
《大学英语教学大纲》修订组，1999，《大学英语教学大纲[修订本]》(高等学校本科用)[M]。北京：高等教育出版社，上海：上海外语教育出版社。
蔡基刚，2002，如何评价大学生的英语口语能力[J]，《外语界》第1期，63-66页。
陈纪梁、陶伟，2001，谈大学英语口语考试及其反拨作用[J]，《山东外语教学》第1期，82-84页。
大学文理科英语教学大纲修订组，1986，《大学英语教学大纲》(高等学校文理科本科用)[M]。上海：上海外语教育出版社。
戴曼纯、肖云南，1999，现代语言测试发展：理论与问题[J]，《湖南大学学报》(社会科学1版)第3期，32-35页。
傅政、庞继贤、周星，2001，中国入世对大学英语教学的影响分析及需求预测[J]，《外语界》第5期，16-21页。
何琮周，专业语法教学与英语专业学生四、八级考试的反拨作用[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，230-238页。
黄素华，1998a，科学公正地测试学生的口语能力[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，90-114页。
黄素华，1998b，语言测试术语及其应用[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，239-265页。
金艳，2000，大学英语四、六级考试口语考试对教学的反拨作用[J]，《外语界》第4期，56-61页。
李崴、温宾利，1994，MET复试中的新口试：交际式口试介绍[J]，《中小学英语教学与研究》第5期，21-25页。
李筱菊，1997，《语言测试科学与艺术》[M]。长沙：湖南教育出版社。
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邹中、杨任明，2000，《简明英语测试教程》[M]。北京：高等教育出版社。
Alderson, J.C. & L. Hamp-Lyons. 1996． TOEFL preparation courses: a study of wasback [J]. Language Testing 13, 280-297．
Alderson, J.C., C. Clapham & D. Wall. 1995． Language Test Construction and Evaluation [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Allen, K. 1994． English education in Zimbabwe: testing communicative competence [A]. In Hill, C. & K. Parry (eds.). From Testing to Assessment: English as an International Language [C]. Harlow: Longman, 149-173．
Andrews, S. & J. Fullilove. 1994． Assessing spoken English in public examinations-How and why? [A]. In Boyle, J. & P. Falvey (eds.). English Language Testing in Hong Kong [C]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 57-85．
Bachman, L.F. & A.S. Palmer. 1996． Language Testing in Practice [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bachman, L.F. 1990． Fundamental Considerations in Language Testing [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bailey, K.M. 1996． Working for washback: a review of the washback concept in language testing [J]. Language Testing 13, 257-289．
Boyle, J. & D.L.K.. Suen. 1994． Communicative considerations in a large-scale listening test [A]. In Boyle, J. & P. Falvey (eds.). English Language Testing in Hong Kong [C]. Hong Kong: The Chinese University Press, 31-56．
Burrows, C. 1999． Adopters, adaptors and resisters: Did the assessment of the certificates in spoken and written English change teaching in the AMEP? [P], JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium.
Bygate, M. 1987． Speaking [M]. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Cheng Liying. 1995． How does possible washback effect work? [P]. 17th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Long Beach, California.
Cheng Liying. 1998． The washback effect of public examination change on classroom teaching [P].
20th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Monterey, California.
Cheng Liying. 2000． Context and methods in washback studies [P]. 22th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Davies, A. 1985． Follow my leader: Is that what language tests do? [A]. In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low (eds.) New Directions in Language Testing [C]. Oxford: Pergamon Press, 3-13．
Hamp-Lyons, L. 1997． Washback, impact and validity: ethnical concerns [J]. Language Testing 14, 295-303．
Heaton, J.B. 1990． Classroom Testing [M]. Harlow: Longman.
Hughes, A. 1989． Testing for Language Teachers [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huhta, A., A. Pitkanen-Huhta. & P. Kalaja. 1999． Taking a high-stakes test-exploring its meaning(s) for an individual [P]. JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium.
Kirkland, M.C. 1971． The effect of tests on students and schools [J]. Review of Educational Research 41,303-350．
Lam, H.P. 1993． Washback-Can it be quantified? [MA]. England: University of Leeds.
Li Xiaoju. 1990． How powerful can a language test be? The MET in China [J]. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development 11, 393-404．
Madaus, G.F. 1988． The influence of testing on the curriculum [A]. In Tanner, L.N (ed.). Critical Issues in Curriculum: Eighty-seventh Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education [C]. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, 83-121．
Messick, S. 1996． Validity and washback in language testing [J]. Language Testing 13, 241-256．
Milanovic, M. & N. Saville. 1998． Investigating the impact of IELTS [P]. 20th Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Monterey, California
Pearson, I. 1988． Tests as levers for change [A]. In Chamberlin, D. & R. Baumgardner (eds.). ESP in the Classroom: Practice and Education [C]. ELT Documents 128． Hayes, Mddx: Modern English Publications, 98-107．
Peirce, B.N. 1992． Demystifying the TOEFL reading test [J]. TESOL Quarterly 26, 665-689．
Priest, J. 1996． Testing washback in the reading classroom [MA]. England: University of Surrey. Prodromou, L. 1995． The backwash effect: from testing to teaching [J]. ELT Journal 49, 13-25．
Qi Luxia. 2000． The study of the intended washback of the National Matriculation English Test in China [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Raimes, A. 1990． The TOEFL test of written English: causes for concern [J]. TESOL Quarterly 24, 427-442．
Saville, N. & P. Hargreaves. 1999． Assessing speaking in the revised FCE [J]. ELT Journal 53, 42-53．
Saville, N. 2000． The impact study by UCLES [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
Scaramucci, M. 1999． A study of washback in Brazil [P]. JLTA Annual Conference and 21st Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium
Shohamy, E. 1993． The power of tests: the impact of language tests on teaching and learning [A]. In NFLC Occasional Papers [C]. June. Washington D.C.: The National Foreign Language Center.
Shohamy, E., S. Donitsa-Schmidt & I. Ferman. 1996． Test impact revisted: washback effect over time [J]. Language Testing 13, 298-317．
Shohamy, E., T. Reves & Y. Bejarano. 1986． Introducing a new comprehensive test of oral proficiency [J]. ELT Journal 40, 212-220．
Shohmy, E. 1992． Beyond proficiency testing: a diagnostic feedback testing model for assessing foreign language learning [J]. The Modern Language Journal 76, 513-521．
Spolsky, B. 1990． Social aspects of individual assessment [A]. In de Jong, J.H.A.L. & D.K. Stevenson (eds.). Individualizing the Assessment of Language Abilities [C]. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 3-15．
Swain, M. 1985． Large-scale communicative testing: a case study [A]. In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low (eds.) New Directions in Language Testing [C]. Hong Kong: Pergamon Press, 35-46．
Turner, C.E. 2000． The initial steps of a study investigating washback from empirically derived rating scales for ESL speaking in Quebec provincial exams [P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia
von Eleck, T. 1985． A test of Swedish as a second language: an experiment in self-assessment [A].
In Lee, Y.P., C.Y.Y. Fok, R. Lord & G. Low(eds.). New Dimensions in Language Testing[C].Oxford: Pergamon Press, 47-58.
Wall, D. & J.C. Alderson. 1993. Examing washback: the Sri Lankan impact study[J]. Language Testing 10, 41-69.
Wall, D. 1996. Introducing new tests into traditional systems: insights from general education and from innovation theory[J]. Language Testing 13, 334-353.
Wall, D. 1997. Impact and washback in language testing[A]. In Clapham, C. & D. Corson (eds.). Language Testing and Assessment[C]. Encyclopedia of Language and Education Vol. 7. Dordrecht: Kulwer Academic Publishers, 291-302.
Watanabe, Y. 1996. Does grammar translation come from the entrance examination? Preliminary findings from classroom-based research[J]. Language Testing 13, 318-333.
Weir, C.J. 1993. Understanding and Developing Language Tests[M]. New York: Prentice Hall.
Wesche, M.B. 1987. Second language performance testing: the Ontario test of ESL as an example[J]. Language Testing 4, 28-47.
Wideen, M. 2000. The impact of large-scale testing on instructional activity in British Columbia[P]. 22nd Annual Language Testing Research Colloquium, Vancouver, British Columbia.
《大学英语教学大纲》修订工作组，1985，《大学英语教学大纲》(高等学校理工科本科用)[H]。北京：高等教育出版社。
《大学英语教学大纲》修订组，1999，《大学英语教学大纲[修订本]》(高等学校本科用)[M]。北京：高等教育出版社，上海：上海外语教育出版社。
蔡基刚，2002，如何评价大学生的英语口语能力[J]，《外语界》第1期，63-66页。
陈纪梁、陶伟，2001，谈大学英语口语考试及其反拨作用[J]，《山东外语教学》第1期，82-84页。
大学文理科英语教学大纲修订组，1986，《大学英语教学大纲》(高等学校文理科本科用)[M]。上海：上海外语教育出版社。
戴曼纯、肖云南，1999，现代语言测试发展：理论与问题[J]，《湖南大学学报》(社会科学1版)第3期，32-35页。
傅政、庞继贤、周星，2001，中国入世对大学英语教学的影响分析及需求预测[J]，《外语界》第5期，16-21页。
何琮周，专业语法教学与英语专业学生四、八级考试的反拨作用[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，230-238页。
黄素华，1998a，科学公正地测试学生的口语能力[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，90-114页。
黄素华，1998b，语言测试术语及其应用[A]，载(邹中主编)《英语语言测试—理论与操作》[C]。上海：上海外语教育出版社，239-265页。
金艳，2000，大学英语四、六级考试口语考试对教学的反拨作用[J]，《外语界》第4期，56-61页。
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