基于语料库的中国英语学习者的口语话语本族语化研究：情态动词个案研究
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摘要
在中国外语教学与改革取得辉煌成就的大背景下,为了进一步深化中国外语教学改革,我们无疑应将我们的焦点集中在中国外语学习者尤其是英语学习者在所学外语方面的不足之处。在中国,英语只能作为一门外语来学习,基本不存在自然习得英语作为外语(相对于汉语或其它少数民族语言而言)的大环境,更不存在学习英语的本族语环境,而且汉语和英语属于不同语系,所以中国英语学习者必然在许多方面有自己独特的一面。目前中国外语界普遍认识到中国英语学习者在听力方面尤其是口语方面存在严重不足,曾有“聋哑英语”这一虽然形象但却言过其词的说法,极大地阻碍了交际的顺利进行,成为外语学习突破的瓶颈。本文运用母语迁移理论,通过对中国学生英语口语语料、国际英语语料库的口语语料以及英语本族语口语语料进行三级语料对比分析(CA)或中继语对比分析(CIA),以从情态性、虚拟式和时态方面对中国英语作为外语的学习者的口语状况进行较为系统的定量和定性分析,从一个侧面透视中国外语口语教学的成效,所取得的成就和存在的不足,进而确定中国英语作为外语学习者的本族语化程度,并提出中国英语口语教学在该方面应努力的方向。本文所涉及的语料库包括《中国学生英语口笔语语料库》(Spoken and Written English Corpus ofChinese Learners)中的口语部分,《国际英语语料库》(The International Corpus of English,亦即ICE)的二语语料库的分语料库(包括香港、印度、菲律宾、新加坡以及东非的分语料库),和基本属于英语本族语语料库的《苏格兰语料库》(Scottish Corpus),《英国国家语料库》(The British National Corpus亦即BNC)以及《密歇根学术英语口语语料库》(MichiganCorpus of Academic Snoken English亦即MICASE):本文所采用的语料处理工具为词匠(WordSmith Tools)5.0和NOOJ 2.0,数据处理工具为EXEL电子表格,分析统计工具为SPSS社会学统计软件等。本文的主要创新点为首次采用三类口语语料进行中继语对比分析(CIA)来确定中国英语学习者在情态性方面的本族语化程度,使本族语化这一概念建立在科学的基础之上:首次以独特的视角将情态动词和时态、虚拟式相结合来系统研究情态动词will,shall,would和should;通过科学方法建立起子系统的重要性梯阶从而为外语教学和学习提供重要指导。本研究的主要发现为中国英语学习者在讲话中过少地使用will,would,shall和should;他们在使用相关情态词和语块时往往表现出笔语倾向:他们在使用肯定形式,缩写形式和使用带would和should的过去将来时和本族语者表现出显著不同;他们使用should时倾向于用作单义实词而非多义功能词;他们过少地使用be going to结构;他们过少地使用虚拟式,并在大多数if从句前置方面表现出汉语思维迁移的倾向。
China has made a great achievement in foreign language teaching and reforms; however, in order to further deepen the reform in teaching foreign languages the foreign language teachers and educators should undoubtedly focus on the weak points of foreign language learners and English learners in particular in their studying the foreign language. English can but be learned as a foreign language in China(except Hong Kong, the special administrative region), as there is basically no macro-environment where EFL (in comparison with Chinese languages including those of the minorities ) can be naturally acquired, not to mention the environment where English can be naturally acquired as a native language. Therefore, Chinese EFL learners necessarily have their own unique features in learning English in many aspects. At present it is widely realized in the foreign language circle that the English learners of China have their severe deficiency in listening and in speaking especially, and "deaf-and-dumb English", vivid but overstated, was once widely spread. The deficiency greatly hinders the successful communication and becomes the choke point for the foreign language study to break through. The dissertation aims to make a survey of the results of teaching the speaking of foreign languages which can demonstrate the achievements and inadequacy, to make clear the degrees of the nativelikeness of Chinese EFL learners in their using modal verbs and subjunctive mood and to point out the direction in which the spoken English teaching of China should struggle from a certain aspect by analyzing the spoken English data of the Chinese students, the spoken English data from The International Corpus of English and the spoken data of native speakers of English through CA or CIA and then by the comparatively systematic quantitative and qualitative analysis of the related aspects such as the use of the modal verbs and each type of subjunctive mood. The related corpora in this dissertation include the spoken part of Spoken and Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners, the branch corpora as L2 corpora (involving the branch corpora of Hong Kong, India, Philippine, Singapore, and East Africa) from The International Corpus of English (ICE) and the native corpora such as Scottish Corpus, The British National Corpus (BNC) and Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE). The soft wares used as tools are WordSmith Tools 5. 0 and NOOJ 2. 0 used to process the spoken data, EXEL used to process the digits and SPSS used as an analytical and statistical tool. The major original points in the dissertation are: In china, it is the first time to adopt the three categories of spoken data to carry out the CA or CIA and confirm the degree of nativelikeness of the English Learners of China in one perspective; the first time to try to make a systematic survey of the modal verbs will, shall, would and should in a unique way together with tense and the subjunctive mood. The main findings in the study are: there is apparent nativelikeness in all the respects being studied concerning the four modals; Chinese EFL speakers tend to greatly underuse the related chunks of will, would, shall and should; Chinese EFL speakers show a tendency of written English in general; Chinese EFL speakers are significantly different from native speakers in their using affirmative forms, contracted forms, and the tense of past future with would and should; Chinese EFL speakers tend to use should more like a content word with a single meaning rather than as a functional one with more than one meaning; they underuse be going to structure; and they underuse the structures expressing subjunctive mood with if and reveal their Chinese thinking mode with most of the if-clauses located before the main clauses.
China has made a great achievement in foreign language teaching and reforms; however, in order to further deepen the reform in teaching foreign languages the foreign language teachers and educators should undoubtedly focus on the weak points of foreign language learners and English learners in particular in their studying the foreign language. English can but be learned as a foreign language in China(except Hong Kong, the special administrative region), as there is basically no macro-environment where EFL (in comparison with Chinese languages including those of the minorities ) can be naturally acquired, not to mention the environment where English can be naturally acquired as a native language. Therefore, Chinese EFL learners necessarily have their own unique features in learning English in many aspects. At present it is widely realized in the foreign language circle that the English learners of China have their severe deficiency in listening and in speaking especially, and "deaf-and-dumb English", vivid but overstated, was once widely spread. The deficiency greatly hinders the successful communication and becomes the choke point for the foreign language study to break through. The dissertation aims to make a survey of the results of teaching the speaking of foreign languages which can demonstrate the achievements and inadequacy, to make clear the degrees of the nativelikeness of Chinese EFL learners in their using modal verbs and subjunctive mood and to point out the direction in which the spoken English teaching of China should struggle from a certain aspect by analyzing the spoken English data of the Chinese students, the spoken English data from The International Corpus of English and the spoken data of native speakers of English through CA or CIA and then by the comparatively systematic quantitative and qualitative analysis of the related aspects such as the use of the modal verbs and each type of subjunctive mood. The related corpora in this dissertation include the spoken part of Spoken and Written English Corpus of Chinese Learners, the branch corpora as L2 corpora (involving the branch corpora of Hong Kong, India, Philippine, Singapore, and East Africa) from The International Corpus of English (ICE) and the native corpora such as Scottish Corpus, The British National Corpus (BNC) and Michigan Corpus of Academic Spoken English (MICASE). The soft wares used as tools are WordSmith Tools 5. 0 and NOOJ 2. 0 used to process the spoken data, EXEL used to process the digits and SPSS used as an analytical and statistical tool. The major original points in the dissertation are: In china, it is the first time to adopt the three categories of spoken data to carry out the CA or CIA and confirm the degree of nativelikeness of the English Learners of China in one perspective; the first time to try to make a systematic survey of the modal verbs will, shall, would and should in a unique way together with tense and the subjunctive mood. The main findings in the study are: there is apparent nativelikeness in all the respects being studied concerning the four modals; Chinese EFL speakers tend to greatly underuse the related chunks of will, would, shall and should; Chinese EFL speakers show a tendency of written English in general; Chinese EFL speakers are significantly different from native speakers in their using affirmative forms, contracted forms, and the tense of past future with would and should; Chinese EFL speakers tend to use should more like a content word with a single meaning rather than as a functional one with more than one meaning; they underuse be going to structure; and they underuse the structures expressing subjunctive mood with if and reveal their Chinese thinking mode with most of the if-clauses located before the main clauses.
引文
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Antony W.1993.English Auxiliaries:Structure and History.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Banathy,B,H.,Trager,E.,&Waddle,C.1966,The Use of Contrastive Data in Foreign Language Course Development,Trends in Language Teaching,NewYork:McGraw-Hill,35-36.
Biber,D.,Johansson,S.,Leech,G..,Conrad,S.& Finegan,E.1999.Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English.London:Longman.
Boyd,J.,& Thorne,J.P.1969.The Deep Grammar of Modal Verbs,Journal of Linguistics 5:57-74.
Brown,H,D.2002.Principles of Language Learning and Teaching.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Bussmann,H.1996.Routledge Dictionary of Language and Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Chomsky,N.1959.Review of Skinner's Verbal Behavior.Language.35,26-58.
Chun,D.et al.1982.Errors,Interaction,and Correction:A Study of Native-non-native Conversations.TESOL Quarterly.16/4.
Cobuild,1987,Collins Cobuild English Language Dictionary,London:Collins Crook,W.A.(1978).Semantic Structure of the English Modals,TESOL Quarterly.Vol.12:6
Cook,W.1978.Semantic Structure of English modals.TESOL Quarterly,12,5-16.
Cook.1985.Chomsky's Universal Grammar and Second Language Learning.Applied Linguistics.
Corder,S.P.1967.The Significance of Learners' Errors.International Review of Applied Linguistics.5,161-9.
Decarrico,J.(1986).Tense,Aspect and Time in the English modality system.TESOL Quarterly,20,665-682.
Ding Yanren.2004.Second Language Acquisition for English Majors.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Eekman,F.1977.Markedness and the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis.Language Learning Vol.27 No.2:315-30.
Ehrman,M.1966.The Meaning of the Modals in Present-day American English.The Hague:Mouton.
Ellis,R.1997.The Study of Second Language Acquisition.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Ellis,R.1985.Sources of Variability in Interlanguage.Applied Linguistics,6:118-131
Ellis,R.1999.Understanding Second Language Acquisition.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Eubank,L.,Selinker,L.&Sharwood-Smith,M.1995.The Current State of Interlanguage.Philadelphia:John Benjamins.
Faerch,C&Kasper.1987.Perspective on Language Transfer.Applied linguistics 8:111-36.
Fromkin,V.A.1973.Speech Errors as Linguistic Evidence.The Hague:Mouton
Granger,S.(Ed.).1998.Learner English on Computer.London & New York:Longman.
Granger,S.,Hung,J.,& Petch-Tyson,S.(Eds).2002.Computer Learner Corpora,Second Language Acquisition and Foreign Language Teaching.Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Haegeman,L.(1983).The Semantics of Will in Present-day British English:A Unified Account.Brussels:Verhandeling Letteren.
Halliday,M.A.K.1985.An Introduction to Functional Grammar.London:Edward Arnold.
Halliday,M.A.K.1994.An Introduction to Systemic Functional Grammar.London:Edward Arnold.
Hammarberg,B.1974.On the Insufficiency of Error Analysis.International Review of Applied Linguistics,12.185-92.
Herdan,G.1964.The Structuralistic Approach to Chinese Grammar and Vocabulary.The Hague:Mouton.
Hinkel,E.1995.The Use of Modal Verbs as a Reflection of Cultural Values TESOL Quarterly,29,325-343.
Hofmann,K & Johanssan,S.1982.Word Frequencies in British and American English.London:Longman Group Limited.
Holmes,J.1988.Doubt and Certainty in ESL Textbooks.Applied Linguistics:No.9:21-44.
James,C.2001.Errors in Language Learning and Use:Exploring Error Analysis.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Kaplan,R.B.1966.Cultural Thought Patterns in Intercultural Education.Language learning.16.1-2.
Kellerman,E.&M.Smith.1986.Cross-linguistic Influence in L2 Acquisition.Oxford:Pergaman Press.
Kellerman,E.1995.Crosslinguistic Influence:Transfer to Nowhere? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 15:125-150.
Kennedy,G..2000.An Introduction to Corpus Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Labov,W.1973.Studies in Sociolinguistics:Selected Papers by William Labov.Beijing:Beijing Language and Culture University Press.
Lado,R.1957.Linguistics across Cultures.Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press.
Larsen-Freeman,D.& Michael H.L.,1991.An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research.London:Longman.
Larsen-Freeman,D.&Long,M.2000.An Introduction to Second Language Acquisition Research.Beijing:Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.
Leech,G.1998.Corpus Linguistics.London:Longman.
Levinson,S.1986.Pragmatics.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Mindt,D.1995.An Empirical Grammar of the English Verb:Modal verbs.Berlin:Comelsen.
Neff,J.,Dafouz,E.,Herrera,H.,Martinez,F & Rica,J.P.(2003).Contrasting Learner Corpora:The Use of Modal and Reporting Verbs in the Expression of Writer Stance.Language and Computers,48,211-230.
Odlin,T.2001.Language Transfer:Cross-linguistic Influence in Language Learning.Shanghai:Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Palmer,F.R.1990.Modality and the English Modals.New York:Longman.
Palmer,F.R.2001.Mood and Modality(2nd edition).Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Papafragou,A.1998.Inference and Word Meaning:The Case of Modal Auxiliaries.Language 53:741-788.
Papafragou,A.1998.The Acquisition of Modality:Implications for Theories of Semantic Representation.Mind and Language,No.3,Vol.13,370-399.
Perkins,M.R.1983.Modal Expressions in English.London:Frances Pinter.
Quirk R.,S.Greenbaum,G.Leech,&J.Svartvik.1985.A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language.London:Longman.
Richards,J.,Platt,J.& Platt,H.2000.Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching & Applied Linguistics.Beijing:Foreign Language and Research Press.
Richards,J.et al.1985.Longman Dictionary of Applied Linguistics.London:Longman.
Ringbom,H.1987.The Role of the First Language in Foreign Language Learning.Clevedon,Avon:Multilingual Matters.
Robinett,B.&J.Schachter.1983.Second Language Learning,Contrastive Analysis,Error Analysis and Related Aspects.Ann Arbor:The University of Michigan Press.
Romer,U.2004.A Corpus Driven Approach to Modal Auxiliaries and Their Didactics.In John McH.Sinclair(Ed.),How to Use Corpora in Language Teaching(pp.185-204).Amsterdam/Philadelphia:John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Schachter,J.1974.An Error in Error Analysis.Language Learning 27:205-14.
Scott,M.2004.WordSmith Tools Version 4.0.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Selinker,L.1974.Interlanguage.IRAL,10/3.201-30.
Selinker,L.1992.Rediscovering Interlanguage.London:Longman.
Siewierska,A.1991.Functional Grammar.London:Routledge.
Sinclair,J.1991.Corpus,Concordance,Collocation.Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Sridhar,N.S.1987.Contrastive Analysis,Error Analysis and Interlanguage:Three Phrases of One Goal in Swan & Smith(eds.).
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