美国女子高等教育史：1837-2000
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摘要
美国女子高等教育发端于19世纪初，至今已有近200年的历史，虽曲折起伏却成绩斐然。从1837年奥柏林学院首次招收女生到如今女性几乎在高等教育各阶段全面赶超男生，美国女子高等教育实现了量的突破；从追求入学权到关注教育过程和教育结果的性别平等，从模仿男校到尊重女性特点，美国女子高等教育实现了发展理念的突破；从聚焦主流群体到满足不同女性群体的要求，美国女子高等教育实现了多样性发展。纵观这段历史，可以发现，这是美国女性主动争取和维护自身权益的历史。作为一个历史中的弱势群体，女性追求高等教育权利的过程中尤其容易受到传统性别文化、女性自我意识、公共政策和经济环境、高等教育总体规模等因素的影响。20世纪末，随着美国社会性别平等意识的增强和反性别歧视教育法规的推行，高等教育内部基于性别差异的学科限制被打破，对女性友好的课堂和校园环境日渐形成，女性学亦成为美国高等教育课程多元化和综合化改革的重要组成部分。然而，受到专业选择和“玻璃天花板效应”的影响，美国高学历女性依然无法享有与男性完全平等的地位，高等教育与女性经济、社会地位的提高仍显疏离。
本文以女性主义认识论为指导，综合运用社会性别分析、历史文献、图表、比较研究等方法，按时间顺序对美国女子高等教育发展史实进行梳理和评价，着重探讨美国女子高等教育的历史成就和经验，并尝试对我国女性高等教育发展提出建议。本文由绪论、主体四章、结语等六部分组成。主体四章既从宏观层面勾勒美国女子高等教育的历史概况，又从微观层面分析评价影响其发展的因素。具体来讲，第一章讨论了女子学园与美国女子高等教育起源的关系，女子学院、分院制与男女合校模式的形成，并以凯瑟琳·比彻思想为例探究早期女子高等教育思想；第二章主要分析1929年经济大萧条至1960年代中期美国女子高等教育陷入衰退的原因，并以《1944年退伍军人权利法案》为例探讨公共政策对女性教育权利的影响；第三章在当代女权运动的背景下，讨论男女合校大发展，联邦政府反性别歧视高等教育立法对女子高等教育快速、全面恢复的作用与意义。第四章在1980年代以来女性入学人数全面赶超男性的背景下，讨论女性高等教育大发展的机遇及“新性别差距”所带来的挑战；结论部分在前文论述的基础上，集中讨论影响美国女性高等教育发展的因素，结合中国女子高等教育现状提出建议。
Women's higher education of the United States began in the early19th century, whichhas been nearly200years hitherto, full of sinuosity and achievement. From the first time theOberlin College recruits female students to the actual situation that female students catch upwith the male at nearly every step of higher education, there is a quantitative change ofWomen’s higher education of the United States; from focusing on enrollment to the equalityof educational procedure and outcome, there is a qualitative change of developmental logos;from satisfying the needs of the mainstream group to the minority and margin group, Women’s higher education becomes more multiplex. Running back over this history, we can find thatit is a story about women who fight for and vindicate their own rights. As a historicaldisadvantaged minority, women are especially influenced by factors, such as traditionalgender culture, women’s self-awareness, public policy, social background, the developmentof higher education and etc. With the spread of gender-equality consciousness and the laws ofanti-sexual discrimination in educational filed in the end of the20th century, there are lots ofchanges in American higher education, for example, the breaking down of the limits ofgender-based differences in major/subject, the forming of female-friendly environment inclassroom and on campus. Besides, women’s studies has become an important part of themulti-cultural curriculum revolution on American campus. However under the influence ofmajor choice and the “glass-ceiling effect”, the educated American women still couldn’tenjoy the full equal status as men. The relationship between higher education and women'seconomic and social advancement remains alienated.
According to the chronological order，this dissertation narrates and evaluates the historyof Women’s higher education in the United States under the perspective of Feminist, usingthe methods of gender analysis, documents analysis, charts, comparative analysis etc. It focuson the historical accomplishment and experience of American women’s history, and tries togive some proposals on Chinese women’s higher education.
This dissertation is divided into three parts: Introduction; the principal part which consists of four chapters; and the Conclusion. In each chapter of the principal part, it bothoutlines the history of American women’s higher education from the macro-level, andanalyses the contributing factors on the micro-level. Accounting detailedly, Chapter1discusses the women’s Academy and the origin of American women’s higher education; theforming of the mode of American women’s higher education: the coexistence of single-sexcollege, the coordinate and the coeducation; and taking Catherine Beecher as the example toexplore the thought of women’s higher education in the early times. Chapter2relates to theperiod between the Great Depress and the mid-1960s, expatiating the recession of women’shigher education, and find out the reason why it came forth. At the end of this chapter, there isa discussion about how the public policy may effect on women’s higher education, taking theG. I. Bill of1944as example. Chapter3relates to the period of Contemporary Women’sRight Movement to the late1970s, focusing on the fast and the overall resuscitation ofAmerican women’s higher education, especially the great development of coeducationalhigher education, and the federal policy of anti-sex discrimination in higher education.Chapter4relates to the period of early1980s to2000, under the context of female caught upwith male in enrollment comprehensive, it discussed the "new gender gap" on Americancampus and its challenge for women. The part of Conclusion is based on the former part ofthis dissertation, focusing on the principle factor which effect on American women seek forhigher education. Combining with the situation of Chinese women's higher education, it triesto give some proposals.
本文以女性主义认识论为指导，综合运用社会性别分析、历史文献、图表、比较研究等方法，按时间顺序对美国女子高等教育发展史实进行梳理和评价，着重探讨美国女子高等教育的历史成就和经验，并尝试对我国女性高等教育发展提出建议。本文由绪论、主体四章、结语等六部分组成。主体四章既从宏观层面勾勒美国女子高等教育的历史概况，又从微观层面分析评价影响其发展的因素。具体来讲，第一章讨论了女子学园与美国女子高等教育起源的关系，女子学院、分院制与男女合校模式的形成，并以凯瑟琳·比彻思想为例探究早期女子高等教育思想；第二章主要分析1929年经济大萧条至1960年代中期美国女子高等教育陷入衰退的原因，并以《1944年退伍军人权利法案》为例探讨公共政策对女性教育权利的影响；第三章在当代女权运动的背景下，讨论男女合校大发展，联邦政府反性别歧视高等教育立法对女子高等教育快速、全面恢复的作用与意义。第四章在1980年代以来女性入学人数全面赶超男性的背景下，讨论女性高等教育大发展的机遇及“新性别差距”所带来的挑战；结论部分在前文论述的基础上，集中讨论影响美国女性高等教育发展的因素，结合中国女子高等教育现状提出建议。
Women's higher education of the United States began in the early19th century, whichhas been nearly200years hitherto, full of sinuosity and achievement. From the first time theOberlin College recruits female students to the actual situation that female students catch upwith the male at nearly every step of higher education, there is a quantitative change ofWomen’s higher education of the United States; from focusing on enrollment to the equalityof educational procedure and outcome, there is a qualitative change of developmental logos;from satisfying the needs of the mainstream group to the minority and margin group, Women’s higher education becomes more multiplex. Running back over this history, we can find thatit is a story about women who fight for and vindicate their own rights. As a historicaldisadvantaged minority, women are especially influenced by factors, such as traditionalgender culture, women’s self-awareness, public policy, social background, the developmentof higher education and etc. With the spread of gender-equality consciousness and the laws ofanti-sexual discrimination in educational filed in the end of the20th century, there are lots ofchanges in American higher education, for example, the breaking down of the limits ofgender-based differences in major/subject, the forming of female-friendly environment inclassroom and on campus. Besides, women’s studies has become an important part of themulti-cultural curriculum revolution on American campus. However under the influence ofmajor choice and the “glass-ceiling effect”, the educated American women still couldn’tenjoy the full equal status as men. The relationship between higher education and women'seconomic and social advancement remains alienated.
According to the chronological order，this dissertation narrates and evaluates the historyof Women’s higher education in the United States under the perspective of Feminist, usingthe methods of gender analysis, documents analysis, charts, comparative analysis etc. It focuson the historical accomplishment and experience of American women’s history, and tries togive some proposals on Chinese women’s higher education.
This dissertation is divided into three parts: Introduction; the principal part which consists of four chapters; and the Conclusion. In each chapter of the principal part, it bothoutlines the history of American women’s higher education from the macro-level, andanalyses the contributing factors on the micro-level. Accounting detailedly, Chapter1discusses the women’s Academy and the origin of American women’s higher education; theforming of the mode of American women’s higher education: the coexistence of single-sexcollege, the coordinate and the coeducation; and taking Catherine Beecher as the example toexplore the thought of women’s higher education in the early times. Chapter2relates to theperiod between the Great Depress and the mid-1960s, expatiating the recession of women’shigher education, and find out the reason why it came forth. At the end of this chapter, there isa discussion about how the public policy may effect on women’s higher education, taking theG. I. Bill of1944as example. Chapter3relates to the period of Contemporary Women’sRight Movement to the late1970s, focusing on the fast and the overall resuscitation ofAmerican women’s higher education, especially the great development of coeducationalhigher education, and the federal policy of anti-sex discrimination in higher education.Chapter4relates to the period of early1980s to2000, under the context of female caught upwith male in enrollment comprehensive, it discussed the "new gender gap" on Americancampus and its challenge for women. The part of Conclusion is based on the former part ofthis dissertation, focusing on the principle factor which effect on American women seek forhigher education. Combining with the situation of Chinese women's higher education, it triesto give some proposals.
引文
①联合国第四届世界妇女大会《行动纲领》，第69条。http://gov.people.com.cn/GB/46728/51992/52202/3640020.html.2010-02-25
②同上：《行动纲要》第76条，第80条和第83条。
③中国妇女发展纲要(2011-2020年).[EB/OL].http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-08/08/content_1920457.htm.
①转引自：李春玲.教育地位获得的性别差异：家庭背景对男性和女性教育地位获得的影响[J].妇女研究论丛，2009(1).
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②Linda Eisenmann. Creating a framework for interpreting US women’s education history: lessons fromhistorical lexicography [J]. History of Education,2001(30).
①史静寰.世界教育大系：妇女教育[M].长春:吉林教育出版社，2000．导言:11．
②王珺．阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007:34．
①王珺．阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007:49．
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④Jane Pilcher&Imelda Whelehan.50Key Concepts in Gender Studies[M].Lon don: SAGE Publications
Ltd.,2004：56．
⑤21世纪初，大连大学性别研究中心的李小江教授坚持主张将gender译为“性别”，她认为如果译为“社
会性别”则排斥了“自然的性”，人为地造成个体的和自然身份的隐而不见。
⑥de Beauvoir “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman”(1972年).转引自Jane Pilcher&Imelda
Whelehan.50Key Concepts in Gender Studies[M].Lon don: SAGE Publications Ltd.,2004：56．
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[M].天津：天津社会科学院出版社，1998：5-6．
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America1945-1965[M] Baltinore: The JohnsHopkins University Press,2006：165-174.
①钱满素.美国自由主义的历史变迁[M].北京：三联书店，2006：154-159.
②积极行动法案(AffirmativeAction)主要是指约翰逊政府时期出台的一系列“积极行动”法规，旨在改变美国历史上长期受到歧视的少数族裔和女性等弱势群体在政治、经济、教育和社会等领域的劣势地位；在同等条件下，给与弱势群体一定的优先权利。1978年贝基案之后，积极行动法案的合法性遭到质疑，被认为对(非西班牙裔)白人男性构成“逆向歧视”。
③数据来源NCES. Table247. Earned degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by level of degreeand sex of student: Selected years,1869-70to2013-14
④1985-86学年，美国女性获得50.3%的硕士学位，35.2%的博士学位；1995-96学年分别上升为55.9%和39.9%；1999-2000学年分别为58.0%和44.1%。据美国教育数据统计中心的预测，到2013年左右获得博士学位的女性也将多于男性。数据来源：NCES. Table247.
⑤Claudia Buchmann and Thomas A. DiPrete. The Growing Famele Advantage in College Completion: TheRole of Family Bac kground and Academic Achievement[J]. American Sociological Review,2006(71).几乎所有发达国家近年来都出现女孩的学术表现优于男孩的现象，英国学者Jocey Quinn曾撰书就此问题进行讨论，Powerful Subjects：are women really taking over the university?[M]. Sterling: TrenthamBooks,2003.
⑥Linda Eisenmann. The Impact of Historical Expectations on Women’s Higher Education [R]. Forum onPublic Policy，2007； Barbara J. Bank. Gender and Education: A Encyclopedia[M].Westport: PraegerPublisher,2007：717-722.
⑦Tamar Lewin. At Colleges, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust [N].New York Times.2006.7.9.
⑧里根-布什时代撤消(withdraw)了女性教育平等办公室、民权办公室和平等就业机会委员会，严重地削弱了这些部门在保护女性和少数族裔不受歧视侵害方面的监管能力；1982年，《平等权利修正案》成为死案；1998年克林顿福利改革法案在实际上造成“福利妈妈”无力追求高等教育；2002年小布什政府撤消了白宫的妇女联络办公室；同年通过一项州权议程(states-right agenda)，以能力标准取代积极行动政
策，从事实上否定了保护女性及少数族裔权力的积极行动法案。
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②Charles Franklin Thwing. College women [M]. New York: the Baker&Taylor Co.1894.(a)Frederick A. P. Barnard. Should American Colleges be open to women as well as to men?[M].A paper
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(b)Eye Van De Warker. Women’s Unfitness for Higher Coeducation[M].New York: The Grafton Press,1903.
③(a)I. M. E. Blandin. History of Higher Education of Women in the South Prior to1860[M]. New York and
Washington: the Neale Publishing Company,1909.(b)Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States[M]. New York: The Science
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①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States[M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929.
②Maxine Schwartz Seller. A history of womne’s education in the United States:Thomas Woody’s Classic.Sixty years later[J]. History of Education Quarterly,1989(29)：97.
③Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959.
④Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985.
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④Leslie Miller-Bernal. Separate by degree: women students’ experiences in single-sex and coeducationalcolleges[M]. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.,2000.
⑤Leslie Miller-Bernal and Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: Women’s Experiences in Formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M].Vanderbilt University Press,2004.
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①Sharon L. Davie. University and College Women’s Centers:AJourney toward Equity [M].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002.
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③Eli Ginzberg&Alice M. Yohalem. Educated American Women: Self-Portraits[M].New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,1966.
④Lynne Brodie. Welch. Perspectives on Minority Women in Higher Education[C]. NewYork: Praeger Publishers,1992.
①Jocey Quinn. Powerful Subjects：are women really taking over the university?[M]. Sterling:Trentham Books,2003.
②Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in Higher Education: An Encyclopedia[M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc,2002.
③Ibid：xix.
④Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America:1945-1965[M] Baltinore: The JohnsHopkins University Press,2006.
⑤欧阳祖经.欧美女子教育史[M].上海：商务印书馆，1926.
①滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1994.
②贺国庆.德国和美国大学发达史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1998.
③王保星.美国现代高等教育制度的确立[M].河北教育出版社.2005.王保星.19世纪后半期美国女子高等教育发展的历史动因分析[J].河北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2002(3)
④王珺.阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007.
⑤王珺.阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007，封底.
⑥按主题进行检索，以“女子教育”为检索项时有191篇，“女性教育”为检索项有92篇，以“妇女教育”为检索项有64篇。最后一次检索时间为2010年2月27日。
⑦高惠蓉.美国女子高等教育史研究[D].华东师范大学，博士论文.2007.
①王恩铭．二十世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史·第六卷：下册1945-2000[M].北京：人民出版社，2002.
①刘霓.女性主义学术研究的成果与特点[J].国外社会科学，1998(1)：13.
①Charles Franklin Thwing. College Women [M]. New York: the Baker&Taylor Co,1894：19.
②转引自：赵叶珠.美日中三国女子高等教育比较[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2007：149-150.
③Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002：61.
④凯瑟琳·比彻分别于1824和1832创办女子学园；玛丽·里昂于1837年创办蒙特·霍约女子学园(MountHolyoke Seminary).
⑤[美]加里·纳什著，刘德斌译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008：113.
①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929：105-106.
②女性社会学认为人类社会可以划分为两个空间：一是公共领域，即由公共活动组织在一起的空间；而是私人领域，即家庭空间。这种划分同时也是男女劳动分工的依据。女权运动家贝蒂·弗里丹指出家庭事务与公共事务的分离、女性被局限于家庭的现象是女性经济边缘化和社会依附化的根源。
①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The Science Press,1929：462.
②Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984：21.
①Jane Pilcher&Imelda Whelehan.50Key Concepts in Gender Studies[M].London: SAGE Publications Ltd.,2004：56.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:12.
③Ibid，12.
④Ibid，13.
⑤Ibid，13.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:273.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:19.
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:62.
②Irene Harwarth etc. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:15.
③Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929:396.
④Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:46.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:vol1,344.
②鲍西娅，莎士比亚《威尼斯商人》一剧中的女主人公，该角色淳朴、有才智、自信且富有同情心，是莎士比亚笔下的资产阶级新女性，虽仍然受制于男性，却不甘心完全屈从，是早期性别意识觉醒的代表。
③Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929,vol1:370.
④Ibid，346.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:vol2,301.
①Ana M. MartinezAleman&KristenA. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. Santa Barbara:ABC-CLIO,Inc.2002:62-63.
②Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:36.
①Henry Fowle Durant and the Religious Ideals That Shaped the Founding of Wellesley College[EB/OL]. http://www. adonaldmacleod. com/Papers7.htm#_edn1.
①http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial=P0090
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:18.
②Ibid，19.
①Marion Talbot&Lois K. M.Rosenberry. The history of the American Association of University Women:1881-1931[M]. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.1931:49.
②贺国庆.德国和美国大学发达史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1998:172.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:48.
②Ibid，49.
③http://admissions.vassar.edu/about_hist.html
④Maxine Schwartz Seller. A history of women’s education in the United States: Thomas Woody’s Classic.Sixty years later[J]. History of Education Quarterly,1989,(29):10.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:212.
①http://www.swarthmore.edu/news/time/
②Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:48-50.
③Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:209.
④Adele Simmons. Education and Ideology in Nineteen Century America：The response of educationalinstitutions to the changing role of women[A]Berennice A. Carroll. Liberation Women’s History[C] Urbana:University of Illinois Press.1976:120.
①Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:50.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:53.
③Jonathan Baldwin Turner, Plan For an Industrial University, From Sol Cohen, Education in the United States:A Documentary History [M]. Vol.3, N.Y. Greenwood Press, p1523.转引自：崔高鹏.从特纳到莫雷尔：1862年美国赠地学院法案的起源与发展研究[D].北京师范大学，2008：18．
④Newspapers’ Response to Turner’s Plan, http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/aim/morrill/turner/turner.editors.htm.转引自：崔高鹏.从特纳到莫雷尔：1862年美国赠地学院法案的起源与发展研究[D].北京师范大学，2008：25.
⑤伯顿·克拉克.高等教育新论——多学科的研究[M].杭州：浙江教育出版社，.2001：49.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985：53.
②Ibid，p53.
③Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:37.
④Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana universitypress,1984:213.
①赵叶珠.美日中三国女子高等教育比较[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2007:150.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:58.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:59.
②Rosalind Rosenberg. The limits of access: the history of Coeducaion in America[A]. John M. Faraher&Florence Howe. Women and higher education in American history[C].Ontrio: Penguin BooksCanada,1988:116-117.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002：100.
④王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002：93.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:323-324.
①Joan Burstyn.Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J].The New EnglandQuarterly.1974(47):397.
①Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):140.
②Charlotte E. Biester. Catharine Beecher’s Views of Home Economics [J]. History of Education Journal,1952(3):89.
③Joan N. Burstyn. Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J]. The New England Quarterly,1974(47):389.
①Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):140.
①Charlotte E. Biester. Catharine Beecher’s Views of Home Economics [J]. History of Education Journal,1952(3):90.
②Joan N. Burstyn.Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J]. The New England Quarterly,1974(47):401.
①王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007：138-139.
②同上：141.
③Sarah Stage&Virginia Bramble Vincenti. Rethinking Home Economics: Women and the History of aProfession [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,1997:5.
④Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):149.
①Mary E. Murphy. War and the Woman’s College[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1941(3).
②C. M. Louttit. Women：Their Roles and Education[J].The Journal of Higher Education.1953(4).
③Suan Ware.Holding their own: American women in the1930s [M].5-7，转引自：周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):67.
①周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):73.
②(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社.1987：190-191.
③同上：191.
④同上：200.
⑤周莉萍.二十世纪二、三十年代美国妇女生存状况与妇女运动研究[D.]华东师范大学.2006:161.
⑥Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:146.
⑦周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):72.
⑧Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women:Ahistory of women and higher education inAmerica
[M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:146.
①Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:46.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:111.
③(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:199-200.
④Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:92-93.
①战争期间,美国一些州和地区暂时中止了保护性立法，这种立法的逻辑建立在妇女没有能力承担任何一种被认为是‘男人的工作’的劳动，如消防员、伐木工等，所以女性不应涉足这些领域，具有较为明显的生物决定论倾向。女子可以进入各种行业，但她们将失去被特殊照顾的权利，比如针对女性设置的最低工资、女性不必强制性服兵役等。此外，针对女性的“同等对待”与“特殊保护”争议较多地集中在于如何处理妇女怀孕、生育和哺育后代的问题上。“保护性”原则是否合理、合法乃是针对女性就业应“同工同酬”还是“差别对待”的争论焦点。《平等权利修正案》最终难以获得通过与美国女性对此认识上的分歧不无关系。
②(美)加里·纳什，刘德斌主译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008:827.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:140.
④同上：142.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:45.
②Ross L. Mooney. High-school girls are not going to college unless…[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1943(14):307-308.
③Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press.2006, p45.1946年，当女生获得博士学位的比达到历史最高时，女性占大学生和研究生的比已经骤然下降到31.8%和50.6%。笔者认为这种女生在不同教育层次间比例变化的差异主要与学位教育培养制度有关。1946年获得博士学位的女生大部分于战争后期入学，博士培养机制决定了战后重返校园的多数男子不可能马上取得入学资格。
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:163.
①Mary E. Murphy. War and the Woman’s College[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1941(3):145.
②(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:213.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:51.
④The Minnesota Plan for the Continuing Educaation of Women,转引自Linda Eisenmann. Higher Educationfor Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2006:185.
⑤Linda Eisenmann. A Time of Quiet Activism: Research, Practice, and Policy in American Women's HigherEducation,1945-1965[J].History of Education Quarterly，2005(45).
①刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷·上)[M].北京：人民出版社.2002:52-53.
②同上：53-54.
③(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:220.
①刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷·上)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002:134-136.
②同上：152.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:217.
④弗洛伊德主义是精神分析理论及其在哲学和社会科学领域中的扩展和应用的总称，包括古典弗洛伊德
①(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:120-123.
②(奥)西格蒙德·弗洛伊德著，车文博主编.弗洛伊德文集·第一卷[M].长春：长春出版社,2004:序言p12.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:127.
④倪志娟.从弗洛伊德到巴特勒——关于“性”的话语建构[J].中华女子学院学报，2010(1):39-40.
①贺国庆等.外国高等教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2003:304-305.
②同上：447.
③美国高等教育传统生源的年龄范围为18-24岁，非传统生源(non-traditionalstudents)多指超过24岁者。
④John R.Thelin.Ahistory ofAmerican higher education [M]. Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2004:299-300.
①文中数据根据NCES原始数据计算而得。数据来源：Table187. Historical summary of faculty, students,degrees, and finances in degree-granting institutions: selected yeas,1869-70through2006-07.
②黄安年.当代美国的社会保障政策(1945-1996年)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社.1998:38.
③王华峰等.世界典型国家高等教育转型发展的比较研究[J].天津商学院学报，2005(1):69.
①NCES: Percentage of persons age25and over and25to29, by race/ethnicity, years of school completed, and sex: Selectedyears,1910through2009.[EB/OL] www.nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_008.asp
②Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:46.
①王恩铭.二十世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:234.
②《退伍军人权利法案》通常称G.I.Bill，是美国自二战以来安置退伍军人的主要法律依据。时至今日，G.I.Bill已经进行过多次修正，有1944年G.I.Bill，朝鲜战争G.I.Bill等。
③http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_188.asp
④Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns
①Judith G. Touchton&Lynne Davis. Fact book on Women in Higher Education[M]. New York: AmericanCouncil on Education and Macmillan Publishing Company,1991.硕士学位数据p207，博士学位数据p216.
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:45
③NCES. Education Statistics Quarterly-Volume4[M].Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,2002(1):44.
①邓光平.美国第一级专业学位与行业任职资格衔接的策略探析[J].中国高教研究，2008(11):43.
②1949-50年N CES首次对第一级专业学位授予情况进行单独统计，之前的专业学位数据合并于学士学位数据中。
③http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d01/dt263.asp
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社.2005:155.
⑤同上：156.
①(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社.2005:375.
②同上：250-251.
③C. M. Louttit. Women：Their Roles and Education [J]. Journal of Higher Education.1953(4):204.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:168.
①Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. New York: Harper Press,1959:179.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:15.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:162.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:164.
①Rosalind Rosenberg. Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century[M].New York: Hill andWang,1992:147.
②Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique [M].New York: Dell Publishing CO., INC.1963:143.
③Ibid，145.
④Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique [M].New York: Dell Publishing CO., INC.1963:147-148.
①转引自：Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:14.
②(美)泰勒等著，谢晓非等译.社会心理学(第十版)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2004:225-226.
①(美)迈尔斯著，侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第八版)[M].北京：人民邮电大学出版社,2006:172-173.
②职业女性(professional women)不同于就业女性(employed women)。职业(profession或career)是指需要特别训练并终身或长时间从事的工作；而单纯的就业则可能是随意的、暂时的、不需要特殊技能的。
③转引自Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:14.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:164.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:13-14.
②David Tyack&Elisabeth Hansot. Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Schools
[M].New Haven: Yale University Press.1990:245.
③Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:37-38.
④Ibid，49.
①Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:43.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:18.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation Of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:9.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation Of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:74.
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:185.
①Sarah Lawrence Archives：Anderson to Raushenbush,1961转引自：Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education forWomen in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2006:191.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:194.
①G.I.代指Government Issue，原指“军用品”，后泛指各种与军人有关的问题。Joe和Jane代指普通男女。
①王书峰.美国退役军人教育资助政策形成与变迁研究[D].北京大学博士学位论文，2007:71-73.
②③沙地.《GI法案》——为老兵打开大学之门[J].世界博览,2000(7):12.(美)加里·纳什.刘德斌等译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008:848.
①转引自：陈璐.二十世纪四五十年代美国退伍军人保障政策研究[D].复旦大学硕士学位论文，2010:29.
①http://articles.philly.com/1997-06-03/news/25526042_1_gi-bill-women-veterans-higher-education.
②王书峰.美国退役军人教育资助政策形成与变迁研究[D].北京大学博士学位论文，2007:77-78.
③Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006：49.
④Ibid，58.
⑤Ibid，45.
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002：161.
②John R. Thelin. A history of American higher education [M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress.2004:267.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: Selected Essays,1964-1983[M]. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1984:269.
②贺国庆等.外国高等教育史[M].北京:人民教育出版社,2003:524-525.
③Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,
①Judith G. Touchton&Lynne Davis. Fact Book on Women in Higher Education [M]. New York: AmericanCouncil on Education and Macmillan Publishing Company.1991:167-168.
②Alexander Astin, The undergraduate woman [A]. Helen S Astin,&Werner Z.Hirsch, The higher educationof women: Essays in honor of Rosemary Park[C]. New York: Praeger Publishers.1987:111.
③Thomas D. Snyder, Sally A. Dillow,&Charlene M. Hoffman. Digest of Education Statistics,2008: Table
187[M]. New York: NCES,2009:277.
①Catherine E. Freeman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[M]. New York: NCES,2005:82.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:298.
①Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J].The Journal of NegroEducation.1983(52):338.
②Ibid，343.
③Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J].The Journal of Negro
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:24.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:40
②Ibid，39
①Betty Friedan. The National Organization for Women's1966Statement of Purpose [EB/OL].http://www.now.org/history/purpos66.html.
②1963年，来自弗吉尼亚的民主党众议员，隔离主义者霍华德·史密斯(Howard Smith)出于阻挠民权法修正案有关禁止就业歧视条款的通过，而故意在修正案第七条的条文中加入“性别”项。史密斯的这一举动被某些国会议员视为令第7条胎死腹中的好办法。然而出乎保守者意料的是，在约翰逊总统高超的政治斡旋下，1964年民权法修正案以290:130获得众议院通过，四个月后以71:29在参议院通过。性别并没有像霍华德·史密斯设想的那样成为阻止法案通过的绊脚石，反而无心插柳地使女性平等就业权获得立法承认，美国平等就业机会委员会(EEOC)领导人Herman Edelsberg将女性权益的获得称其为“侥幸的私生子”。
③Claudia Goldin&Lawrence Katz. The power of the pill: Oral Contraceptives and women’s career andmarriage decisions[J]. The Journal of Political Economy,2002(110):745-746.
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:24.
②Ibid，205.
①[苏]M·加萨诺夫著，毛信仁摘译.保护苏联妇女的劳动权利[J].国际观察1982(3).
②10Key Areas of Title IX_Access to Higher Education [EB/OL]http://www.titleix.info/10-Key-Areas-of-Title-IX/Access-to-Higher-Education.aspx.
①Lyndon B. Johnson. Commencement Address at Howard University: to fulfill these Rights [EB/OL]http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/650604.asp.
②Office for Civil Rights (DHEW).Higher Education Guidelines to Executive Order11246[M].Washington,D.C.1972:3.
③Ibid，2.
①Office for Civil Rights (DHEW).Higher Education Guidelines to Executive Order11246[M].Washington,D.C.1972:6.
②“比例代表制”是一种选举制度，简单而言就是使各政党/团体所得选票和所得席位成正比。一般认为比例代表制有利于小党发展，但同时容易滋生激进情绪。卡内基委员会特别指出肯定性行动不是“比例代表制”的原因就是要避免大众将肯定性行动等同于“优待少数群体”。
③Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, Making Affirmative Action Work in HigherEducation,1973.转引自Rodney J. Reed, Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journalof Negro Education.1983,(52):332-333.
①Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, Making Affirmative Action Work in HigherEducation,1973.转引自Terry Hazzard. Affirmative Action and Women in Higher Education[C].Fiorida StateUniveristy Doctoral work research report,1988.
②Lyndon B. Johnson. Commencement Address at Howard University: to Fulfill These Rights [EB/OL]http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/650604.asp.
①(美)罗尔斯著.何怀宏等译.正义论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社.1998:12.
②Harold Orlans. Affirmative Action in Higher Education [J]. The ANNALS of the American Academy.1992.(523):150.
①Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journal of NegroEducation,1983.(52):337.
①http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_188.asp
②Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journal of NegroEducation,1983.(52):335.
③Margaret C. Dunkle&Bernice Sandler. Sex Discrimination against students: Implications of Title IX of theEducation Amendments of1972[M]. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges,1975:2.
①http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
②http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
①http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
②http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=173
③http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=173
④http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
①http://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/titleix.htm
①http://www.titleix.info/10-Key-Areas-of-Title-IX/Athletics.aspx
②Nelly. P. Stromquist. Sex-Equity Legislation in Education: the State as Promoter of Women’s Rights [J].Review of Educational Research.1993(63):391-392.
③Jeanne E. Kohl. Women and Political Action: the sex Equity in Education Act in California [J].Contemporary Education,1987(4):211-212.
①Susan Faludi. Backlash: the undeclared war against American women [M]. New York: AnchorBooks,1991:260.
②Ibid，p259.
③Office of Education (HEW). Women’s Educational Equity Act. First Annual Report [M].Washington, D.C.1976:11-14.
①②(美)罗尔斯.正义论[M].何怀宏等译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1988:12.
(美)凯瑟琳·A·麦金农著，曲广娣译.迈向女性主义的国家理论[M].北京：中国政法大学出版社,2007:233.
①目前我国学术界对women’s studies有着多种翻译。早期多被直译为“女性研究”或“妇女研究”，近年来多译为“妇女学”或“女性学”。但“妇女学”不等同于“社会性别研究/社会性别学/性别研究
“(gender studies)，二者既有区别亦有联系。
.②鲍晓兰.美国妇女运动的过去和现在[A]郑州大学妇女研究中心编.当代世界女潮与女学[C].郑州:河南人民出版社,1990:84.
③刘霓.西方女性学:起源、内涵与发展[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2007:1.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:3.
⑤余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2003:50.
⑥同上：51.
①Florence Howe. Myths of coeducation: SelectedeEessays,1964-1983[M]. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1984：273-274.
②美国女权活动家，女子教育家弗劳伦斯·豪将学术界对妇女问题感兴趣并进行相关研究的人员，如女教授、女研究生等成为女学人，当然这个概念并不排除男性研究人员。
①余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2003:241.
②[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:12.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:67.
②[加拿大]露西·吉拉尔著，李晓娅译.北美的妇女学研究[J].中华女子学院学报,2002(2):1.
③王珺.中国高校女性学制度化模式分析[J].妇女研究论丛,2009(3):57.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:46.
①李小江.女性/性别的学术问题[M].济南:山东人民出版社,2005:107-108.
①http://www1.umn.edu/women/webDocuments/MNPlan1960-65.pdf
②Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:51.
①Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:52.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association2004:75.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,
①Editorial Research Reports on the Women’s Movement [M]. Washington DC.: Congressional Quarterly,1973:151.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:32.
②Ibid，p30.
①Barbara Miller Solomon. In the company of educated women [M]. New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:207.
②Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:33.
①契约式学习(Contract Learning)是一种以学生为中心，目的在于培养学生独立学习机具有自我导向学习内力的有效方法。学习者必须承认一份学习契约，然后努力完成目标。具有很大的灵活性。
①Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:111.
①Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:115
②Ibid，118-120
①Bix, Amy Sue.‘Engineeresses’ Invade Campuses: Four Decades of Debate Over Technical Coeducation [J].Technology and Society Magazine.2000(19):24.
②Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:11
③(美)克拉克·克尔著.高铦等译.大学之用(第五版)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:97.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C].2004Meeting of the Economic History Association,20-21.
②Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:118.
③(美)克拉克·克尔著.高铦等译.大学之用(第五版)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:129-134.
④Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:12.
①Jan Roland Martin. The missing women in higher education: a case study of culture crossing [A]. Ann MariMay. The ‘Woman Question’ and Higher Education: Perspectives on Gender and Knowledge production inAmerica[C]. Edward Elgar Pblishing Ltd.2008:78-79.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷下)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002:564.
③同上：570.
①Susan Faludi. Backlash: the undeclared war against Amerian women[M].New York: Anchor Books ofDoubleday.1991:1.
②李道揆.九十年代的美国政治[J].美国研究，1997(4):17.
③同上：12.
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:363.
①Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:66.
②William J. Hussar&Tabitha M. Bailey. Projections of Education Statistics to2018[R] NCES,2009:76.
③Thomas D.Snyder&Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R]. NCES,2009:395.
④http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/tables_listings/showTable2005.asp?popup=true&tableID=3118&rt=p
①Thomas D.Snyder&Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R]. NCES,2009:425,428,431.
②Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:78.
①Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:78.
②Katharin Peter, Laura Horn&C.Dennis Carroll. Gender Differences in parrticipatio and completion ofundergraduate education and how they have changed over time[R]. NCES,2005: ix-x.
③Aamuel S. Peng&Jay Jaffe. Women who enter male-dominated fields of study in higher education [J].American Educational Research Journal,1979(16):285.
①章梅芳，刘兵.性别与科学读本[M].上海：上海交通大学出版社,2008:220.
②同上：223.
③周周.二战后美国高校女教师职业发展研究[D].华东师范大学硕士学位论文,2010:28.
④同上：27.
①Jocey Quinn. Powerful Subjects: are women really taking over the university?[M]. Sterling:Trentham Books,2003:23.
②Ibid，23.
③Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):534.
④Christianne Corbett, et al. Where the girls are: the facts about gender equity in education[M].Washington,DC:AAUW Educational Foundation.2008:64-68.
①Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):534.
②Ibid，519.
③Therese L. Baker&William Velez. Access to and opportunity in postsecondary education in the UnitedStates: A review [J].Sociology of Education,1996(69):83.
④Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):515.
⑤T. D. Snyder. Mini-Digest of Education Statistics2008[R].NCES,2009:12.
⑥T. D. Snyder. et al. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R].NCES,2009:286.
①加州209提案主要针对少数民族和女性，因为修改后的加州宪法禁止优待某类群体，但为老人、退伍军人、残疾人等保留了申诉和获取优待的权利，少数民族和女性则不享受这一权利。
①任东来等.美国宪政历程:影响美国的25个司法大案[M].北京:中国法制出版社,2004:400-401.
②蒋先福等.“肯定性行动计划”的法理学思考——以平等理论为视角[J].时代法学.2006(3):14.
①蒋先福等.“肯定性行动计划”的法理学思考——以平等理论为视角[J].时代法学.2006(3):14.
②Alina Tryfonidou. Reverse Discrimination in EC Law[M]. Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.2009:271.
①②任东来.“肯定性行动”与美国政治[J].太平洋学报，1996(1):15.
③Harold Orlans.AffirmativeAction in Higher Education[J]. TheANNALS of theAmericanAcademy.1992(523):147.宋春燕,卢晓中.论美国高等教育多样性发展代价——基于高校学生多样性的视角[J].高教探索.2009(6):82.
④(美)区利白(Clifton J. Orlebeke).美国的公正与权利问题[J].复旦学报(社会科学版).1996(1):105.
①李英桃.加利福尼亚州209提案与美国高等教育[J].美国研究.1998(3):113.
②Anonymous. UC hiring fewer women professors after Prop.209[J]. Black Issues in Higher Education.2001(3):12.
③Judith Glazer-Raymo. Unfinished Agendas: new and continuing gender challenges in Higher Education [M].Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2008:7-9.
①Judith Glazer-Raymo. Unfinished Agendas: new and continuing gender challenges in Higher Education [M].Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2008:8.
②Ibid，6.
③[美]加里·纳什著，刘德斌译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:997.
①Nancy E. Rose. Scapegoating Poor Women: An Analysis of Welfare Reform [J]. Journal of Economic Issues.2000(34):153.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史（第六卷：下册1945-2000）[M].北京:人民出版社,2002:460.
③Carl.M. Brauer. Kennedy, Johnson and the War on Poverty[J]. Journal of AmericanHistory,1982(69):117-118.
①钱满素.美国自由主义的历史变迁[M].北京：三联书店出版社,2006:218.
②制度型福利一般包括社会养老金、失业保险、工伤赔偿等，其特点是较为全面持久、资金筹集更为稳定、福利水平和服务标准较高、针对有资格的中下阶层群体；与制度型福利相对应的是剩余型福利，后者是国家在社会福利供给中最低限度的责任表现，其特点是易变、资金来源不稳定(易受政治、经济、社会等方面的影响)，福利水平和标准可能是最低的，针对下层阶级人群。制度型福利往往被视为是应得的，而剩余型福利往往被涉及到滥用药物、婚外生育、长期失业等“个人缺陷”问题。
③(法)托克维尔，董果良译.论美国的民主[M].北京:商务印书馆,2009:339.
④徐丽敏.国外福利依赖研究综述[J]国外社会科学,2008(6):80.
⑤“贫困女性化”一词最早于1970年代后期由美国学者提出，因为当时的调研显示美国贫困率上升最快的是女户主(women as house-holder)家庭(由低收入或贫困的妇女儿童组成)。到1980年代中期，全美
①Nancy E. Rose.Scapegoating Poor Women: An Analysis of Welfare Reform [J] Journal of Economic Issues,2000(34):143-144.
①Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):196.
②Ibid，199.
①Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):207.
②Rebecca A. London. The role of postsecondary education in Welfare Recipients’ paths to self-sufficiency[J].The Journal of Higher Education,2006(77):477.
③Kathleen M. Shaw. Using Feminist critical policy analysis in the realm of higher education: the case ofwelfare reform as gendered educational policy [J]. The Journal of Higher Education,2004(75):72.
④Ibid，73.
①Rebecca A. London. The role of postsecondary education in Welfare Recipients’ paths to self-sufficiency
②[J].The Journal of Higher Education,2006(77):479.Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annals
③of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):197.Kathleen M. Shaw. Using Feminist critical policy analysis in the realm of higher education: the case of
welfare reform as gendered educational policy [J]. The Journal of Higher Education,2004(75):65.
④Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):197-198.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:6.
②刘霓.西方女性学：起源、内涵与发展[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007:5.
③余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2003:82-85.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:50.
⑤Thomas D. Snyder. Digest of Education Statistics:2001[R].NCES,2002:304.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:68-69.
②同上：67.
③Carol T. Christ. Anniversary Lecture: The American University and Women’s Studies[J].Tulsa Studies inWomen’s Literature,1997(16):21.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:40.
⑤王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007:194.
①Elizabeth J.Tisdell. Feminist Pedagogies[A]. E Hayes. Women as Learners: the significance of gender inadult learning[C]. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Press,2002:156.
②转引自：王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007:203.
③[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:10
④Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:47.
①Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:52.
②http://www.buwrc.org/about/mission/
③http://www.yale.edu/wc/mission.html
④http://tulane.edu/nccrow/about.cfm
①http://www.barnard.edu/bcrw/about.html
②http://www1.umn.edu/women/about.html
①Beth Willnger. Women’s Centers, Their Missions, and the Process of Change [A]. Sharon L. Davie.University and College Women’s Centers: a journey toward equity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:50.
②Beth Willinger. Mission, Services, and Stakeholders of Campus-Based Women’s Centers[A]. Sharon L.Davie. University and College Women’s Centers: a journey toward equity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:505-506.根据该文整理，有删减。
①Sharon L. Davie.University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity[M].Westport: GreenwoodPress,2002:388.
①Sharon L. Davie.University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equit [M].Westport: GreenwoodPress,2002:388.
①Sharon L. Davie. Drawing New Maps [A]. University and College Women’s Centers: a journey towardequity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:5.
②Ibid，449.
①Beth A. Firestein.Empowering ourselves and each other: Counseling services for women at the College andUniversity Women’s Center[A].University and College Women’s Centers: a journey towardequity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:265.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:34-35.
②Ibid，35.
③Ibid，35.
④Ibid，35.
①http://supreme.justia.com/us/518/515/case.html
②http://supreme.justia.com/us/518/515/case.html
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,
②DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:68.
③Ibid，70.
④Ibid，67.Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:69.
①Ibid，71.
②E. L.Boyer. College:The undergraduate experience in America(1987)p150,转引自：Lisa W-Wendel. Genderand Higher Education: What should we learn from Women’s Colleges?[A] Gendered Futures in HigherEducation:Critical Perspectives for Change[C].New York: The SUNY Press.2003:38.
③Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:30.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:83.
②Robert E. Ledman et al. Successful women and Women’s Colleges: is there an intervening variable in thereported relationship?[J]. Sex Roles,1995(33).
③Lisa W-Wendel. Gender and Higher Education: What should we learn from Women’s Colleges?[A]Gendered Futures in Higher Educationc：Critical Perspectives for Change[C].New York: The SUNY Press.2003:41.
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①《中华人民共和国宪法》第十八条规定“中华人民共和国妇女在政治的、经济的、文化的和家庭的生活等方面享有同男子平等的权利”。“男女平等”作为中国的一项基本国策，最早是由时任国家主席江泽民，于1995年在第四次世界妇女大会上代表中国政府向国际社会做出的庄严承诺。2005年修订的《妇女权益保障法》第二条则明确规定“实行男女平等是国家的基本国策”。
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③http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-09/03/content_1061214.htm
④http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-08/08/content_1920457.htm
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美国教育部http://www.ed.gov/
美国全国妇女组织http://www.now.org/
美国妇女研究协会http://www.nwsa.org
美国大学妇女联合会http://www.aauw.org
美国国家教育数据统计中心http://nces.ed.gov
②同上：《行动纲要》第76条，第80条和第83条。
③中国妇女发展纲要(2011-2020年).[EB/OL].http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-08/08/content_1920457.htm.
①转引自：李春玲.教育地位获得的性别差异：家庭背景对男性和女性教育地位获得的影响[J].妇女研究论丛，2009(1).
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②Linda Eisenmann. Creating a framework for interpreting US women’s education history: lessons fromhistorical lexicography [J]. History of Education,2001(30).
①史静寰.世界教育大系：妇女教育[M].长春:吉林教育出版社，2000．导言:11．
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①王珺．阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007:49．
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Ltd.,2004：56．
⑤21世纪初，大连大学性别研究中心的李小江教授坚持主张将gender译为“性别”，她认为如果译为“社
会性别”则排斥了“自然的性”，人为地造成个体的和自然身份的隐而不见。
⑥de Beauvoir “One is not born, but rather becomes, a woman”(1972年).转引自Jane Pilcher&Imelda
Whelehan.50Key Concepts in Gender Studies[M].Lon don: SAGE Publications Ltd.,2004：56．
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[M].天津：天津社会科学院出版社，1998：5-6．
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America1945-1965[M] Baltinore: The JohnsHopkins University Press,2006：165-174.
①钱满素.美国自由主义的历史变迁[M].北京：三联书店，2006：154-159.
②积极行动法案(AffirmativeAction)主要是指约翰逊政府时期出台的一系列“积极行动”法规，旨在改变美国历史上长期受到歧视的少数族裔和女性等弱势群体在政治、经济、教育和社会等领域的劣势地位；在同等条件下，给与弱势群体一定的优先权利。1978年贝基案之后，积极行动法案的合法性遭到质疑，被认为对(非西班牙裔)白人男性构成“逆向歧视”。
③数据来源NCES. Table247. Earned degrees conferred by degree-granting institutions, by level of degreeand sex of student: Selected years,1869-70to2013-14
④1985-86学年，美国女性获得50.3%的硕士学位，35.2%的博士学位；1995-96学年分别上升为55.9%和39.9%；1999-2000学年分别为58.0%和44.1%。据美国教育数据统计中心的预测，到2013年左右获得博士学位的女性也将多于男性。数据来源：NCES. Table247.
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⑥Linda Eisenmann. The Impact of Historical Expectations on Women’s Higher Education [R]. Forum onPublic Policy，2007； Barbara J. Bank. Gender and Education: A Encyclopedia[M].Westport: PraegerPublisher,2007：717-722.
⑦Tamar Lewin. At Colleges, Women Are Leaving Men in the Dust [N].New York Times.2006.7.9.
⑧里根-布什时代撤消(withdraw)了女性教育平等办公室、民权办公室和平等就业机会委员会，严重地削弱了这些部门在保护女性和少数族裔不受歧视侵害方面的监管能力；1982年，《平等权利修正案》成为死案；1998年克林顿福利改革法案在实际上造成“福利妈妈”无力追求高等教育；2002年小布什政府撤消了白宫的妇女联络办公室；同年通过一项州权议程(states-right agenda)，以能力标准取代积极行动政
策，从事实上否定了保护女性及少数族裔权力的积极行动法案。
①[美]贝蒂·弗里丹著.第二阶段[M].小意译.南京：江苏人民出版社，2007：序言p10,正文p11.
②Charles Franklin Thwing. College women [M]. New York: the Baker&Taylor Co.1894.(a)Frederick A. P. Barnard. Should American Colleges be open to women as well as to men?[M].A paper
presented to the Twentieth Annual Convocation of the University of the state of New York,1882.
(b)Eye Van De Warker. Women’s Unfitness for Higher Coeducation[M].New York: The Grafton Press,1903.
③(a)I. M. E. Blandin. History of Higher Education of Women in the South Prior to1860[M]. New York and
Washington: the Neale Publishing Company,1909.(b)Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States[M]. New York: The Science
Press,1929.
①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States[M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929.
②Maxine Schwartz Seller. A history of womne’s education in the United States:Thomas Woody’s Classic.Sixty years later[J]. History of Education Quarterly,1989(29)：97.
③Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959.
④Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985.
⑤Irene Harwarth，Mindi Maline, Elizabeth DeBra. Women’s Colleges in the United States: History, Issues,and Challenges[M]. U.S. Government Printing Office.1997.
①Irene B. Harwarth. A closer look at women’s colleges.[M].AAUW Educational Foundation/U.S.Department of Education Roundtable. January15,1998.
②Tracy Schier&Cynthia Russett. Catholic Women’s Colleges in America [M].Baltimore: Johns HopkinsUniversity Press,2002.
③Leslie Miller-Bernal and Susan L. Poulson. Challenged by Coeducation: Women’s Colleges since the1960s[M]. Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press.2007.
④Leslie Miller-Bernal. Separate by degree: women students’ experiences in single-sex and coeducationalcolleges[M]. New York: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.,2000.
⑤Leslie Miller-Bernal and Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: Women’s Experiences in Formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M].Vanderbilt University Press,2004.
⑥(美)玛丽琳·J·波克塞著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时[M]．天津：天津人民出版社，2006.
①Sharon L. Davie. University and College Women’s Centers:AJourney toward Equity [M].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002.
②Jana Nidiffer and Carolyn Terry Bashaw. Women Administrators in Higher Education[C].New York: StateUniversity of New York Press,2001.
③Eli Ginzberg&Alice M. Yohalem. Educated American Women: Self-Portraits[M].New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,1966.
④Lynne Brodie. Welch. Perspectives on Minority Women in Higher Education[C]. NewYork: Praeger Publishers,1992.
①Jocey Quinn. Powerful Subjects：are women really taking over the university?[M]. Sterling:Trentham Books,2003.
②Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in Higher Education: An Encyclopedia[M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc,2002.
③Ibid：xix.
④Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America:1945-1965[M] Baltinore: The JohnsHopkins University Press,2006.
⑤欧阳祖经.欧美女子教育史[M].上海：商务印书馆，1926.
①滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1994.
②贺国庆.德国和美国大学发达史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1998.
③王保星.美国现代高等教育制度的确立[M].河北教育出版社.2005.王保星.19世纪后半期美国女子高等教育发展的历史动因分析[J].河北大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2002(3)
④王珺.阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007.
⑤王珺.阅读高等教育：基于女性主义认识论的视角[M].天津：天津人民出版社，2007，封底.
⑥按主题进行检索，以“女子教育”为检索项时有191篇，“女性教育”为检索项有92篇，以“妇女教育”为检索项有64篇。最后一次检索时间为2010年2月27日。
⑦高惠蓉.美国女子高等教育史研究[D].华东师范大学，博士论文.2007.
①王恩铭．二十世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史·第六卷：下册1945-2000[M].北京：人民出版社，2002.
①刘霓.女性主义学术研究的成果与特点[J].国外社会科学，1998(1)：13.
①Charles Franklin Thwing. College Women [M]. New York: the Baker&Taylor Co,1894：19.
②转引自：赵叶珠.美日中三国女子高等教育比较[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2007：149-150.
③Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002：61.
④凯瑟琳·比彻分别于1824和1832创办女子学园；玛丽·里昂于1837年创办蒙特·霍约女子学园(MountHolyoke Seminary).
⑤[美]加里·纳什著，刘德斌译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008：113.
①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929：105-106.
②女性社会学认为人类社会可以划分为两个空间：一是公共领域，即由公共活动组织在一起的空间；而是私人领域，即家庭空间。这种划分同时也是男女劳动分工的依据。女权运动家贝蒂·弗里丹指出家庭事务与公共事务的分离、女性被局限于家庭的现象是女性经济边缘化和社会依附化的根源。
①Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The Science Press,1929：462.
②Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984：21.
①Jane Pilcher&Imelda Whelehan.50Key Concepts in Gender Studies[M].London: SAGE Publications Ltd.,2004：56.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:12.
③Ibid，12.
④Ibid，13.
⑤Ibid，13.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:273.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:19.
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:62.
②Irene Harwarth etc. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:15.
③Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The SciencePress,1929:396.
④Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:46.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:vol1,344.
②鲍西娅，莎士比亚《威尼斯商人》一剧中的女主人公，该角色淳朴、有才智、自信且富有同情心，是莎士比亚笔下的资产阶级新女性，虽仍然受制于男性，却不甘心完全屈从，是早期性别意识觉醒的代表。
③Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929,vol1:370.
④Ibid，346.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:vol2,301.
①Ana M. MartinezAleman&KristenA. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. Santa Barbara:ABC-CLIO,Inc.2002:62-63.
②Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:36.
①Henry Fowle Durant and the Religious Ideals That Shaped the Founding of Wellesley College[EB/OL]. http://www. adonaldmacleod. com/Papers7.htm#_edn1.
①http://www.brown.edu/Administration/News_Bureau/Databases/Encyclopedia/search.php?serial=P0090
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:18.
②Ibid，19.
①Marion Talbot&Lois K. M.Rosenberry. The history of the American Association of University Women:1881-1931[M]. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company.1931:49.
②贺国庆.德国和美国大学发达史[M].北京：人民教育出版社，1998:172.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:48.
②Ibid，49.
③http://admissions.vassar.edu/about_hist.html
④Maxine Schwartz Seller. A history of women’s education in the United States: Thomas Woody’s Classic.Sixty years later[J]. History of Education Quarterly,1989,(29):10.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:212.
①http://www.swarthmore.edu/news/time/
②Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:48-50.
③Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984:209.
④Adele Simmons. Education and Ideology in Nineteen Century America：The response of educationalinstitutions to the changing role of women[A]Berennice A. Carroll. Liberation Women’s History[C] Urbana:University of Illinois Press.1976:120.
①Patricia Sexton. Women in Education[M]. Bloomington: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation.1976:50.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:53.
③Jonathan Baldwin Turner, Plan For an Industrial University, From Sol Cohen, Education in the United States:A Documentary History [M]. Vol.3, N.Y. Greenwood Press, p1523.转引自：崔高鹏.从特纳到莫雷尔：1862年美国赠地学院法案的起源与发展研究[D].北京师范大学，2008：18．
④Newspapers’ Response to Turner’s Plan, http://web.aces.uiuc.edu/aim/morrill/turner/turner.editors.htm.转引自：崔高鹏.从特纳到莫雷尔：1862年美国赠地学院法案的起源与发展研究[D].北京师范大学，2008：25.
⑤伯顿·克拉克.高等教育新论——多学科的研究[M].杭州：浙江教育出版社，.2001：49.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985：53.
②Ibid，p53.
③Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:37.
④Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana universitypress,1984:213.
①赵叶珠.美日中三国女子高等教育比较[M].厦门：厦门大学出版社，2007:150.
②Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:58.
①Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:59.
②Rosalind Rosenberg. The limits of access: the history of Coeducaion in America[A]. John M. Faraher&Florence Howe. Women and higher education in American history[C].Ontrio: Penguin BooksCanada,1988:116-117.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002：100.
④王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002：93.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana university press,1984.
①Thomas Woody.Ahistory of women’s education in the United States [M]. NewYork:The Science Press,1929:323-324.
①Joan Burstyn.Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J].The New EnglandQuarterly.1974(47):397.
①Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):140.
②Charlotte E. Biester. Catharine Beecher’s Views of Home Economics [J]. History of Education Journal,1952(3):89.
③Joan N. Burstyn. Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J]. The New England Quarterly,1974(47):389.
①Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):140.
①Charlotte E. Biester. Catharine Beecher’s Views of Home Economics [J]. History of Education Journal,1952(3):90.
②Joan N. Burstyn.Catharine Beecher and the Education ofAmerican Women [J]. The New England Quarterly,1974(47):401.
①王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007：138-139.
②同上：141.
③Sarah Stage&Virginia Bramble Vincenti. Rethinking Home Economics: Women and the History of aProfession [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,1997:5.
④Andrea L.Turpin. The Ideological Origins of the Women's College: Religion, Class, and Curriculum in theEducational Visions of Catharine Beecher and Mary Lyon [J].History of Education Quarterly.2010(50):149.
①Mary E. Murphy. War and the Woman’s College[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1941(3).
②C. M. Louttit. Women：Their Roles and Education[J].The Journal of Higher Education.1953(4).
③Suan Ware.Holding their own: American women in the1930s [M].5-7，转引自：周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):67.
①周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):73.
②(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社.1987：190-191.
③同上：191.
④同上：200.
⑤周莉萍.二十世纪二、三十年代美国妇女生存状况与妇女运动研究[D.]华东师范大学.2006:161.
⑥Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women: A history of women and higher education inAmerica [M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:146.
⑦周莉萍.大萧条对美国妇女婚姻与家庭的影响[J].世界历史，2008(6):72.
⑧Barbara. M. Solomon. In the company of educated women:Ahistory of women and higher education inAmerica
[M].New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:146.
①Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:46.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:111.
③(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:199-200.
④Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:92-93.
①战争期间,美国一些州和地区暂时中止了保护性立法，这种立法的逻辑建立在妇女没有能力承担任何一种被认为是‘男人的工作’的劳动，如消防员、伐木工等，所以女性不应涉足这些领域，具有较为明显的生物决定论倾向。女子可以进入各种行业，但她们将失去被特殊照顾的权利，比如针对女性设置的最低工资、女性不必强制性服兵役等。此外，针对女性的“同等对待”与“特殊保护”争议较多地集中在于如何处理妇女怀孕、生育和哺育后代的问题上。“保护性”原则是否合理、合法乃是针对女性就业应“同工同酬”还是“差别对待”的争论焦点。《平等权利修正案》最终难以获得通过与美国女性对此认识上的分歧不无关系。
②(美)加里·纳什，刘德斌主译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2008:827.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:140.
④同上：142.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:45.
②Ross L. Mooney. High-school girls are not going to college unless…[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1943(14):307-308.
③Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press.2006, p45.1946年，当女生获得博士学位的比达到历史最高时，女性占大学生和研究生的比已经骤然下降到31.8%和50.6%。笔者认为这种女生在不同教育层次间比例变化的差异主要与学位教育培养制度有关。1946年获得博士学位的女生大部分于战争后期入学，博士培养机制决定了战后重返校园的多数男子不可能马上取得入学资格。
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:163.
①Mary E. Murphy. War and the Woman’s College[J]. The Journal of Higher Education.1941(3):145.
②(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:213.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:51.
④The Minnesota Plan for the Continuing Educaation of Women,转引自Linda Eisenmann. Higher Educationfor Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2006:185.
⑤Linda Eisenmann. A Time of Quiet Activism: Research, Practice, and Policy in American Women's HigherEducation,1945-1965[J].History of Education Quarterly，2005(45).
①刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷·上)[M].北京：人民出版社.2002:52-53.
②同上：53-54.
③(美)洛伊斯·班纳著，侯文蕙译.现代美国妇女[M].北京：东方出版社,1987:220.
①刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷·上)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002:134-136.
②同上：152.
③王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:217.
④弗洛伊德主义是精神分析理论及其在哲学和社会科学领域中的扩展和应用的总称，包括古典弗洛伊德
①(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:120-123.
②(奥)西格蒙德·弗洛伊德著，车文博主编.弗洛伊德文集·第一卷[M].长春：长春出版社,2004:序言p12.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:127.
④倪志娟.从弗洛伊德到巴特勒——关于“性”的话语建构[J].中华女子学院学报，2010(1):39-40.
①贺国庆等.外国高等教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2003:304-305.
②同上：447.
③美国高等教育传统生源的年龄范围为18-24岁，非传统生源(non-traditionalstudents)多指超过24岁者。
④John R.Thelin.Ahistory ofAmerican higher education [M]. Baltimore:The Johns Hopkins University Press,2004:299-300.
①文中数据根据NCES原始数据计算而得。数据来源：Table187. Historical summary of faculty, students,degrees, and finances in degree-granting institutions: selected yeas,1869-70through2006-07.
②黄安年.当代美国的社会保障政策(1945-1996年)[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社.1998:38.
③王华峰等.世界典型国家高等教育转型发展的比较研究[J].天津商学院学报，2005(1):69.
①NCES: Percentage of persons age25and over and25to29, by race/ethnicity, years of school completed, and sex: Selectedyears,1910through2009.[EB/OL] www.nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_008.asp
②Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:46.
①王恩铭.二十世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社.2002:234.
②《退伍军人权利法案》通常称G.I.Bill，是美国自二战以来安置退伍军人的主要法律依据。时至今日，G.I.Bill已经进行过多次修正，有1944年G.I.Bill，朝鲜战争G.I.Bill等。
③http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d08/tables/dt08_188.asp
④Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns
①Judith G. Touchton&Lynne Davis. Fact book on Women in Higher Education[M]. New York: AmericanCouncil on Education and Macmillan Publishing Company,1991.硕士学位数据p207，博士学位数据p216.
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:45
③NCES. Education Statistics Quarterly-Volume4[M].Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education,2002(1):44.
①邓光平.美国第一级专业学位与行业任职资格衔接的策略探析[J].中国高教研究，2008(11):43.
②1949-50年N CES首次对第一级专业学位授予情况进行单独统计，之前的专业学位数据合并于学士学位数据中。
③http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d01/dt263.asp
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社.2005:155.
⑤同上：156.
①(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社.2005:375.
②同上：250-251.
③C. M. Louttit. Women：Their Roles and Education [J]. Journal of Higher Education.1953(4):204.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:168.
①Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. New York: Harper Press,1959:179.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:15.
③(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:162.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:164.
①Rosalind Rosenberg. Divided Lives: American Women in the Twentieth Century[M].New York: Hill andWang,1992:147.
②Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique [M].New York: Dell Publishing CO., INC.1963:143.
③Ibid，145.
④Betty Friedan. The Feminine Mystique [M].New York: Dell Publishing CO., INC.1963:147-148.
①转引自：Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:14.
②(美)泰勒等著，谢晓非等译.社会心理学(第十版)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2004:225-226.
①(美)迈尔斯著，侯玉波等译.社会心理学(第八版)[M].北京：人民邮电大学出版社,2006:172-173.
②职业女性(professional women)不同于就业女性(employed women)。职业(profession或career)是指需要特别训练并终身或长时间从事的工作；而单纯的就业则可能是随意的、暂时的、不需要特殊技能的。
③转引自Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:14.
④(美)贝蒂·弗里丹著，程锡麟等译.女性的奥秘[M].广州：广东经济出版社,2005:164.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:13-14.
②David Tyack&Elisabeth Hansot. Learning Together: A History of Coeducation in American Schools
[M].New Haven: Yale University Press.1990:245.
③Mabel Newcomer，A Century of Higher Education for Ameircan Women [M]. New York: HarperPress,1959:37-38.
④Ibid，49.
①Mabel Newcomer，ACentury of Higher Education forAmeircan Women [M]. NewYork: Harper Press,1959:43.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:18.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation Of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:9.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation Of Women’s HigherEducation,1965-1980[C] Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:74.
②Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:185.
①Sarah Lawrence Archives：Anderson to Raushenbush,1961转引自：Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education forWomen in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2006:191.
①Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006:194.
①G.I.代指Government Issue，原指“军用品”，后泛指各种与军人有关的问题。Joe和Jane代指普通男女。
①王书峰.美国退役军人教育资助政策形成与变迁研究[D].北京大学博士学位论文，2007:71-73.
②③沙地.《GI法案》——为老兵打开大学之门[J].世界博览,2000(7):12.(美)加里·纳什.刘德斌等译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京：北京大学出版社，2008:848.
①转引自：陈璐.二十世纪四五十年代美国退伍军人保障政策研究[D].复旦大学硕士学位论文，2010:29.
①http://articles.philly.com/1997-06-03/news/25526042_1_gi-bill-women-veterans-higher-education.
②王书峰.美国退役军人教育资助政策形成与变迁研究[D].北京大学博士学位论文，2007:77-78.
③Linda Eisenmann. Higher Education for Women in Postwar America,1945-1965[M]. Baltimore: The JohnsHopkins University Press.2006：49.
④Ibid，58.
⑤Ibid，45.
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社，2002：161.
②John R. Thelin. A history of American higher education [M]. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress.2004:267.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: Selected Essays,1964-1983[M]. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1984:269.
②贺国庆等.外国高等教育史[M].北京:人民教育出版社,2003:524-525.
③Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,
①Judith G. Touchton&Lynne Davis. Fact Book on Women in Higher Education [M]. New York: AmericanCouncil on Education and Macmillan Publishing Company.1991:167-168.
②Alexander Astin, The undergraduate woman [A]. Helen S Astin,&Werner Z.Hirsch, The higher educationof women: Essays in honor of Rosemary Park[C]. New York: Praeger Publishers.1987:111.
③Thomas D. Snyder, Sally A. Dillow,&Charlene M. Hoffman. Digest of Education Statistics,2008: Table
187[M]. New York: NCES,2009:277.
①Catherine E. Freeman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[M]. New York: NCES,2005:82.
②王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:298.
①Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J].The Journal of NegroEducation.1983(52):338.
②Ibid，343.
③Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J].The Journal of Negro
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:24.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association,2004:40
②Ibid，39
①Betty Friedan. The National Organization for Women's1966Statement of Purpose [EB/OL].http://www.now.org/history/purpos66.html.
②1963年，来自弗吉尼亚的民主党众议员，隔离主义者霍华德·史密斯(Howard Smith)出于阻挠民权法修正案有关禁止就业歧视条款的通过，而故意在修正案第七条的条文中加入“性别”项。史密斯的这一举动被某些国会议员视为令第7条胎死腹中的好办法。然而出乎保守者意料的是，在约翰逊总统高超的政治斡旋下，1964年民权法修正案以290:130获得众议院通过，四个月后以71:29在参议院通过。性别并没有像霍华德·史密斯设想的那样成为阻止法案通过的绊脚石，反而无心插柳地使女性平等就业权获得立法承认，美国平等就业机会委员会(EEOC)领导人Herman Edelsberg将女性权益的获得称其为“侥幸的私生子”。
③Claudia Goldin&Lawrence Katz. The power of the pill: Oral Contraceptives and women’s career andmarriage decisions[J]. The Journal of Political Economy,2002(110):745-746.
①Ana M. Martinez Aleman&Kristen A. Renn. Women in higher education: an encyclopedia [M]. SantaBarbara: ABC-CLIO, Inc.2002:24.
②Ibid，205.
①[苏]M·加萨诺夫著，毛信仁摘译.保护苏联妇女的劳动权利[J].国际观察1982(3).
②10Key Areas of Title IX_Access to Higher Education [EB/OL]http://www.titleix.info/10-Key-Areas-of-Title-IX/Access-to-Higher-Education.aspx.
①Lyndon B. Johnson. Commencement Address at Howard University: to fulfill these Rights [EB/OL]http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/650604.asp.
②Office for Civil Rights (DHEW).Higher Education Guidelines to Executive Order11246[M].Washington,D.C.1972:3.
③Ibid，2.
①Office for Civil Rights (DHEW).Higher Education Guidelines to Executive Order11246[M].Washington,D.C.1972:6.
②“比例代表制”是一种选举制度，简单而言就是使各政党/团体所得选票和所得席位成正比。一般认为比例代表制有利于小党发展，但同时容易滋生激进情绪。卡内基委员会特别指出肯定性行动不是“比例代表制”的原因就是要避免大众将肯定性行动等同于“优待少数群体”。
③Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, Making Affirmative Action Work in HigherEducation,1973.转引自Rodney J. Reed, Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journalof Negro Education.1983,(52):332-333.
①Carnegie Council on Policy Studies in Higher Education, Making Affirmative Action Work in HigherEducation,1973.转引自Terry Hazzard. Affirmative Action and Women in Higher Education[C].Fiorida StateUniveristy Doctoral work research report,1988.
②Lyndon B. Johnson. Commencement Address at Howard University: to Fulfill These Rights [EB/OL]http://www.lbjlib.utexas.edu/johnson/archives.hom/speeches.hom/650604.asp.
①(美)罗尔斯著.何怀宏等译.正义论[M].北京：中国社会科学出版社.1998:12.
②Harold Orlans. Affirmative Action in Higher Education [J]. The ANNALS of the American Academy.1992.(523):150.
①Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journal of NegroEducation,1983.(52):337.
①http://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/d09/tables/dt09_188.asp
②Rodney J. Reed. Affirmative Action in Higher Education: Is it necessary?[J]. Journal of NegroEducation,1983.(52):335.
③Margaret C. Dunkle&Bernice Sandler. Sex Discrimination against students: Implications of Title IX of theEducation Amendments of1972[M]. Washington, D.C.: Association of American Colleges,1975:2.
①http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
②http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
①http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
②http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=173
③http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=173
④http://womenincongress.house.gov/member-profiles/profile.html?intID=92
①http://www.dol.gov/oasam/regs/statutes/titleix.htm
①http://www.titleix.info/10-Key-Areas-of-Title-IX/Athletics.aspx
②Nelly. P. Stromquist. Sex-Equity Legislation in Education: the State as Promoter of Women’s Rights [J].Review of Educational Research.1993(63):391-392.
③Jeanne E. Kohl. Women and Political Action: the sex Equity in Education Act in California [J].Contemporary Education,1987(4):211-212.
①Susan Faludi. Backlash: the undeclared war against American women [M]. New York: AnchorBooks,1991:260.
②Ibid，p259.
③Office of Education (HEW). Women’s Educational Equity Act. First Annual Report [M].Washington, D.C.1976:11-14.
①②(美)罗尔斯.正义论[M].何怀宏等译.北京:中国社会科学出版社,1988:12.
(美)凯瑟琳·A·麦金农著，曲广娣译.迈向女性主义的国家理论[M].北京：中国政法大学出版社,2007:233.
①目前我国学术界对women’s studies有着多种翻译。早期多被直译为“女性研究”或“妇女研究”，近年来多译为“妇女学”或“女性学”。但“妇女学”不等同于“社会性别研究/社会性别学/性别研究
“(gender studies)，二者既有区别亦有联系。
.②鲍晓兰.美国妇女运动的过去和现在[A]郑州大学妇女研究中心编.当代世界女潮与女学[C].郑州:河南人民出版社,1990:84.
③刘霓.西方女性学:起源、内涵与发展[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2007:1.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:3.
⑤余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2003:50.
⑥同上：51.
①Florence Howe. Myths of coeducation: SelectedeEessays,1964-1983[M]. Bloomington: Indiana UniversityPress,1984：273-274.
②美国女权活动家，女子教育家弗劳伦斯·豪将学术界对妇女问题感兴趣并进行相关研究的人员，如女教授、女研究生等成为女学人，当然这个概念并不排除男性研究人员。
①余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2003:241.
②[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:12.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:67.
②[加拿大]露西·吉拉尔著，李晓娅译.北美的妇女学研究[J].中华女子学院学报,2002(2):1.
③王珺.中国高校女性学制度化模式分析[J].妇女研究论丛,2009(3):57.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:46.
①李小江.女性/性别的学术问题[M].济南:山东人民出版社,2005:107-108.
①http://www1.umn.edu/women/webDocuments/MNPlan1960-65.pdf
②Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:51.
①Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:52.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C]. Meeting of the Economic History Association2004:75.
②Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,
①Editorial Research Reports on the Women’s Movement [M]. Washington DC.: Congressional Quarterly,1973:151.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:32.
②Ibid，p30.
①Barbara Miller Solomon. In the company of educated women [M]. New Haven: Yale University Press,1985:207.
②Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:33.
①契约式学习(Contract Learning)是一种以学生为中心，目的在于培养学生独立学习机具有自我导向学习内力的有效方法。学习者必须承认一份学习契约，然后努力完成目标。具有很大的灵活性。
①Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:111.
①Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:115
②Ibid，118-120
①Bix, Amy Sue.‘Engineeresses’ Invade Campuses: Four Decades of Debate Over Technical Coeducation [J].Technology and Society Magazine.2000(19):24.
②Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:11
③(美)克拉克·克尔著.高铦等译.大学之用(第五版)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:97.
①Stacey Jones. Dynamic Social Norms and the Unexpected Transformation of Women’s Higher Education,1965to1980[C].2004Meeting of the Economic History Association,20-21.
②Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:118.
③(美)克拉克·克尔著.高铦等译.大学之用(第五版)[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:129-134.
④Leslie Miller-Bernal&Susan L. Poulson. Going Coed: women’s experiences in formerly Men’s Collegesand Universities,1950-2000[M]. Vanderbilt University Press,2004:12.
①Jan Roland Martin. The missing women in higher education: a case study of culture crossing [A]. Ann MariMay. The ‘Woman Question’ and Higher Education: Perspectives on Gender and Knowledge production inAmerica[C]. Edward Elgar Pblishing Ltd.2008:78-79.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史(第六卷下)[M].北京：人民出版社,2002:564.
③同上：570.
①Susan Faludi. Backlash: the undeclared war against Amerian women[M].New York: Anchor Books ofDoubleday.1991:1.
②李道揆.九十年代的美国政治[J].美国研究，1997(4):17.
③同上：12.
①王恩铭.20世纪美国妇女研究[M].上海：上海外语教育出版社,2002:363.
①Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:66.
②William J. Hussar&Tabitha M. Bailey. Projections of Education Statistics to2018[R] NCES,2009:76.
③Thomas D.Snyder&Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R]. NCES,2009:395.
④http://nces.ed.gov/das/library/tables_listings/showTable2005.asp?popup=true&tableID=3118&rt=p
①Thomas D.Snyder&Sally A. Dillow. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R]. NCES,2009:425,428,431.
②Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:78.
①Catherine E. Fressman. Trends in Educational Equity of Girls&Women:2004[R].NCES,2005:78.
②Katharin Peter, Laura Horn&C.Dennis Carroll. Gender Differences in parrticipatio and completion ofundergraduate education and how they have changed over time[R]. NCES,2005: ix-x.
③Aamuel S. Peng&Jay Jaffe. Women who enter male-dominated fields of study in higher education [J].American Educational Research Journal,1979(16):285.
①章梅芳，刘兵.性别与科学读本[M].上海：上海交通大学出版社,2008:220.
②同上：223.
③周周.二战后美国高校女教师职业发展研究[D].华东师范大学硕士学位论文,2010:28.
④同上：27.
①Jocey Quinn. Powerful Subjects: are women really taking over the university?[M]. Sterling:Trentham Books,2003:23.
②Ibid，23.
③Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):534.
④Christianne Corbett, et al. Where the girls are: the facts about gender equity in education[M].Washington,DC:AAUW Educational Foundation.2008:64-68.
①Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):534.
②Ibid，519.
③Therese L. Baker&William Velez. Access to and opportunity in postsecondary education in the UnitedStates: A review [J].Sociology of Education,1996(69):83.
④Claudia Buchmann&Thomas A.DiPrete. The Growing female advantage in college completion: The role offamily background and academic achievement [J].American Sociological Review,2006(71):515.
⑤T. D. Snyder. Mini-Digest of Education Statistics2008[R].NCES,2009:12.
⑥T. D. Snyder. et al. Digest of Education Statistic2008[R].NCES,2009:286.
①加州209提案主要针对少数民族和女性，因为修改后的加州宪法禁止优待某类群体，但为老人、退伍军人、残疾人等保留了申诉和获取优待的权利，少数民族和女性则不享受这一权利。
①任东来等.美国宪政历程:影响美国的25个司法大案[M].北京:中国法制出版社,2004:400-401.
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②Alina Tryfonidou. Reverse Discrimination in EC Law[M]. Netherlands: Kluwer Law International.2009:271.
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③Judith Glazer-Raymo. Unfinished Agendas: new and continuing gender challenges in Higher Education [M].Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2008:7-9.
①Judith Glazer-Raymo. Unfinished Agendas: new and continuing gender challenges in Higher Education [M].Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.2008:8.
②Ibid，6.
③[美]加里·纳什著，刘德斌译.美国人民：创建一个国家和一种社会[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2008:997.
①Nancy E. Rose. Scapegoating Poor Women: An Analysis of Welfare Reform [J]. Journal of Economic Issues.2000(34):153.
②刘绪贻，杨生茂.美国通史（第六卷：下册1945-2000）[M].北京:人民出版社,2002:460.
③Carl.M. Brauer. Kennedy, Johnson and the War on Poverty[J]. Journal of AmericanHistory,1982(69):117-118.
①钱满素.美国自由主义的历史变迁[M].北京：三联书店出版社,2006:218.
②制度型福利一般包括社会养老金、失业保险、工伤赔偿等，其特点是较为全面持久、资金筹集更为稳定、福利水平和服务标准较高、针对有资格的中下阶层群体；与制度型福利相对应的是剩余型福利，后者是国家在社会福利供给中最低限度的责任表现，其特点是易变、资金来源不稳定(易受政治、经济、社会等方面的影响)，福利水平和标准可能是最低的，针对下层阶级人群。制度型福利往往被视为是应得的，而剩余型福利往往被涉及到滥用药物、婚外生育、长期失业等“个人缺陷”问题。
③(法)托克维尔，董果良译.论美国的民主[M].北京:商务印书馆,2009:339.
④徐丽敏.国外福利依赖研究综述[J]国外社会科学,2008(6):80.
⑤“贫困女性化”一词最早于1970年代后期由美国学者提出，因为当时的调研显示美国贫困率上升最快的是女户主(women as house-holder)家庭(由低收入或贫困的妇女儿童组成)。到1980年代中期，全美
①Nancy E. Rose.Scapegoating Poor Women: An Analysis of Welfare Reform [J] Journal of Economic Issues,2000(34):143-144.
①Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):196.
②Ibid，199.
①Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annalsof the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):207.
②Rebecca A. London. The role of postsecondary education in Welfare Recipients’ paths to self-sufficiency[J].The Journal of Higher Education,2006(77):477.
③Kathleen M. Shaw. Using Feminist critical policy analysis in the realm of higher education: the case ofwelfare reform as gendered educational policy [J]. The Journal of Higher Education,2004(75):72.
④Ibid，73.
①Rebecca A. London. The role of postsecondary education in Welfare Recipients’ paths to self-sufficiency
②[J].The Journal of Higher Education,2006(77):479.Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annals
③of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):197.Kathleen M. Shaw. Using Feminist critical policy analysis in the realm of higher education: the case of
welfare reform as gendered educational policy [J]. The Journal of Higher Education,2004(75):65.
④Jerry A. Jacobs&Sarah Winslow. Welfare Reform and Enrollment in Postsecondary Education [J]. Annals
of the American Academy of Political and Social Science.2003(586):197-198.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:6.
②刘霓.西方女性学：起源、内涵与发展[M].北京：社会科学文献出版社,2007:5.
③余宁平，杜芳琴.不守规矩的知识：妇女学的全球与区域视界[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2003:82-85.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:50.
⑤Thomas D. Snyder. Digest of Education Statistics:2001[R].NCES,2002:304.
①[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:68-69.
②同上：67.
③Carol T. Christ. Anniversary Lecture: The American University and Women’s Studies[J].Tulsa Studies inWomen’s Literature,1997(16):21.
④[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2006:40.
⑤王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007:194.
①Elizabeth J.Tisdell. Feminist Pedagogies[A]. E Hayes. Women as Learners: the significance of gender inadult learning[C]. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass Press,2002:156.
②转引自：王珺.阅读高等教育[M].天津：天津人民出版社,2007:203.
③[美]玛丽琳J.波塞克著，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时：美国妇女学的创建之路[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:10
④Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:47.
①Sharon L. Davie. University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity [M].Westport:Greenwood Press,2002:52.
②http://www.buwrc.org/about/mission/
③http://www.yale.edu/wc/mission.html
④http://tulane.edu/nccrow/about.cfm
①http://www.barnard.edu/bcrw/about.html
②http://www1.umn.edu/women/about.html
①Beth Willnger. Women’s Centers, Their Missions, and the Process of Change [A]. Sharon L. Davie.University and College Women’s Centers: a journey toward equity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:50.
②Beth Willinger. Mission, Services, and Stakeholders of Campus-Based Women’s Centers[A]. Sharon L.Davie. University and College Women’s Centers: a journey toward equity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:505-506.根据该文整理，有删减。
①Sharon L. Davie.University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equity[M].Westport: GreenwoodPress,2002:388.
①Sharon L. Davie.University and college women’s center: a Journey toward Equit [M].Westport: GreenwoodPress,2002:388.
①Sharon L. Davie. Drawing New Maps [A]. University and College Women’s Centers: a journey towardequity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:5.
②Ibid，449.
①Beth A. Firestein.Empowering ourselves and each other: Counseling services for women at the College andUniversity Women’s Center[A].University and College Women’s Centers: a journey towardequity[C].Westport: Greenwood Press,2002:265.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:34-35.
②Ibid，35.
③Ibid，35.
④Ibid，35.
①http://supreme.justia.com/us/518/515/case.html
②http://supreme.justia.com/us/518/515/case.html
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,
②DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:68.
③Ibid，70.
④Ibid，67.Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,
DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:69.
①Ibid，71.
②E. L.Boyer. College:The undergraduate experience in America(1987)p150,转引自：Lisa W-Wendel. Genderand Higher Education: What should we learn from Women’s Colleges?[A] Gendered Futures in HigherEducation:Critical Perspectives for Change[C].New York: The SUNY Press.2003:38.
③Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:30.
①Harwarth, Irene. Women’s colleges in the United States: History, Issues and Challenges [M]. Washington,DC: U.S. Government Printing Office,1997:83.
②Robert E. Ledman et al. Successful women and Women’s Colleges: is there an intervening variable in thereported relationship?[J]. Sex Roles,1995(33).
③Lisa W-Wendel. Gender and Higher Education: What should we learn from Women’s Colleges?[A]Gendered Futures in Higher Educationc：Critical Perspectives for Change[C].New York: The SUNY Press.2003:41.
①Lisa W-Wendel. Gender and Higher Education: What should we learn from Women’s Colleges?[A]Gendered Futures in Higher Educationc：Critical Perspectives for Change[C].New York: The SUNY Press.2003:44.
①Florence Howe. Myths of Coeducation: selected essay,1964-1983s[M].Bloomington: Indiana universitypress.1984:267.
②杜芳琴.女性观念的衍变[M]郑州：河南人民出版社,1988:388.
③Thomas Woody. A history of women’s education in the United States [M]. New York: The Science Press.1929:viii.
①梁启超.倡设女学堂启,转引自:杜芳琴,王政.中国历史中的妇女与性别[C].天津:天津人民出版社.2004:420.
①严复.论沪上创兴女学堂[A].杜学元等.中国女子教育文萃[C].成都：四川教育出版社,1999:212.
②李琳.《无字》启示录[A].魏国英.教育：性别纬度的审视[C].上海：学林出版社,2007:294.
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①《中华人民共和国宪法》第十八条规定“中华人民共和国妇女在政治的、经济的、文化的和家庭的生活等方面享有同男子平等的权利”。“男女平等”作为中国的一项基本国策，最早是由时任国家主席江泽民，于1995年在第四次世界妇女大会上代表中国政府向国际社会做出的庄严承诺。2005年修订的《妇女权益保障法》第二条则明确规定“实行男女平等是国家的基本国策”。
②（日）矢野真和.张晓鹏等译.高等教育的经济分析与政策[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2006:165.
③http://news.xinhuanet.com/ziliao/2003-09/03/content_1061214.htm
④http://www.gov.cn/zwgk/2011-08/08/content_1920457.htm
①刘小楠.美国女权主义法学平等与差异研究[D].吉林大学博士学位论文,2005:112.
②(美)凯瑟琳·A·麦金农，曲广娣译.迈向女性主义的国家理论[M].北京:中国政法大学出版社,2007:233.
③安树芬.中国女性高等教育的历史与现状研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2002:204.
①史静寰等《首都女大学生现状调查与分析报告》指出，在受访的大学生中，来自城市的女生占全部女生的61.8%，县镇女生占24.8%，而来自农村者仅为13.2%。转引自:安树芬.中国女性高等教育的历史与现状研究[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2002:242-248.
①(美)玛丽琳J波克塞，余宁平等译.当妇女提问时[M].天津:天津人民出版社,2006:10.
②肖巍.女性主义教育观及其实践[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2007:159.
①单艺斌.高等教育大众化背景下女大学生培养的目标与模式[J].中华女子学院山东分院学报，2008（1）：80-81.
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①单艺斌.高等教育大众化背景下女大学生培养的目标与模式[J].中华女子学院山东分院学报，2008（1）：80.
②魏国英等.教育：性别纬度的审视[C].上海:学林出版社,2007:7-8.
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