大学英语课堂教师话语对于学习者输出的影响
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摘要
教师话语是指课堂中教师讲授所使用的语言。《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》把它定义为:“教师在教学过程中有时采用的一种语言。为了达到与学生交际的目的,教师往往把语言简化,使它带有许多外国话的特征或其它简化语言的特征。”在实际教学中,教师话语对任何课堂教学来说都是非常重要的,尤其是英语作为外语的课堂教学。因为EFL课堂教学与其它课堂教学的最大不同点在于语言既是学习的目的,也是教学的媒介。在中国,英语课堂中教师话语不仅是教师执行教学计划的工具,同时也是学习者语言输入的一个重要来源。因此,它在组织课堂教学和学习者语言习得过程中起着至关重要的作用,直接影响着学习者的输出。正如Nunan(1991)指出:“教师话语对课堂教学的组织及学生的语言习得两者都是至为关键的,这不仅因为教学内容只有通过完美的教师话语的组织与传授才能达到理想的教学效果,而且因为它本身还起目的语使用的示范作用,是学生语言输入的又一重要途径。”
国外对第二语言习得研究自20世纪80年代中后期以来关于课堂作为语言环境的研究相当丰富,主要是关于课堂语言,特别是对教师话语及师生互动模式的描述研究,以及对教师话语与语言习得效果的实证研究。但长期以来,英语课堂教学方法、教学内容等一直备受国内英语教师和研究者的重视,而教师话语及有效性却一直未得到应有的重视。
本文以Krashen的可理解性语言输入假说,Swain的可理解性输出理论以及Long的交互假设理论为理论基础,论证教师话语的特点并通过实证研究教师话语对学习者输出的影响,试图解决什么样的输入能得到比较理想的输出这一问题,对教学予以实际帮助。实证研究选取了山东省内某高校非英语专业二年级六个班级的教师和学生作为调查对象,通过对这六位英语教师英语课堂进行观察和录音来收集语料,并把语料转写成文字材料,进而分析每位教师教师话语的显著特点。最后试图根据学生的课堂反应和大学英语四级成绩,回答这样一个问题:什么样的教师话语对学习者输出的影响更为有效?
本研究的结论是:教师话语和学习者输出之间存在种种联系,我们在外语教学中应科学地处理二者的关系。“输入--输出假说”针对二语习得环境提出,对我国的外语教学具有积极意义。外语教师在借鉴输入输出理论来指导我国的外语教学时,应根据我国外语教学的实际,探索适合我国外语教学的方法和模式。教师在教学中既要重视为学生提供足够的语言输入即教师话语,更要重视学生的语言输出,充分发挥输入与输出之间的交互作用。为保证学生得到足够的语言输入,外语教师应精心设计教师话语,强化语言的加工过程;同时应在课堂上实施互动式教学,创造真实的交际环境,提供语言交际的最佳话题,加强师生之间以及学生之间的交流,以此来保证和提高目的语语言输出的质量,达到提高教学效果的目的。
Teacher talk is the language used by teachers in classroom. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines teacher talk as "that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of Foreigner Talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners."
Teacher talk is very important to classroom teaching, especially EFL classroom teaching, because the sharp difference between EFL classroom teaching and other classroom teaching is that language is not only a carrier of teaching forms and methods, but also a most important language learning environment for English learners. In the course of second language teaching and learning, teacher talk is the most important part of language environment in the classroom in which the teacher plays a model role, corrects learners' output and acts as an equal participant as well. Nunan(1991)says teacher talk not only is a tool to impart knowledge, but also serves as a crucial source of input. In China where English is the foreign language and students can find few chances to communicate in English outside English class, classroom is the main place for learners to have regular contact with English and acquire this language. Teachers are responsible for providing adequate comprehensible input and maximizing students' exposure to the target language. The amount and quality of teacher talk in language classroom has a great effect on classroom teaching and is even a decisive factor of the success or failure of it (Hakansson 1986).
Since teacher talk plays such an important role in language teaching, lots of studies about classroom as language environment in the research field of second language acquisition (SLA) has been carried out since the late 1980s. Most of the studies are about classroom language, especially the descriptive studies of teacher talk, the studies of the verbal interaction between teacher and student, and experimental studies of the relationship between teacher talk and language acquisition. But in China, English teachers and researchers paid more attention to teaching method and content for a long time, therefore there were still not enough researches about teacher talk.
This thesis attempts to do some analyses on teacher talk based on the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, Comprehensible Output Hypothesis and Interaction Theory. The purpose is to deal with the problem of what kind of teacher talk will lead to a satisfying output and give some suggestions on how to improve the teacher talk in foreign language teaching. Teachers and students of grade 2 from a normal university in Shandong province are chosen to be the subjects. The college English class of these 6 classes have been observed and recorded to get the data, and then the data have been transcribed. And we can get the characteristics of Teacher Talk of each teacher. And then we can get the answer for what kind of Teacher Talk will lead to a satisfying output by analyzing the students’CET4 results.
It is concluded that there is some relationship between Teacher Talk and Learner Output. We must deal with the relationship between them in an objective and scientific way. And we can draw implications for the foreign language teaching in China from input and output hypothesis. In the practice of teaching, both input and output should be emphasized. We should try to increase the quality of Teacher Talk, and provide more opportunities of output for learners. Thus, we should create interactive classrooms, in which natural environment of communication and suitable communicative topics for interaction are offered. Interactions between the teacher and the students and interactions between the students are also strongly recommended. Consequently, the quality of learners' output and the efficiency of foreign language teaching can be improved.
国外对第二语言习得研究自20世纪80年代中后期以来关于课堂作为语言环境的研究相当丰富,主要是关于课堂语言,特别是对教师话语及师生互动模式的描述研究,以及对教师话语与语言习得效果的实证研究。但长期以来,英语课堂教学方法、教学内容等一直备受国内英语教师和研究者的重视,而教师话语及有效性却一直未得到应有的重视。
本文以Krashen的可理解性语言输入假说,Swain的可理解性输出理论以及Long的交互假设理论为理论基础,论证教师话语的特点并通过实证研究教师话语对学习者输出的影响,试图解决什么样的输入能得到比较理想的输出这一问题,对教学予以实际帮助。实证研究选取了山东省内某高校非英语专业二年级六个班级的教师和学生作为调查对象,通过对这六位英语教师英语课堂进行观察和录音来收集语料,并把语料转写成文字材料,进而分析每位教师教师话语的显著特点。最后试图根据学生的课堂反应和大学英语四级成绩,回答这样一个问题:什么样的教师话语对学习者输出的影响更为有效?
本研究的结论是:教师话语和学习者输出之间存在种种联系,我们在外语教学中应科学地处理二者的关系。“输入--输出假说”针对二语习得环境提出,对我国的外语教学具有积极意义。外语教师在借鉴输入输出理论来指导我国的外语教学时,应根据我国外语教学的实际,探索适合我国外语教学的方法和模式。教师在教学中既要重视为学生提供足够的语言输入即教师话语,更要重视学生的语言输出,充分发挥输入与输出之间的交互作用。为保证学生得到足够的语言输入,外语教师应精心设计教师话语,强化语言的加工过程;同时应在课堂上实施互动式教学,创造真实的交际环境,提供语言交际的最佳话题,加强师生之间以及学生之间的交流,以此来保证和提高目的语语言输出的质量,达到提高教学效果的目的。
Teacher talk is the language used by teachers in classroom. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics defines teacher talk as "that variety of language sometimes used by teachers when they are in the process of teaching. In trying to communicate with learners, teachers often simplify their speech, giving it many of the characteristics of Foreigner Talk and other simplified styles of speech addressed to language learners."
Teacher talk is very important to classroom teaching, especially EFL classroom teaching, because the sharp difference between EFL classroom teaching and other classroom teaching is that language is not only a carrier of teaching forms and methods, but also a most important language learning environment for English learners. In the course of second language teaching and learning, teacher talk is the most important part of language environment in the classroom in which the teacher plays a model role, corrects learners' output and acts as an equal participant as well. Nunan(1991)says teacher talk not only is a tool to impart knowledge, but also serves as a crucial source of input. In China where English is the foreign language and students can find few chances to communicate in English outside English class, classroom is the main place for learners to have regular contact with English and acquire this language. Teachers are responsible for providing adequate comprehensible input and maximizing students' exposure to the target language. The amount and quality of teacher talk in language classroom has a great effect on classroom teaching and is even a decisive factor of the success or failure of it (Hakansson 1986).
Since teacher talk plays such an important role in language teaching, lots of studies about classroom as language environment in the research field of second language acquisition (SLA) has been carried out since the late 1980s. Most of the studies are about classroom language, especially the descriptive studies of teacher talk, the studies of the verbal interaction between teacher and student, and experimental studies of the relationship between teacher talk and language acquisition. But in China, English teachers and researchers paid more attention to teaching method and content for a long time, therefore there were still not enough researches about teacher talk.
This thesis attempts to do some analyses on teacher talk based on the Comprehensible Input Hypothesis, Comprehensible Output Hypothesis and Interaction Theory. The purpose is to deal with the problem of what kind of teacher talk will lead to a satisfying output and give some suggestions on how to improve the teacher talk in foreign language teaching. Teachers and students of grade 2 from a normal university in Shandong province are chosen to be the subjects. The college English class of these 6 classes have been observed and recorded to get the data, and then the data have been transcribed. And we can get the characteristics of Teacher Talk of each teacher. And then we can get the answer for what kind of Teacher Talk will lead to a satisfying output by analyzing the students’CET4 results.
It is concluded that there is some relationship between Teacher Talk and Learner Output. We must deal with the relationship between them in an objective and scientific way. And we can draw implications for the foreign language teaching in China from input and output hypothesis. In the practice of teaching, both input and output should be emphasized. We should try to increase the quality of Teacher Talk, and provide more opportunities of output for learners. Thus, we should create interactive classrooms, in which natural environment of communication and suitable communicative topics for interaction are offered. Interactions between the teacher and the students and interactions between the students are also strongly recommended. Consequently, the quality of learners' output and the efficiency of foreign language teaching can be improved.
引文
Allwright, D.,&Bailey, K. M. Focus on the language classroom: An introduction to classroom research for language teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.1991
Allwright, D. The importance of interaction in classroom language learning. Applied Linguistics, 5. 1984
Anton, M.The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives on teacher-learner interaction in the second-language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 1999
BIau,E.The effects of syntax, speed and pauses on listening comprehension. TESOL Quarterly. 1990
Brock, C. The effect of referential questions on ESL classroom discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 1986.
Brophy, J. Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Fundational Research, 51. 1981.
Chaudron, C. A descriptive model of discourse in the corrective treatment of learner's errors. Language Learning, 27. 1977.
Chaudron, C. Foreigner-talk in the classroom--an aid to learning. In Selinger, H. and M. Long (eds.) Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.1983.
Chaudron, C. Second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.
Cullen, R. Teacher Talk and the Classroom Context. ELT Journal 1998 Vo1.52/3:117-127
Cook.V. Inside Language. London: Edward Arnold. 1996.
Cook,V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press&Edward Arnold Limited, 2000.
Derwing,T. What speaking rates do non-native listeners prefer. Applied Linguistics.2001.
Ellis, R. The role of input in language acquisition: some implications for secondlanguage teaching Applied Linguistics, 2. 1981.
Ellis, R. Classroom Second Language Development: a Study of Classroom Interaction and Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1984.
Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acguisition. Oxford University Press. 1985.
Ellis, R. (eds.). Second Language Acquisition in Context. Englewood Cliffs: Pretic-Hall. 1987.
Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.1994.
Gaies, S. Linguistic input in first and second language learning [A]. In Eckman and Hastings (eds.). Studies in first and second language acquisition [C]. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1979.
Hakansson, G. Quantitative aspects of Teacher Talk In G. Kasper ed. Learning, Teaching and Communication in the Foreign Language Classroom, 83-98. Aarhus, Denmark Press 1986
Henzl Vera M. Foreign talk in the classroom. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 1979
Izumi, S., and M. Bigelow. Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2000 (34): 239-278.
Krashen, S. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon, 1981.
Krashen, S, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.1982.
Krashen, S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. New York: Longman Inc. 1985
Krashen, S. We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal. 1989.
Long, M. H. Questions in foreigner talk discourse [J]. Language Learning, 1981, 31
Long, M. H. Teacher Feedback on Learner Error: Mapping Cognitions. In H.D. Brown, C. Yrio,&R.H. Crymes (eds.). TESOL Teaching and Learning, 1977.
Long, M. Input, interaction and second language acquisition. PhD dissertation. University of California at Los Angeles. 1980.
Long, M. H. Native speaker/nonnative speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 1983 a.
Long, M.H. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition [A]. Ritchie, W. and T. Bhatia. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition [C]. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1996.
Long, M.&Sato, Classroom Foreigner Talk Discourse: Forms and Function of Teachers’Questions. In Seliger,H and Long,M(eds.). Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. 1983
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analysis for language Teachers[M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press, 2002.
Moskowitz, G. Interaction analysis---a new modern language for supervisors. Foreign Language Annals, 1971.
Moskowitz, G. The classroom interaction of outstanding foreign language teachers. Foreign Language Annals, 9. 1976.
Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc, 1987.
Nunan D. The Questions Teachers Ask. JALT, 1990.
Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. 1991.
Nunan, D. Second Language Teaching and Learning [M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.
Nunan,D Research Methods in Language Learning [M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2002
Oxford, R. L. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: Heinle&Heinle. 1990.
Pica, T. &M. H. Long. The Linguistic and Conversational Performance ofExperienced and Inexperienced teachers. In R. R Day (eds.). Talking to Learn: Conversation in Second Language Acquisition, Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1986.
Pica, T. Second language acquisition, social interaction, and the classroom. Applied Linguistics, 1987.
Pica, T. Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes [J]. Language Learning, 44: 493-527. 1994.
Richard, J &Lockhart C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms [M].Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Richards, J. C. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching& Applied Linguistics [Z]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1992.
Seliger, H. W. Does practice make perfect? A study of interaction patterns and L2 competence. Language Learning, 27: 263-78. 1977.
Seliger, H. W.&E. Shahamy. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: OUP 1989.
Sinclair, J.&Couthard, M. Towards an Analysis of Discourse: the English Used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
Swain, M. Communicative competence: some roles for comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In Gass and Madden (eds.). Input in Second Language acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1985.
Swain, M. `The output hypothesis: just speaking and writing aren't enough.' The Canadian Modern Language Review 1993.
Swain, M. Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook and Seidhofer (eds.). Principles and Practice in Applied Lingusitics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Thomas, M. Language Teacher Competence and Language Teacher Education. ELT Documents. 125: 33-42. 1987.
Thornbury, S. Teachers research Teacher Talk. ELT Journal, 50/4: 279-89. 1996.
Van Lier,L. The Classroom and the Language Learner. London: Longman. 1988
Walsh, S. Construction or obstruction: Teacher talk and learner involvement in theclassroom. Language Teaching Research, 2002.
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Allwright, D. The importance of interaction in classroom language learning. Applied Linguistics, 5. 1984
Anton, M.The discourse of a learner-centered classroom: Sociocultural perspectives on teacher-learner interaction in the second-language classroom. The Modern Language Journal 1999
BIau,E.The effects of syntax, speed and pauses on listening comprehension. TESOL Quarterly. 1990
Brock, C. The effect of referential questions on ESL classroom discourse. TESOL Quarterly, 1986.
Brophy, J. Teacher praise: A functional analysis. Review of Fundational Research, 51. 1981.
Chaudron, C. A descriptive model of discourse in the corrective treatment of learner's errors. Language Learning, 27. 1977.
Chaudron, C. Foreigner-talk in the classroom--an aid to learning. In Selinger, H. and M. Long (eds.) Classroom oriented research in second language acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House.1983.
Chaudron, C. Second language classrooms. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1988.
Cullen, R. Teacher Talk and the Classroom Context. ELT Journal 1998 Vo1.52/3:117-127
Cook.V. Inside Language. London: Edward Arnold. 1996.
Cook,V. Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press&Edward Arnold Limited, 2000.
Derwing,T. What speaking rates do non-native listeners prefer. Applied Linguistics.2001.
Ellis, R. The role of input in language acquisition: some implications for secondlanguage teaching Applied Linguistics, 2. 1981.
Ellis, R. Classroom Second Language Development: a Study of Classroom Interaction and Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. 1984.
Ellis, R. Understanding Second Language Acguisition. Oxford University Press. 1985.
Ellis, R. (eds.). Second Language Acquisition in Context. Englewood Cliffs: Pretic-Hall. 1987.
Ellis, R. The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.1994.
Gaies, S. Linguistic input in first and second language learning [A]. In Eckman and Hastings (eds.). Studies in first and second language acquisition [C]. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1979.
Hakansson, G. Quantitative aspects of Teacher Talk In G. Kasper ed. Learning, Teaching and Communication in the Foreign Language Classroom, 83-98. Aarhus, Denmark Press 1986
Henzl Vera M. Foreign talk in the classroom. International Review of Applied Linguistics. 1979
Izumi, S., and M. Bigelow. Does output promote noticing and second language acquisition? [J]. TESOL Quarterly,2000 (34): 239-278.
Krashen, S. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning [M]. Oxford: Pergamon, 1981.
Krashen, S, Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon.1982.
Krashen, S. The Input Hypothesis: Issues and Implications. New York: Longman Inc. 1985
Krashen, S. We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: additional evidence for the input hypothesis. Modern Language Journal. 1989.
Long, M. H. Questions in foreigner talk discourse [J]. Language Learning, 1981, 31
Long, M. H. Teacher Feedback on Learner Error: Mapping Cognitions. In H.D. Brown, C. Yrio,&R.H. Crymes (eds.). TESOL Teaching and Learning, 1977.
Long, M. Input, interaction and second language acquisition. PhD dissertation. University of California at Los Angeles. 1980.
Long, M. H. Native speaker/nonnative speaker conversation and the negotiation of comprehensible input. Applied Linguistics, 1983 a.
Long, M.H. The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition [A]. Ritchie, W. and T. Bhatia. Handbook of Second Language Acquisition [C]. San Diego: Academic Press, Inc., 1996.
Long, M.&Sato, Classroom Foreigner Talk Discourse: Forms and Function of Teachers’Questions. In Seliger,H and Long,M(eds.). Classroom-oriented Research in Second Language Acquisition. Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. 1983
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers [M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1991
McCarthy, M. Discourse Analysis for language Teachers[M]. Shanghai Foreign Language Teaching Press, 2002.
Moskowitz, G. Interaction analysis---a new modern language for supervisors. Foreign Language Annals, 1971.
Moskowitz, G. The classroom interaction of outstanding foreign language teachers. Foreign Language Annals, 9. 1976.
Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc, 1987.
Nunan D. The Questions Teachers Ask. JALT, 1990.
Nunan, D. Language Teaching Methodology: A Textbook for Teachers. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Inc. 1991.
Nunan, D. Second Language Teaching and Learning [M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2001.
Nunan,D Research Methods in Language Learning [M]. Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 2002
Oxford, R. L. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. Boston: Heinle&Heinle. 1990.
Pica, T. &M. H. Long. The Linguistic and Conversational Performance ofExperienced and Inexperienced teachers. In R. R Day (eds.). Talking to Learn: Conversation in Second Language Acquisition, Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1986.
Pica, T. Second language acquisition, social interaction, and the classroom. Applied Linguistics, 1987.
Pica, T. Research on negotiation: What does it reveal about second language learning conditions, processes, and outcomes [J]. Language Learning, 44: 493-527. 1994.
Richard, J &Lockhart C. Reflective Teaching in Second Language Classrooms [M].Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 1996.
Richards, J. C. Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching& Applied Linguistics [Z]. Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, 1992.
Seliger, H. W. Does practice make perfect? A study of interaction patterns and L2 competence. Language Learning, 27: 263-78. 1977.
Seliger, H. W.&E. Shahamy. Second Language Research Methods. Oxford: OUP 1989.
Sinclair, J.&Couthard, M. Towards an Analysis of Discourse: the English Used by Teachers and Pupils. London: Oxford University Press, 1975.
Swain, M. Communicative competence: some roles for comprehensible input and comprehensible output in its development. In Gass and Madden (eds.). Input in Second Language acquisition. Rowley, Mass.: Newbury House, 1985.
Swain, M. `The output hypothesis: just speaking and writing aren't enough.' The Canadian Modern Language Review 1993.
Swain, M. Three functions of output in second language learning. In Cook and Seidhofer (eds.). Principles and Practice in Applied Lingusitics. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995.
Thomas, M. Language Teacher Competence and Language Teacher Education. ELT Documents. 125: 33-42. 1987.
Thornbury, S. Teachers research Teacher Talk. ELT Journal, 50/4: 279-89. 1996.
Van Lier,L. The Classroom and the Language Learner. London: Longman. 1988
Walsh, S. Construction or obstruction: Teacher talk and learner involvement in theclassroom. Language Teaching Research, 2002.
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