“藏—汉—英”三语环境下藏族中学生英语学习的认知基础和学习机制分析
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摘要
在全球一体化背景下,英语在国际交流中的运用越来越广泛和重要。作为少数民族地区教育的一个重要组成部分,英语教学对民族地区的进步和发展,落后的经济状况的改善起着十分重要的作用。
为研究少数民族地区中学英语教学情况,笔者以四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州的藏族中学生为样本,进行了调查和研究,发现该藏族地区的英语教学基础相当薄弱。存在着各种各样制约英语教学的因素,诸如该地区缺乏英语语言环境;英语教学设备不足;师资力量严重缺乏,英语教师专业水平整体不高;藏族学生使用的英语教材不适合,各种教辅资料稀缺等等。加上落后的社会和经济发展状况制约了藏族学生及家长对英语学习普遍存在既好奇又被动的主观矛盾态度;且藏语言和汉语言自身对英语学习产生负迁移作用;藏族学生在英语学习过程中知识结构和认知体系受到藏语和汉语的影响,错综复杂地交织在一起对英语学习产生极大的负面影响和阻碍作用。
为解决以下四个方面的问题:
1)藏族学生对英语学习的主观态度如何?
2)藏、汉两种语言本身是否会影响藏族学生的英语学习?
3)藏族学生已有的藏、汉两种语言的知识结构和认知体系对英语输入理解、组织输出的影响如何?
4)藏族学生在“藏—汉—英”三语环境下的英语学习具有怎样的内在机制?
本研究以藏族地区英语教学的外在条件为基础,通过语言学、心理学和教育学等相关理论为载体,针对藏族地区“藏-汉-英”三语环境下藏族学生英语学习机制进行了理论和实证两个方面的探索,进一步剖析了藏族学生在特殊语言环境下的英语学习过程。本论文共六章,其中,第一章为研究概述。介绍了研究背景,研究问题、方法以及该研究的意义。第二章为文献回顾,分别罗列了语言思维的相似性理论、外语学习的宏观理论、微观理论等,为藏族学生英语学习机制提供认知和语言习得方面的研究理论基础。第三章为藏语、汉语和英语三种语言的对比分析,从语言学角度对三种语言在藏族学生英语学习过程中所产生的正负迁移进行了剖析。第四章主要分析影响藏族学生英语学习的内在机制,其中包括其英语学习的认知过程,分别以藏、汉两种语言结构为载体的知识和认知系统对藏族学生英语学习产生的影响。并且分别就藏族学生的年龄、动机、民族特殊性以及个体差异等特性分析了藏族学生英语学习过程中存在的动机差异及其他影响其英语学习的因素。第五章在对问卷调查和实证研究的剖析基础之上,进一步证明、解释了第四章提出的藏族学生英语学习心理机制。通过实际的实验和数据分析,本章同时也回答了第一章所提出的研究问题。第六章为本研究的总结,通过分析藏族学生英语学习的认知过程,针对藏族地区特有的英语教学条件,提出相应的改进建议,其中包括在教学语言的选择、教学课程的开发以及教学策略的合理运用等方面的可实施建议。
在理论分析和实证研究的基础之上,本论文得出以下结论:
藏族学生对英语学习的主观情感方面处于既好奇又被动的主观矛盾状态。一方面他们对英语及其承载的西方文化存在一定的好奇和兴趣,另一方面,他们却缺乏学习英语的语言学习环境和动机,这使他们往往从最初的热情和感兴趣渐渐转变到失去兴趣,被动学习的状态。
语言迁移问题上,藏语和汉语均对属于印欧语系的英语产生正负迁移作用。英语学习过程中,藏族学生实际上更多地习惯性运用教学语言汉语来帮助对英语知识的理解和学习,但是由于藏族学生的汉语水平往往较低,因此无法取得预期的实现促进英语学习的效果,加上藏语作为母语在藏族学生的头脑中已经根深蒂固,藏族学生反而会习惯性运用藏语来帮助英语学习。继而形成复杂的三语网状结构,造成藏族学生常常将藏语语法句法、汉语语法句法和目标语英语的语法句法规则混淆,极大地导致学生错用语法,阅读速度缓慢,翻译表达发生结构性错误等现象。
有关藏族学生英语学习过程中的内在机制,本论文别从理论和实证两个方面进行了阐述,在英语学习过程中,藏族学生习惯性地运用自己最熟悉的语言来承载知识和认知系统,以完成新旧知识的同化过程。针对不同的目标语言信息,藏族学生的以藏语和汉语为载体的知识和认知系统统会交替作用,形成错综复杂的网状结构,对目标语英语的学习产生影响,因此,对于简单的目标语言信息,藏族中学生可以直接将之与已经建立起的英语知识和认知系统联系,经过同化作用转化为长时记忆。具有一定难度的目标语言信息则部分通过教学语言汉语转化,而目标语言超出了藏族学生使用汉语或英语来理解的范围,那么学习者会习惯性地调用头脑中最为根深蒂固的母语知识和认知系统来帮助理解,由于教学语言是汉语,教师以汉语授课,相关教材也使用汉英对比材料,因此多数情况下汉语作为教学语言使用得最多,而藏语的使用会更多地产生负迁移作用。在英语输入输出过程中,利用藏语进行辅助思维的现象多出现在汉语水平低的藏族学生中。汉语水平较高的藏族学生更多地习惯用教学语言汉语来帮助对英语的理解和表达。英语水平越高的藏族学生,更多地使用英语思维,同时使用藏语进行思维的频率也越低。但是总得说来,汉语作为教学语言,在藏族中学生英语学习的过程中使用更多。
Under the background of the world economic globalization,English has been used more and more in international communication.Being one of the most important parts of education in minority area,English education takes a great role for the development of the economy and impacts the intercommunication between minority area and the intemational stage.
Taken the Tibetan middle school students from Aba Zang and Qiang Autonomous prefecture,Sichuan province as the sample,this study was accomplished by focusing on the English education in Tibetan area.The result of this study showed that the English education in this area is in a really serious status with various kinds of restrictions that held up English teaching and learning such as the lack of English language environment,being without enough English teaching equipment such as multimedia,supplementary learning materials and so on,being lack of English teachers as well as a relative low level of English language proficiency of parts of the teachers,and the paradoxical attitudes of the Tibetan middle school students even their parents towards English learning,the language transfers of Tibetan and Chinese,and the Tibetan middle school students' internal mechanism.
Aimed at the following four topics:
1)What are the subjective attitudes of the Tibetan middle school students towards English learning?
2)Whether Tibetan and Chinese languages themselves will cause some language transfers to English learning for Tibetan middle school students?
3)Whether the psychological mechanism,knowledge and cognition structure of Tibetan middle school students will influence the input-output process of English learning?
4)What kind of an internal learning mechanism the Tibetan middle school students have in the English learning process in the trilingual environment?
This thesis analyzed the English learning mechanism of Tibetan middle school students in "Tibetan-Chinese-English" language environment based on both theoretic foundation and accompanied with empirical research.Six chapters are included totally.In Chapter one,the introduction,research background, research questions and methods,and the significance of this study were introduced.And Chapter two is the literature review,it set out the relative theroies in order to support this study.Chapter three is contrastive analysis on the three languages-Tibetan,Chinese,and English,it analyzed from the point of view of linguistics the postive and negetive transfers caused by both Tibetan and Chinese in the English learning process.In the main part of this thesis,Chapter four,the internal mechanism of the Tibetan middle school students in English learning process,including the cognitive process and the influence of the psychological mechanism,and the systems of knowledge and cognition structure of the Tibetan middle school students in the input-output processes of English learning,was analyzed in detail.At the same time,this chapter analyzed other elements which influence the English learning,for example,age,motivation, ethnic identity and other individual differences.Chapter five is about the empirical research,questioners and data collection were finished in this chapter and statistic proofs for the questions discussed in chapter four were concluded. The last chapter,Chapter six is the conclusion of this thesis.It summarized the analysis of this thesis and put the answers to the four questions at the beginning out accompanied with some implications and suggestions on the option of teaching language,improvement of English curricular and applications of teaching strategies.
Based on the theoretical analysis and two experiments,the thesis reached to the following conclusions:
Firstly,because of the backward economy and the relative isolated life state, there is no English language environment for the Tibetan middle school students to practice English.Therefore,these students do not have strong self-awareness on the importance of English learning.And many Tibetan middle school students even their parents have formed the paradoxical attitude towards English learning that on one hand,they were attracted by English language and its peculiar culture, but on the other hand,they do not have a better opportunity to learn it more and use it for international communication.Certainly,these two contradictive attitudes led these Tibetan middle school students lose interests and confidence gradually in English learning.
Secondly,both Tibetan and Chinese would cause positive and negative transfers for English learning.But majority of the Tibetan middle school students preferred to use their native language-Tibetan to assist the comprehension of English.In fact,students who were in relative lower Chinese language proficiency would use more Tibetan in understanding the new language information.Meanwhile,the negative transfers caused by Tibetan and Chinese often overlapped and confused these Tibetan middle school students that lead a great many of mistakes on phonetic,intonation,grammar and syntax as well as reading comprehension and translation.
About the learning mechanism of Tibetan middle school students in the "Tibetan-Chinese-English" language environment,it was believed by the writer that Tibetan middle school students would like to use the language which they are most familiar with to help assimilate and understand the target language information.For target information which is on various levels of difficulty,the systems of Tibetan,Chinese and English knowledge and cognition structure would overlap and form a complex network to influence the decoding and encoding processes.For some simple materials,Tibetan middle school students often used the system of English knowledge and cognition structure directly for assimilating and absorbing the target information.For some materials which are relative more difficult,the students were used to take Chinese as the teaching language to help understanding.And for materials that could not be understood through English or Chinese,the Tibetan middle school students could not find a better way but depended on their native language.Therefore,in the English learning,Chinese was the language used mostly for the Tibetan middle school students.Students with higher Chinese language proficiency would use Chinese more and on the contrary,Students who took advantages of Tibetan might have lower level of Chinese language proficiency.But generally,Chinese was still the language used maximally as the Tibetan middle school students are not good at English.
为研究少数民族地区中学英语教学情况,笔者以四川省阿坝藏族羌族自治州的藏族中学生为样本,进行了调查和研究,发现该藏族地区的英语教学基础相当薄弱。存在着各种各样制约英语教学的因素,诸如该地区缺乏英语语言环境;英语教学设备不足;师资力量严重缺乏,英语教师专业水平整体不高;藏族学生使用的英语教材不适合,各种教辅资料稀缺等等。加上落后的社会和经济发展状况制约了藏族学生及家长对英语学习普遍存在既好奇又被动的主观矛盾态度;且藏语言和汉语言自身对英语学习产生负迁移作用;藏族学生在英语学习过程中知识结构和认知体系受到藏语和汉语的影响,错综复杂地交织在一起对英语学习产生极大的负面影响和阻碍作用。
为解决以下四个方面的问题:
1)藏族学生对英语学习的主观态度如何?
2)藏、汉两种语言本身是否会影响藏族学生的英语学习?
3)藏族学生已有的藏、汉两种语言的知识结构和认知体系对英语输入理解、组织输出的影响如何?
4)藏族学生在“藏—汉—英”三语环境下的英语学习具有怎样的内在机制?
本研究以藏族地区英语教学的外在条件为基础,通过语言学、心理学和教育学等相关理论为载体,针对藏族地区“藏-汉-英”三语环境下藏族学生英语学习机制进行了理论和实证两个方面的探索,进一步剖析了藏族学生在特殊语言环境下的英语学习过程。本论文共六章,其中,第一章为研究概述。介绍了研究背景,研究问题、方法以及该研究的意义。第二章为文献回顾,分别罗列了语言思维的相似性理论、外语学习的宏观理论、微观理论等,为藏族学生英语学习机制提供认知和语言习得方面的研究理论基础。第三章为藏语、汉语和英语三种语言的对比分析,从语言学角度对三种语言在藏族学生英语学习过程中所产生的正负迁移进行了剖析。第四章主要分析影响藏族学生英语学习的内在机制,其中包括其英语学习的认知过程,分别以藏、汉两种语言结构为载体的知识和认知系统对藏族学生英语学习产生的影响。并且分别就藏族学生的年龄、动机、民族特殊性以及个体差异等特性分析了藏族学生英语学习过程中存在的动机差异及其他影响其英语学习的因素。第五章在对问卷调查和实证研究的剖析基础之上,进一步证明、解释了第四章提出的藏族学生英语学习心理机制。通过实际的实验和数据分析,本章同时也回答了第一章所提出的研究问题。第六章为本研究的总结,通过分析藏族学生英语学习的认知过程,针对藏族地区特有的英语教学条件,提出相应的改进建议,其中包括在教学语言的选择、教学课程的开发以及教学策略的合理运用等方面的可实施建议。
在理论分析和实证研究的基础之上,本论文得出以下结论:
藏族学生对英语学习的主观情感方面处于既好奇又被动的主观矛盾状态。一方面他们对英语及其承载的西方文化存在一定的好奇和兴趣,另一方面,他们却缺乏学习英语的语言学习环境和动机,这使他们往往从最初的热情和感兴趣渐渐转变到失去兴趣,被动学习的状态。
语言迁移问题上,藏语和汉语均对属于印欧语系的英语产生正负迁移作用。英语学习过程中,藏族学生实际上更多地习惯性运用教学语言汉语来帮助对英语知识的理解和学习,但是由于藏族学生的汉语水平往往较低,因此无法取得预期的实现促进英语学习的效果,加上藏语作为母语在藏族学生的头脑中已经根深蒂固,藏族学生反而会习惯性运用藏语来帮助英语学习。继而形成复杂的三语网状结构,造成藏族学生常常将藏语语法句法、汉语语法句法和目标语英语的语法句法规则混淆,极大地导致学生错用语法,阅读速度缓慢,翻译表达发生结构性错误等现象。
有关藏族学生英语学习过程中的内在机制,本论文别从理论和实证两个方面进行了阐述,在英语学习过程中,藏族学生习惯性地运用自己最熟悉的语言来承载知识和认知系统,以完成新旧知识的同化过程。针对不同的目标语言信息,藏族学生的以藏语和汉语为载体的知识和认知系统统会交替作用,形成错综复杂的网状结构,对目标语英语的学习产生影响,因此,对于简单的目标语言信息,藏族中学生可以直接将之与已经建立起的英语知识和认知系统联系,经过同化作用转化为长时记忆。具有一定难度的目标语言信息则部分通过教学语言汉语转化,而目标语言超出了藏族学生使用汉语或英语来理解的范围,那么学习者会习惯性地调用头脑中最为根深蒂固的母语知识和认知系统来帮助理解,由于教学语言是汉语,教师以汉语授课,相关教材也使用汉英对比材料,因此多数情况下汉语作为教学语言使用得最多,而藏语的使用会更多地产生负迁移作用。在英语输入输出过程中,利用藏语进行辅助思维的现象多出现在汉语水平低的藏族学生中。汉语水平较高的藏族学生更多地习惯用教学语言汉语来帮助对英语的理解和表达。英语水平越高的藏族学生,更多地使用英语思维,同时使用藏语进行思维的频率也越低。但是总得说来,汉语作为教学语言,在藏族中学生英语学习的过程中使用更多。
Under the background of the world economic globalization,English has been used more and more in international communication.Being one of the most important parts of education in minority area,English education takes a great role for the development of the economy and impacts the intercommunication between minority area and the intemational stage.
Taken the Tibetan middle school students from Aba Zang and Qiang Autonomous prefecture,Sichuan province as the sample,this study was accomplished by focusing on the English education in Tibetan area.The result of this study showed that the English education in this area is in a really serious status with various kinds of restrictions that held up English teaching and learning such as the lack of English language environment,being without enough English teaching equipment such as multimedia,supplementary learning materials and so on,being lack of English teachers as well as a relative low level of English language proficiency of parts of the teachers,and the paradoxical attitudes of the Tibetan middle school students even their parents towards English learning,the language transfers of Tibetan and Chinese,and the Tibetan middle school students' internal mechanism.
Aimed at the following four topics:
1)What are the subjective attitudes of the Tibetan middle school students towards English learning?
2)Whether Tibetan and Chinese languages themselves will cause some language transfers to English learning for Tibetan middle school students?
3)Whether the psychological mechanism,knowledge and cognition structure of Tibetan middle school students will influence the input-output process of English learning?
4)What kind of an internal learning mechanism the Tibetan middle school students have in the English learning process in the trilingual environment?
This thesis analyzed the English learning mechanism of Tibetan middle school students in "Tibetan-Chinese-English" language environment based on both theoretic foundation and accompanied with empirical research.Six chapters are included totally.In Chapter one,the introduction,research background, research questions and methods,and the significance of this study were introduced.And Chapter two is the literature review,it set out the relative theroies in order to support this study.Chapter three is contrastive analysis on the three languages-Tibetan,Chinese,and English,it analyzed from the point of view of linguistics the postive and negetive transfers caused by both Tibetan and Chinese in the English learning process.In the main part of this thesis,Chapter four,the internal mechanism of the Tibetan middle school students in English learning process,including the cognitive process and the influence of the psychological mechanism,and the systems of knowledge and cognition structure of the Tibetan middle school students in the input-output processes of English learning,was analyzed in detail.At the same time,this chapter analyzed other elements which influence the English learning,for example,age,motivation, ethnic identity and other individual differences.Chapter five is about the empirical research,questioners and data collection were finished in this chapter and statistic proofs for the questions discussed in chapter four were concluded. The last chapter,Chapter six is the conclusion of this thesis.It summarized the analysis of this thesis and put the answers to the four questions at the beginning out accompanied with some implications and suggestions on the option of teaching language,improvement of English curricular and applications of teaching strategies.
Based on the theoretical analysis and two experiments,the thesis reached to the following conclusions:
Firstly,because of the backward economy and the relative isolated life state, there is no English language environment for the Tibetan middle school students to practice English.Therefore,these students do not have strong self-awareness on the importance of English learning.And many Tibetan middle school students even their parents have formed the paradoxical attitude towards English learning that on one hand,they were attracted by English language and its peculiar culture, but on the other hand,they do not have a better opportunity to learn it more and use it for international communication.Certainly,these two contradictive attitudes led these Tibetan middle school students lose interests and confidence gradually in English learning.
Secondly,both Tibetan and Chinese would cause positive and negative transfers for English learning.But majority of the Tibetan middle school students preferred to use their native language-Tibetan to assist the comprehension of English.In fact,students who were in relative lower Chinese language proficiency would use more Tibetan in understanding the new language information.Meanwhile,the negative transfers caused by Tibetan and Chinese often overlapped and confused these Tibetan middle school students that lead a great many of mistakes on phonetic,intonation,grammar and syntax as well as reading comprehension and translation.
About the learning mechanism of Tibetan middle school students in the "Tibetan-Chinese-English" language environment,it was believed by the writer that Tibetan middle school students would like to use the language which they are most familiar with to help assimilate and understand the target language information.For target information which is on various levels of difficulty,the systems of Tibetan,Chinese and English knowledge and cognition structure would overlap and form a complex network to influence the decoding and encoding processes.For some simple materials,Tibetan middle school students often used the system of English knowledge and cognition structure directly for assimilating and absorbing the target information.For some materials which are relative more difficult,the students were used to take Chinese as the teaching language to help understanding.And for materials that could not be understood through English or Chinese,the Tibetan middle school students could not find a better way but depended on their native language.Therefore,in the English learning,Chinese was the language used mostly for the Tibetan middle school students.Students with higher Chinese language proficiency would use Chinese more and on the contrary,Students who took advantages of Tibetan might have lower level of Chinese language proficiency.But generally,Chinese was still the language used maximally as the Tibetan middle school students are not good at English.
引文
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[65]张正东.外语教育学[M].北京:科学出版社.1999.
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[3]Bruner,J.S.The Process of Education[M].Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press,1963.
[4]Chomsky,N.Reflection on Language[J].London:Pantheon Books.1975.
[5]Cummins,J.Schooling and language minority students:A theoretical framework[M].Los Angeles:California State University;Evaluation,Dissemination,and Assessment Center.1981.
[6]David Crystal.The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language,Second edition [M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,New York:Oxford University Press.2002
[7]David Nunan.Second Language Teaching and Learning[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning Asia.2001.
[8]David W.Carroll.Psychology of Language,Third edition[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning Asia.2000.
[9]Flavell,J.H..Metacognition and cognitive monitoring:A new area of cognitive-developmental inquiry[J].American Psychologist,1979.
[10]Flavell,J.H.1987.Speculations about the nature and development of metaeognition[A].In F.E.Weinert & R.H.Kluwe(eds).
[11]Fraida Dubin & Elite Olshtain.Course Design[M].Shanghai:Shanghai
[12]Gagne,R.,& Medsker,K.,The Conditions Of Learning[M],NY:Harcourt-Brace.Foreign Language Education Press,New York:Oxford University Press.2002.
[13]Graman,M.Psycholinguistics[M].Beijing:Peking University Press.2002.
[14]Helen Goodluck.Language Acquisition:A Linguistic Introduction[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Blackwell Publishers Ltd.2000.
[15]Jack C.Richards,John Platt,Heidi Platt.Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[16]Janice Yalder.Principles of Course Design for Language Teaching.[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.1987
[17]Jon B.Best.Cognitive Psychology[M].Translated by Xiting Huang,Beijing:China Light Industry Press.
[18]Larry A.Samovar,Richard E.Porter,Lisa A.Stefani.Communication Between Cultures,Third edition[M].Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Brooks/Cole/Thomson Learning Asia.2000.
[19]Leech,G & Jan Svartvik.A Communicative Grammar of English(2nd edn.),[J].London:Longman.1994.
[20]Odlin.Language Transfer[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1989.
[21]O'Malley,J.M.,& Chamot,A.U.Learning strategies in second language acquisition[M].Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1990.
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[23]Piager,J.The Principles of Genetic Epistemology[M].London:Routledge & Kegan Paul,1972.
[24]Robert J.Sternberg,Wendy M.Williams.Educational Psychology[M].Translated by HouCan Zhang.Beijing:China Light Industry Press,2003.
[25]Rod Ellis.The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M].Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.1999.
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[27]Skinner,B.F.Teaching Machines[J].Science,128,969-977.
[28]Skinner,B.F.Verbal Behavior[M].NewYork:Appleton-Century-Crofts,1957.
[29]Steinberg,R.J.& Williams,W.M.Education Psychology[M].Beijing:China Light Industry Press.
[30]Taylor,P.H.and Richards,G.An Introduction to Curriculum Studies.[M]Windsor:NFER Publishing Co.1979
[31]Ungerer,F.& Schimid,H.J.An Introduction to Cognitive Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
[32]Watson,R.I.The History of psychology and the behavioral Sciences:A Bibliographic Guide[M].New York:Apringer,1978.
[33]陈其光.“汉藏语声调探源”[J].民族语文1994(06),37-46.
[34]德吉草.“多元文化主义与藏族母语文学”[J].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)2006(08),58-61.
[35]杜洪波.藏族学生认知系统的三语形式对英语学习和运用的影响[J].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版).2006(10月合辑).
[36]杜洪波.“‘藏-汉-英'三语结构下藏族学生英语学习特点浅析”[J].西昌学院学报(人文社科版)2006(3),114-117.
[37]顿超.简论文化因素对语言教学的渗透[A].燕山大学学报:燕山大学出版社.2002.
[38]冯蒸.“从汉藏语系的角度论辅音三级分类法的一种新模式”[J].首都师范大学学报(社科版)1994(05),28-38.
[39]顾嘉祖,陆异.语言与文化,第二版[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.2002.
[40]桂诗春.新编心理语言学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.2000.
[41]胡坦.“藏语时间词探源”[J].中央民族大学学报1996(05),88-99.
[42]胡素华.“多语型民族语言习得的特点分析-四川盐源县白家村藏族多语习得的个案研究”[J].中央民族大学学报(哲学社会科学版)2006(04),137-141.
[43]胡壮麟.语言学高级教程[M].北京:北京大学出版社.2001.
[44]贾丽.“对藏族学生英语学习之我见”[J].河南教育学院学报2002(2),149-150.
[45]梁云.“少数民族成人汉语语音学习中的错误归因”[J].语言与翻译(汉文)2006(03),75-77.
[46]李海俊.“藏族学生英语教学的认知依据和认知准备”[J].郑州大学学报(哲学社会科学版)2006(2)47-50.
[47]李延福.“藏文音素拼读法与语言迁移”[J].青海师范大学学报(哲学社会科学版)2006(1).
[48]瞿霭堂.“论汉藏语言的虚词”[J].民族语文1995(06),1-10.
[49]祁乐瑛.“母语在藏族大学生识记中的作用”[J].青海民族研究2005(03),132-135.
[50]石坚.以人为本--避教育的急功近利[PPT].2005.
[51]石发林,陈才.“少数民族大学生英语写作教学策略研究”[J].绵阳师范学院学报2006(03),93-97.
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[53]束定芳.外语教学改革:问题与对策[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社2004.
[54]王德春,孙汝建,姚远.社会心理语言学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.1995.
[55]王甦,汪安圣.认知心理学[M].北京:北京大学出版社.1992.
[56]夏纪梅.现代外语课程设计理论与实践[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.2003.
[57]向晓红.“四川藏族彝族大学生英语语言学习能力和交际能力培养模式研究”[M].社科基金课题.2005.
[58]向晓红,杜洪波等.藏区中学英语教学现状与建议--来自红原县的调查报告[J].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)2004(2),374-376.
[59]向晓红,杜洪波等.“藏族女学生英语学习难点剖析”[M].西南民族大学学报(人文社科版)2005(3),367-370.
[60]姚英.“少数民族大学生英语学习策略现状及其对策”[J].广西民族学院学报(哲学社会科学版)2006(4),166-168.
[61]游汝杰,邹嘉彦.社会语言学教程[M].上海:复旦大学出版社.2004.
[62]雍林,万明刚.“影响藏族大学生藏、汉文化认同因素研究”[J].心理与行为研究2003,1(3),181-185.
[63]原雪.“语法翻译法对藏族学生英语学习效果的研究”[MA].西北师范大学,2003年11月.
[64]张厚粲.行为主义心理学[M].杭州:浙江教育出版社2003.
[65]张正东.外语教育学[M].北京:科学出版社.1999.
[66]朱莼.外语教育心理学[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社.1994.
[67]中国西藏新闻网
[68]中国民族语言研究网