山西乡宁地区葡萄采收时间对葡萄及葡萄酒酚类物质与抗氧化活性影响
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摘要
山西省乡宁县为中国一个新兴的葡萄与葡萄酒产区,其独特的气候条件受到国内外葡萄酒行业人士的关注。该地区葡萄酒产业刚刚起步,一切仍在完善与探索之中。本研究旨在为当地酿酒葡萄最佳采收期的确定提供研究基础。本研究以山西省乡宁县赤霞珠与梅尔诺两个葡萄品种为实验材料,按时间段进行6次采样,同时将各时期采摘的葡萄用相同的酿造工艺酿成酒度为12度的干型葡萄酒,并对其基本理化成分进行分析。另外对各采收期葡萄果皮、种子以及葡萄酒中的酚类物质(总酚,总类黄酮,总黄烷醇及总花色苷)与抗氧化活性(DPPH清除力,铜离子还原力,铁氰化钾还原力,羟自由基清除力及金属螯合力)进行评估。最后使用主成份分析法对葡萄与葡萄酒中基本理化成分、酚类物质含量及抗氧化活性进行综合评价,从而确定这两个葡萄品种在山西省乡宁县地区的最佳采收期。实验过程中发现该地区葡萄有皱缩(Berry shrivel)现象,这种现象在国际上已经引起了极大的关注,本实验也对其进行了研究。试验取得以下主要结果:
(1)使用1%盐酸酸化的80%甲醇溶液分别提取两个品种果皮及种子中的酚类物质,分别使用福临-肖卡法、亚硝酸盐-氯化铝法、p-DMACA法、pH示差法测定了果皮与种子中的总酚、类黄酮、总黄烷醇及总花色苷含量。同时使用DPPH清除力,铜离子还原力,铁氰化钾还原力,羟自由基清除力及金属螯合力五种方法来测定葡萄果实的抗氧化能力,再结合葡萄果实的基本理化成分,利用主成份分析法对各采收期的葡萄果实进行综合评价。结果表明:赤霞珠果实综合品质排名依次为CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 9-26,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 10-6;梅尔诺果实综合品质排名依次为ML 10-6,ML 10-9,ML 9-30,ML 9-26,ML 9-21,ML 9-16。
(2)分别使用福林-肖卡法、亚硝酸盐-氯化铝法、p-DMACA法、pH示差法测定了不同采收期葡萄酒中总酚、类黄酮、总黄烷醇以及总花色苷含量。同时使用DPPH清除力、铜离子还原力、铁氰化钾还原力、羟自由基清除力四种抗氧化方法,来反映各采收期葡萄酒的抗氧化能力。最后结合葡萄酒的基本理化成分,利用主成份分析法对两品种各采收期的葡萄酒进行综合评价。结果表明:赤霞珠葡萄酒综合品质排名为:CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 10-6,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 9-26;梅尔诺葡萄酒综合品质排名为:ML 10-9,ML 10-6,ML 9-16,ML 9-30,ML 9-21,ML 9-26。
(3)赤霞珠为晚熟品种,但研究结果显示,其葡萄与葡萄酒综合评价值均在9月16日最高。可能在葡萄不能完全成熟情况下,较早采收对赤霞珠葡萄酒更有利。梅尔诺为中晚熟品种,对其果实与葡萄酒的研究表明,葡萄果实在10月6日综合评价值最高,葡萄酒在10月9日评价值最高,所以该品种在山西乡宁县地区的最佳采收期应在10月6日至9日左右。
(4)浆果皱缩(Berry shrivel)是在转色期以后发生的一种浆果生理失调现象。目前该现象已在世界范围内发现并会影响葡萄与葡萄酒的质量。但是,到目前为止,这种现象在中国未见报道。本实验的目的在于研究山西乡宁县葡萄在果实皱缩期间其酚类物质及抗氧化活性变化。研究结果显示:皱缩会导致果实基本成分诸如糖、酸浓度的增加;适度皱缩有益于葡萄中酚类物质浓度及抗氧化活性的提高,但是深度皱缩会使抗氧化能力显著降低。另外,由于所受光照程度不同,皱缩对阴面葡萄与阳面葡萄中酚类物质、抗氧化活性的影响不同。
The Xiangning County, Shanxi Province is a nascent producing area for grape and wine, and being focused on by a great number of grape and wine researchers due to its unique condition in geography and climate. However, its wine industry is still at an initial stage and everything is being fumbling for. The purpose of this study was to provide academic guidance for local wine production. In this research, two genotypes of grape varieties, Cabernet Sauvignon (sampling at Sep. 16, 21, 26 and 30, Oct. 6 and 15, 2010) and Merlot (sampling at Sep. 16, 21, 26 and 30, Oct. 6 and 9, 2010) were chosen as experimental materials, and used to make dry wine (about 12%) through the same technology. In addition, the physicochemical propoties of these wines were detected. Then, the grape skins, seeds and wine from these two varieties harvested at different time were studied for their phenolic compounds, such as total phenolics, total flavonoid, total flavanol and total anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity using several assays based on different characteristics, such as DPPH scavenging capacity, cupric reducing power, Potassium ferricyanide reducing activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and metal chelating capacity. And optimal harvest time about the two varieties in Xiangning County was identified through analyzing all these indicators using the principal component analysis. Moreover, it was found that the berry shrivel (BS) phenomenon, which has aroused great concern, also occurred in Xiangning County. In this research, the BS was studied for its impact on phenolics and antioxidant capacity of grape berries. The primary conclusions were as follows:
(1) Phenolic compounds were extracted from grape skins and seeds using acidified methanol (1 M HCl in 80% methanol), respectively. The extracts solution was used to analyze total phenolics, total flavonoid, total flavanol and total anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity using several assays mentioned above. Then combined with basic physicochemical composition, we applied the method of the principal component analysis to make comprehensive evaluation of the quality of each grape sample from different harvest time. The results show that grape quality was in the decreasing order as follows: Cabernet Sauvigon, CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 9-26,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 10-6; Merlot, ML 10-6,ML 10-9,ML 9-30,ML 9-26,ML 9-21,ML 9-16.
(2) All wine samples were used to analyze penenolic compounds and antioxidant activity using several assays mentioned above. Then combined with basic physicochemical composition in each wine sample, we applied the method of the principal component analysis to make comprehensive evaluation of the quality of each wine sample from different harvest time. The results show that wine quality was in the decreasing order as follows: Cabernet Sauvigon, CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 10-6,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 9-26; Merlot, ML 10-9,ML 10-6,ML 9-16,ML 9-30,ML 9-21,ML 9-26.
(3) Cabernet Sauvignon is a late-mature cultivars, however, the optimal harvest time for Cabernet Sauvignon is about Sep. 16 according with the study on grape and wine mentioned above. It is more beneficial to wine quality that Cabernet Sauvignon was harvested earlierly when it is impossble to reach complete maturity. Merlot is middle-late mature varieties, and the optimal harvest time for Merlot is about Oct. 6～9 according with the study on grape and wine mentioned above.
(4) Berry shrivel (BS), a berry development disorder, appears soon after veraison. It occurs worldwide and affects the quality of grape berries and wine. However, it had not been reported in China until recently. This study aimed to investigate the changes in berry composition and antioxidant activity of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from Xiangning Valley, Shanxi Province, China, during BS. Shrinkage contributed to an increase in the concentration of basic grape ingredients such as sugar and acid. An appropriate degree of shrinkage was apparently helpful in improving the phenolic content and increasing the antioxidant activity, but the berries that continued to shrivel showed a low antioxidant activity. Further, the results indicated distinct differences between the berries harvested from the southern side of the canopy and those harvested from the northern side, presumably due to variations in sunlight exposure.
(1)使用1%盐酸酸化的80%甲醇溶液分别提取两个品种果皮及种子中的酚类物质,分别使用福临-肖卡法、亚硝酸盐-氯化铝法、p-DMACA法、pH示差法测定了果皮与种子中的总酚、类黄酮、总黄烷醇及总花色苷含量。同时使用DPPH清除力,铜离子还原力,铁氰化钾还原力,羟自由基清除力及金属螯合力五种方法来测定葡萄果实的抗氧化能力,再结合葡萄果实的基本理化成分,利用主成份分析法对各采收期的葡萄果实进行综合评价。结果表明:赤霞珠果实综合品质排名依次为CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 9-26,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 10-6;梅尔诺果实综合品质排名依次为ML 10-6,ML 10-9,ML 9-30,ML 9-26,ML 9-21,ML 9-16。
(2)分别使用福林-肖卡法、亚硝酸盐-氯化铝法、p-DMACA法、pH示差法测定了不同采收期葡萄酒中总酚、类黄酮、总黄烷醇以及总花色苷含量。同时使用DPPH清除力、铜离子还原力、铁氰化钾还原力、羟自由基清除力四种抗氧化方法,来反映各采收期葡萄酒的抗氧化能力。最后结合葡萄酒的基本理化成分,利用主成份分析法对两品种各采收期的葡萄酒进行综合评价。结果表明:赤霞珠葡萄酒综合品质排名为:CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 10-6,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 9-26;梅尔诺葡萄酒综合品质排名为:ML 10-9,ML 10-6,ML 9-16,ML 9-30,ML 9-21,ML 9-26。
(3)赤霞珠为晚熟品种,但研究结果显示,其葡萄与葡萄酒综合评价值均在9月16日最高。可能在葡萄不能完全成熟情况下,较早采收对赤霞珠葡萄酒更有利。梅尔诺为中晚熟品种,对其果实与葡萄酒的研究表明,葡萄果实在10月6日综合评价值最高,葡萄酒在10月9日评价值最高,所以该品种在山西乡宁县地区的最佳采收期应在10月6日至9日左右。
(4)浆果皱缩(Berry shrivel)是在转色期以后发生的一种浆果生理失调现象。目前该现象已在世界范围内发现并会影响葡萄与葡萄酒的质量。但是,到目前为止,这种现象在中国未见报道。本实验的目的在于研究山西乡宁县葡萄在果实皱缩期间其酚类物质及抗氧化活性变化。研究结果显示:皱缩会导致果实基本成分诸如糖、酸浓度的增加;适度皱缩有益于葡萄中酚类物质浓度及抗氧化活性的提高,但是深度皱缩会使抗氧化能力显著降低。另外,由于所受光照程度不同,皱缩对阴面葡萄与阳面葡萄中酚类物质、抗氧化活性的影响不同。
The Xiangning County, Shanxi Province is a nascent producing area for grape and wine, and being focused on by a great number of grape and wine researchers due to its unique condition in geography and climate. However, its wine industry is still at an initial stage and everything is being fumbling for. The purpose of this study was to provide academic guidance for local wine production. In this research, two genotypes of grape varieties, Cabernet Sauvignon (sampling at Sep. 16, 21, 26 and 30, Oct. 6 and 15, 2010) and Merlot (sampling at Sep. 16, 21, 26 and 30, Oct. 6 and 9, 2010) were chosen as experimental materials, and used to make dry wine (about 12%) through the same technology. In addition, the physicochemical propoties of these wines were detected. Then, the grape skins, seeds and wine from these two varieties harvested at different time were studied for their phenolic compounds, such as total phenolics, total flavonoid, total flavanol and total anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity using several assays based on different characteristics, such as DPPH scavenging capacity, cupric reducing power, Potassium ferricyanide reducing activity, hydroxyl radical scavenging activity and metal chelating capacity. And optimal harvest time about the two varieties in Xiangning County was identified through analyzing all these indicators using the principal component analysis. Moreover, it was found that the berry shrivel (BS) phenomenon, which has aroused great concern, also occurred in Xiangning County. In this research, the BS was studied for its impact on phenolics and antioxidant capacity of grape berries. The primary conclusions were as follows:
(1) Phenolic compounds were extracted from grape skins and seeds using acidified methanol (1 M HCl in 80% methanol), respectively. The extracts solution was used to analyze total phenolics, total flavonoid, total flavanol and total anthocyanin, and antioxidant activity using several assays mentioned above. Then combined with basic physicochemical composition, we applied the method of the principal component analysis to make comprehensive evaluation of the quality of each grape sample from different harvest time. The results show that grape quality was in the decreasing order as follows: Cabernet Sauvigon, CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 9-26,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 10-6; Merlot, ML 10-6,ML 10-9,ML 9-30,ML 9-26,ML 9-21,ML 9-16.
(2) All wine samples were used to analyze penenolic compounds and antioxidant activity using several assays mentioned above. Then combined with basic physicochemical composition in each wine sample, we applied the method of the principal component analysis to make comprehensive evaluation of the quality of each wine sample from different harvest time. The results show that wine quality was in the decreasing order as follows: Cabernet Sauvigon, CS 9-16,CS 9-21,CS 10-6,CS 10-15,CS 9-30,CS 9-26; Merlot, ML 10-9,ML 10-6,ML 9-16,ML 9-30,ML 9-21,ML 9-26.
(3) Cabernet Sauvignon is a late-mature cultivars, however, the optimal harvest time for Cabernet Sauvignon is about Sep. 16 according with the study on grape and wine mentioned above. It is more beneficial to wine quality that Cabernet Sauvignon was harvested earlierly when it is impossble to reach complete maturity. Merlot is middle-late mature varieties, and the optimal harvest time for Merlot is about Oct. 6～9 according with the study on grape and wine mentioned above.
(4) Berry shrivel (BS), a berry development disorder, appears soon after veraison. It occurs worldwide and affects the quality of grape berries and wine. However, it had not been reported in China until recently. This study aimed to investigate the changes in berry composition and antioxidant activity of Cabernet Sauvignon grapes from Xiangning Valley, Shanxi Province, China, during BS. Shrinkage contributed to an increase in the concentration of basic grape ingredients such as sugar and acid. An appropriate degree of shrinkage was apparently helpful in improving the phenolic content and increasing the antioxidant activity, but the berries that continued to shrivel showed a low antioxidant activity. Further, the results indicated distinct differences between the berries harvested from the southern side of the canopy and those harvested from the northern side, presumably due to variations in sunlight exposure.
引文
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Frankel E, Kanner J, German J B, Parks E, Kinsella J E. 1993. Inhibition of oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine. Lancet, 341:454~457
Gawel R. 1998. Red wine astringency: A review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 4:74~95.
Gems D, Partridge L. 2008. Stress-response hormesis and aging: that which does not kill us makes us stronger. Cell Metabolism, 7(3):200~203
Giovanelli G, Brenna O V. 2007. Evolution of some phenolic components, carotenoids and chlorophylls during ripening of three Italian grape varieties. European Food Research and Technology, 225:145~150
González-Manzano S, Julián C. Rivas-Gonzalo, Celestino Santos-Buelga. 2004. Extraction of flavan-3-ols from grape seed and skin into wine using simulated maceration. Analytica Chimica Acta, 513:283~289
González-SanjoséM L, Barrón L J R, Junquera B, Robredo L M. 1991. Application of principal component analysis to ripening indices for wine grapes. Journal of Food Composition and Analasis, 4:245~255
Hanlin R L, Downey M O. 2009. Condensed tannin accumulation and composition in skin of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes during berry development. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 60:13~23
Harbertson J, Kennedy J, Adams D. 2002. Tannins in skins and seeds of Cabernet sauvignon, Syrah and Pinot noir berries during ripening. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:54~59
Hufnagel J C, Hofmann T. 2008. Orosensory-directed identification of astringent mouthfeel and bitter-tasting compounds in red wine. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 56:1376~1386
Jayaprakasha G K, Singh R P, Sakariah K K. 2001. Antioxidant activity of grape seed (Vitis vinifera) extracts on peroxidation models in vitro. Food Chemistry, 73:285~290
Jordao A M, Ricardo da S J M, Laureano O. 1998. Evolution of anthocyanins during grape maturation of two varieties (Vitis vinifera L.) Castelao Frances and Touriga Francesa. Vitis, 37:93~94
Kennedy J A, Hayasaka Y, Vidal S, Waters E J, Jones G P. 2001. Composition of grape skin tannins at different stages of berry development. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 49:5348~5355
Kennedy J A, Matthews M A, Waterhouse A L. 2000. Changes in grape seeds polyphenols during fruit ripening. Phytochemistry, 55:77~85
Krasnow M, Weis N, Smith R J, Benz M J, Matthews M, Shackel K. 2009. Inception, progression, and compositional consequences of a berry shrivel disorder. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 60: 24~34
Lee Y J, Shacter E. 1999. Oxidative stress inhibits apoptosis in human lymphoma cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274 (28):19792~19798
Lelli J L, Becks L L, Dabrowska M I, Hinshaw D B. 1998. ATP converts necrosis to apoptosis in oxidant-injured endothelial cells. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 25 (6):694~702
Li YG, Tanner G, Larkin P. 1996. The DMACA-HCl protocol and the threshold proanthocyanidin content for bloat safety in forage legumes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 70:89~101
Makris D P, Kallithraka S, KefalasP. 2006. Flavonols in grapes, grape products and wines: Burden, profileand influential parameters. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19:396~404
Monagas M, BartoloméB, Gómez-Cordovés C. 2005. Evolution of polyphenols in red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during aging in the bottle. European Food Research Technology, 220:331~340
Nadal M, Hunter J J. 2007. Different wine styles as related to ripeness level of Syrah/R99 grapes. In: 59th German Viticulture Congress. Stuttgart, Germany: Intervitis-Interfructa
Ojeda H, Andary C, Kraeva E, Carbonneau A, Deloire A. 2002. In(?)uence of pre- and post-veraison on water deficit, synthesis and concentration of skin phenolic compounds during berry growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:261~267
Pannala A S, Chan T S, O’Brien P J, Rice-Evans C A. 2001. Flavonoid B-ring chemistry and antioxidant activity: fast reaction kinetics. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 282:1161~1168
Peinado J, de Lerma N L, Moreno J, Peinado R A. Antioxidant activity of different phenolics fractions isolated in must from Pedro Ximenez grapes at different stages of the off-vine drying process. Food Chemistry, 114:1050~1055
Pérez-Magari(?)o S, González-San J M L. 2004. Evolution of flavanols, anthocyanins, and their derivatives during the aging of red wines elaborated from grapes harvested at different stages of ripening. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52:1181~1189
Pérez-Magari(?)o S, González-San J M L. 2005. Effect of ripening stage of grapes on the low molecular weight phenolic compounds of red wines. European Food Research and Technology, 220:597~606
Prasad K N, Yang B, Shi J, Yu C, Zhao M, Xue S, Jiang Y. 2010. Enhanced antioxidant and antityrosinase activities of longan fruit pericarp by ultra-high-pressure-assisted extraction. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analasis, 51: 471~477
Ramey D, Bertrand A, Ough C S, Singleton V L, Sanders E. 1986. Effects of skin contact temperature on Chardonnay must and wine composition. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37:99~106
Ribéreau-Gayon P, Glories Y, Maujean, A, Dubourdieu D. 2000. The chemistry of wine and stabilization and treatments. In: Handbook of enology. Vol 2. New York: Wiley-Blackwell Group. Rice-Evans C A, Miller N J, Paganga G. 1996. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 20:933~956
Ristic R, Downey M O, Iland P G, Bindon K, Francis I L, Herderich M, Robinson S P. 2007. Exclusion of sunlight from Shiraz grapes alters wine colour, tannin and sensory properties. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 13:53~65
Rietveld A, Wiseman S. Antioxidant effects of tea: evidence from human clinical trials. Journal of Nutrition, 133 (10):3285S~3292S.
Rivero-Pérez M D, Mu(?)iz P, González-SanjoséM L. 2008. Contribution of anthocyanin fraction to the antioxidant properties of wine. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46:2815~2822
Robredo L M, Junquera B, González-SanjoséM L, Barrón L J. 1991. Biochemical events during ripening of grape berries. Italian Journal of Food Science, 3:173~180
Rodriguez-Amaya D. 2003. Food carotenoids: analysis, composition and alterations during storage and processing of foods. Forum of Nutrition, 56:35~37
Rogiers S Y, Greer D H, Hatfield J M, Orchard B A, Keller M. 2006. Solute transport into Shiraz berries during development and late-ripening shrinkage. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture,57:73~80
Salinas R, Zalacain A, Pardo F, Alonso J L. 2004. Stir bar sorptive extraction applied to volatile constituents evolution during Vitis vinifera ripening. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52:4821~4827
Sethuramasamyraja B, Sachidhanantham S, Yen M, Wample R. 2007. Interpolation of wine grape quality indicators (anthocyanin and Brix) and development of differential harvest attachment. Am Soc Agric Bio Eng Michigan, ASAE Annual Meeting
Smith R, Berry Shrivel. 2003. UCCE Sonoma County. http://cesonoma.ucdavis.edu/files/45904.pdf Somers T C, Evans M E. 1977. Spectral Evaluation of young red wines: anthocyanin equilibria, total phenolics, free and molecular SO2,“Chemical Age”. Journal of the science of food and agriculture. 28:279~287
Spayd S E, Tarara J M, Mee D L, Ferguson J C. 2002. Separation of sunlight and temperature effects on the composition of Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot berries. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:171~182
Stoclet J C, Kleschyov A, Andriambeloson E, Dielbolt M, Andriantsitohaina R. 1999. Endothelial no release caused by red wine polyphenols. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 50:535~540
Stojanovic J, Silva J L. 2007. Influence of osmotic concentration, continuous high frequency ultrasound and dehydration on antioxidants, colour and chemical properties of rabbiteye blueberries. Food Chemistry, 101:898~906
Tang X, He Z, Dai Y, Xiong Y L, Xie M, Chen J. 2010. Peptide fractionation and free radical scavenging activity of zein hydrolysate. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 58:587~593
Thorngate J H. 1997. The physiology of human sensory response to wine: a review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48: 271~ 279
Tsai P J, Huang H P, Huang T C. 2004. Relationship between anthocyanin patterns and antioxidant capacity in mulberry wine during storage. Journal of Food Quality, 27:497~505
Valko M, Morris H, Cronin M T.. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12(10):1161~1208.
Xianquan S, Shi J, Kakuda Y, Yueming J. 2005. Stability of lycopene during food processing and storage". Journal of Medical Food, 8 (4): 413~422
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Fernandez-Lopez J A, Almela L, Mu(?)óz J A. 1999. Hidalgo V and Carre(?)o J, Dependence between colour and individual anthocyanin content in ripening grapes. Food Research International, 31:667~672
Fernández-de-Simón B, Estrella I, Hernández T. 1993. Phenolic composition of white grapes (var. Airen). Changes during ripening. Food Chemistry, 47:47~52
Frankel E, Kanner J, German J B, Parks E, Kinsella J E. 1993. Inhibition of oxidation of human low-density lipoprotein by phenolic substances in red wine. Lancet, 341:454~457
Gawel R. 1998. Red wine astringency: A review. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 4:74~95.
Gems D, Partridge L. 2008. Stress-response hormesis and aging: that which does not kill us makes us stronger. Cell Metabolism, 7(3):200~203
Giovanelli G, Brenna O V. 2007. Evolution of some phenolic components, carotenoids and chlorophylls during ripening of three Italian grape varieties. European Food Research and Technology, 225:145~150
González-Manzano S, Julián C. Rivas-Gonzalo, Celestino Santos-Buelga. 2004. Extraction of flavan-3-ols from grape seed and skin into wine using simulated maceration. Analytica Chimica Acta, 513:283~289
González-SanjoséM L, Barrón L J R, Junquera B, Robredo L M. 1991. Application of principal component analysis to ripening indices for wine grapes. Journal of Food Composition and Analasis, 4:245~255
Hanlin R L, Downey M O. 2009. Condensed tannin accumulation and composition in skin of Shiraz and Cabernet Sauvignon grapes during berry development. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 60:13~23
Harbertson J, Kennedy J, Adams D. 2002. Tannins in skins and seeds of Cabernet sauvignon, Syrah and Pinot noir berries during ripening. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:54~59
Hufnagel J C, Hofmann T. 2008. Orosensory-directed identification of astringent mouthfeel and bitter-tasting compounds in red wine. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 56:1376~1386
Jayaprakasha G K, Singh R P, Sakariah K K. 2001. Antioxidant activity of grape seed (Vitis vinifera) extracts on peroxidation models in vitro. Food Chemistry, 73:285~290
Jordao A M, Ricardo da S J M, Laureano O. 1998. Evolution of anthocyanins during grape maturation of two varieties (Vitis vinifera L.) Castelao Frances and Touriga Francesa. Vitis, 37:93~94
Kennedy J A, Hayasaka Y, Vidal S, Waters E J, Jones G P. 2001. Composition of grape skin tannins at different stages of berry development. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 49:5348~5355
Kennedy J A, Matthews M A, Waterhouse A L. 2000. Changes in grape seeds polyphenols during fruit ripening. Phytochemistry, 55:77~85
Krasnow M, Weis N, Smith R J, Benz M J, Matthews M, Shackel K. 2009. Inception, progression, and compositional consequences of a berry shrivel disorder. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 60: 24~34
Lee Y J, Shacter E. 1999. Oxidative stress inhibits apoptosis in human lymphoma cells. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 274 (28):19792~19798
Lelli J L, Becks L L, Dabrowska M I, Hinshaw D B. 1998. ATP converts necrosis to apoptosis in oxidant-injured endothelial cells. Free Radical Biology and Medicine 25 (6):694~702
Li YG, Tanner G, Larkin P. 1996. The DMACA-HCl protocol and the threshold proanthocyanidin content for bloat safety in forage legumes. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 70:89~101
Makris D P, Kallithraka S, KefalasP. 2006. Flavonols in grapes, grape products and wines: Burden, profileand influential parameters. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 19:396~404
Monagas M, BartoloméB, Gómez-Cordovés C. 2005. Evolution of polyphenols in red wines from Vitis vinifera L. during aging in the bottle. European Food Research Technology, 220:331~340
Nadal M, Hunter J J. 2007. Different wine styles as related to ripeness level of Syrah/R99 grapes. In: 59th German Viticulture Congress. Stuttgart, Germany: Intervitis-Interfructa
Ojeda H, Andary C, Kraeva E, Carbonneau A, Deloire A. 2002. In(?)uence of pre- and post-veraison on water deficit, synthesis and concentration of skin phenolic compounds during berry growth of Vitis vinifera cv. Shiraz. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:261~267
Pannala A S, Chan T S, O’Brien P J, Rice-Evans C A. 2001. Flavonoid B-ring chemistry and antioxidant activity: fast reaction kinetics. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 282:1161~1168
Peinado J, de Lerma N L, Moreno J, Peinado R A. Antioxidant activity of different phenolics fractions isolated in must from Pedro Ximenez grapes at different stages of the off-vine drying process. Food Chemistry, 114:1050~1055
Pérez-Magari(?)o S, González-San J M L. 2004. Evolution of flavanols, anthocyanins, and their derivatives during the aging of red wines elaborated from grapes harvested at different stages of ripening. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52:1181~1189
Pérez-Magari(?)o S, González-San J M L. 2005. Effect of ripening stage of grapes on the low molecular weight phenolic compounds of red wines. European Food Research and Technology, 220:597~606
Prasad K N, Yang B, Shi J, Yu C, Zhao M, Xue S, Jiang Y. 2010. Enhanced antioxidant and antityrosinase activities of longan fruit pericarp by ultra-high-pressure-assisted extraction. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analasis, 51: 471~477
Ramey D, Bertrand A, Ough C S, Singleton V L, Sanders E. 1986. Effects of skin contact temperature on Chardonnay must and wine composition. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 37:99~106
Ribéreau-Gayon P, Glories Y, Maujean, A, Dubourdieu D. 2000. The chemistry of wine and stabilization and treatments. In: Handbook of enology. Vol 2. New York: Wiley-Blackwell Group. Rice-Evans C A, Miller N J, Paganga G. 1996. Structure-antioxidant activity relationships of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Free Radical Biology and Medicine, 20:933~956
Ristic R, Downey M O, Iland P G, Bindon K, Francis I L, Herderich M, Robinson S P. 2007. Exclusion of sunlight from Shiraz grapes alters wine colour, tannin and sensory properties. Australian Journal of Grape and Wine Research, 13:53~65
Rietveld A, Wiseman S. Antioxidant effects of tea: evidence from human clinical trials. Journal of Nutrition, 133 (10):3285S~3292S.
Rivero-Pérez M D, Mu(?)iz P, González-SanjoséM L. 2008. Contribution of anthocyanin fraction to the antioxidant properties of wine. Food and Chemical Toxicology, 46:2815~2822
Robredo L M, Junquera B, González-SanjoséM L, Barrón L J. 1991. Biochemical events during ripening of grape berries. Italian Journal of Food Science, 3:173~180
Rodriguez-Amaya D. 2003. Food carotenoids: analysis, composition and alterations during storage and processing of foods. Forum of Nutrition, 56:35~37
Rogiers S Y, Greer D H, Hatfield J M, Orchard B A, Keller M. 2006. Solute transport into Shiraz berries during development and late-ripening shrinkage. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture,57:73~80
Salinas R, Zalacain A, Pardo F, Alonso J L. 2004. Stir bar sorptive extraction applied to volatile constituents evolution during Vitis vinifera ripening. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 52:4821~4827
Sethuramasamyraja B, Sachidhanantham S, Yen M, Wample R. 2007. Interpolation of wine grape quality indicators (anthocyanin and Brix) and development of differential harvest attachment. Am Soc Agric Bio Eng Michigan, ASAE Annual Meeting
Smith R, Berry Shrivel. 2003. UCCE Sonoma County. http://cesonoma.ucdavis.edu/files/45904.pdf Somers T C, Evans M E. 1977. Spectral Evaluation of young red wines: anthocyanin equilibria, total phenolics, free and molecular SO2,“Chemical Age”. Journal of the science of food and agriculture. 28:279~287
Spayd S E, Tarara J M, Mee D L, Ferguson J C. 2002. Separation of sunlight and temperature effects on the composition of Vitis vinifera cv. Merlot berries. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 53:171~182
Stoclet J C, Kleschyov A, Andriambeloson E, Dielbolt M, Andriantsitohaina R. 1999. Endothelial no release caused by red wine polyphenols. Journal of Physiology and Pharmacology, 50:535~540
Stojanovic J, Silva J L. 2007. Influence of osmotic concentration, continuous high frequency ultrasound and dehydration on antioxidants, colour and chemical properties of rabbiteye blueberries. Food Chemistry, 101:898~906
Tang X, He Z, Dai Y, Xiong Y L, Xie M, Chen J. 2010. Peptide fractionation and free radical scavenging activity of zein hydrolysate. Journal of Agriculture and Food Chemistry, 58:587~593
Thorngate J H. 1997. The physiology of human sensory response to wine: a review. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 48: 271~ 279
Tsai P J, Huang H P, Huang T C. 2004. Relationship between anthocyanin patterns and antioxidant capacity in mulberry wine during storage. Journal of Food Quality, 27:497~505
Valko M, Morris H, Cronin M T.. Metals, toxicity and oxidative stress. Current Medicinal Chemistry, 12(10):1161~1208.
Xianquan S, Shi J, Kakuda Y, Yueming J. 2005. Stability of lycopene during food processing and storage". Journal of Medical Food, 8 (4): 413~422
Xu C M, Zhang Y L, Cao L, Lu J. 2010. Phenolic compounds and antioxidant properties of different grape cultivars grown in China. Food Chemistry, 119:1557~1565