“文化传播”理论视角中的传教士与美国华人社会（1848-1900）
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摘要
美国是一个移民国家,同时,美国又是一个宗教性很强的国家。美国的移民问题和宗教问题往往交织在一起,密不可分。一方面,移民在登陆美国的同时带来了自己的传统宗教,如基督新教、天主教、犹太教、伊斯兰教、佛教、道教等种类繁多的宗教,使美国的宗教日益多元化。另一方面,作为美国文化核心的基督教文化试图将外来移民同化到美国的大熔炉中去,美国教会派遣传教士到移民群体中进行宗教文化传播,使外来移民皈依基督,成为美国基督教文化的一份子。这种多元与一体的矛盾便构成了美国移民与宗教问题发展的主流趋势。
作为移民最早、人数最多的亚洲移民,美国华人群体尤为凸显出美国移民与宗教问题的矛盾倾向:华人移民将中国传统的佛教、道教和民间宗教带到了美洲新大陆;同时,美国各大教会在华人移民刚刚登陆美国的时候,便注意到了华人移民的存在,开始派遣传教士到美国华人社会进行宗教文化传播活动。美国传教士在华人社会的宗教文化传播行为构成了19世纪中西两种风格迥异的文化在美国土地上的民众层面的传播和交流,奠定了美国华人基督教会发展的根基。
本文尝试以19世纪到美国华人社会进行传教活动的美国白人传教士群体为研究对象,运用文化传播学的相关理论,将传教士群体视为中西文化传播与交流的使者,从文化传播的环境、主体、方式和内容、客体等文化传播行为的构成因素方面,对传教士在美国华人社会的宗教文化传播行为进行研究,并对传教士的宗教文化传播效果进行评估。
除了引言和结论之外,本文分为四章。
第一章考察了19世纪传教士在美国华人社会进行宗教文化传播的传播环境的形成。文化交流与传播的发生首先依赖于不同文化在特定历史条件下的激烈碰撞,形成必要的传播环境。19世纪中期以前,由于地理环境的阻隔和科技发展水平的落后,中西文化之间缺乏大范围的民众层面的交流与传播。1848年,美国加利福尼亚州发现金矿之后,华人开始大规模地登陆美国。由于当时美国社会对华人的排斥和歧视,以及美国华人自身的旅居观念,美国华人将中国传统文化原封不动地移植到了北美大陆。这样,在北美大陆便形成了中西两种文化激烈冲突碰撞的局面,传教士宗教文化传播的环境由此形成。
第二章主要考察了作为文化传播主体的美国传教士的宗教文化传播动机。一方面,传教士的传教动机源自于一神论基督教的传播上帝福音的神圣使命;另一方面则源自于传教士的种族主义华人观,传教士认为,中国文化是低劣的文化,华人是美国盎格鲁——萨克逊白人社会的威胁,向美国华人社会传播上帝福音,使他们皈依基督教是解除这种威胁的根本途径。此外,在美国传教士看来,他们的传教活动还具有培养华人事工返回中国传教的目的。
第三章主要考察了传教士在美国华人中进行宗教文化传播的方式,其中主要包括宗教性的建立华人传教会和华人教会、街头传教等,以及世俗性的成立女馆,解救美国华人妇女,成立教会学校,对美国华人进行英语和基督教教育等。
第四章考察了作为传教士文化传播客体的美国华人社会对于传教士宗教文化传播行为的反应。面对传教士的宗教文化传播,美国华人社会内部产生了分化:大多数美国华人大众和社会精英阶层对于传教士的文化传播行为采取了抵制态度,但也有很少一部分美国华人接受了传教士所传播的基督教文化,改信了基督教,游离于中华传统文化和美国文化之间。
结论部分,通过对存在于19世纪美国传教士对美国华人进行宗教文化传播活动中诸多重要因素的考察,并对这种宗教文化传播的效果进行评估,本文得出结论:19世纪传教士在美国华人社会进行的宗教文化传播并未实现其预期目的,因为文化的交流与传播受控于非常具体和历史性的多元因素,其效果需经历漫长而复杂的历程才能充分体现出来。
America is an immigrant and religious country. So the history of American religion could also be taken as the history of American immigrants. The immigrant and religious problems mix with to be the inseparable to one to another. Moreover, the mixture goes in two ways. On the one hand, American immigrants land on with their traditional religions, such as Catholicism, Judaism, Islamism, Buddhism, Taoism, etc, which make American religion special and pluralistic. On the other hand, Christianity the American biggest culture attempts to assimilate the immigrants into her dominance. With that lots of Christian missionaries spread the gospels among the immigrants. They manage to unite all immigrants under the light of the God. The pluralistic situation and the Christian will of integration make the two twist lines of the American immigrants and their religion. Due to that contradiction is unavoidable.
As the earliest immigrant group from Asia, Chinese American has the contradiction. Chinese immigrants bring with them the Chinese traditional religion, including Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions. They are different from European’s. As soon as the Chinese land on America, American Christian churches notice them and Christian missionaries come onto the Chinese community engaging the conversion to involve the Chinese with the American Christianity. The missionaries make up of cultural communication between Chinese traditional culture and American culture in the 19th century and ground work the Chinese American Christianization.
This dissertation tries to use cultural communication theory to analyze the historical course of the missionaries’culture communication action in 19th Chinese American community from the angle of culture communication’s circumstance, subject, manner and contents, and object etc, and probes the evaluation of the cultural communication effect. In addition to the preface and conclusion, this dissertation consists of four chapters as follows:
ChapterⅠprobes the form of the cultural communication circumstance among Chinese Americans in the 19th century. With the golden rash in California, Chinese ship to the west coast of America in great numbers. Because of the exclusion and discrimination of American society, and sojourn intention of Chinese immigrates, Chinese American transplants their traditional culture from China to America. The clash between Chinese culture and Christian culture is unavoidable. It also enhances the culture communication between them.
ChapterⅡprobes the motions of the American missionaries. First, the missionaries have the motion to transmit the God’s evangelicalism. Second, the missionaries regarded Chinese immigrant as the menace to the Anglo-Saxon white society. By means of the conversion they believe they can mop out the Oriental spoils on Chinese Americans. Third, the missionaries intent to train Chinese missionaries to spread their belief in China.
ChapterⅢprobes the cultural communication manner of Christian missionaries in Chinese American community in the 19th century, including establishment of Chinese missions and churches; street preach; Rescue Home founding, rescuing of Chinese women; setting up Sunday School, etc.
ChapterⅣprobes the Chinese American’s reaction to the American missionaries. Most of Chinese immigrants both Chinese masses and outstanding persons resist on the missionary. However, there is a group of minority Chinese establish their belief on Christianity.
The conclusion sums up the factors that work on the cultural communication impacts, among them are, circumstance, motivation, manner, object’s resistance and so on. Accordingly, it draws the conclusion that the missionaries could not succeed their mission among Chinese Americans in the 19th century.
作为移民最早、人数最多的亚洲移民,美国华人群体尤为凸显出美国移民与宗教问题的矛盾倾向:华人移民将中国传统的佛教、道教和民间宗教带到了美洲新大陆;同时,美国各大教会在华人移民刚刚登陆美国的时候,便注意到了华人移民的存在,开始派遣传教士到美国华人社会进行宗教文化传播活动。美国传教士在华人社会的宗教文化传播行为构成了19世纪中西两种风格迥异的文化在美国土地上的民众层面的传播和交流,奠定了美国华人基督教会发展的根基。
本文尝试以19世纪到美国华人社会进行传教活动的美国白人传教士群体为研究对象,运用文化传播学的相关理论,将传教士群体视为中西文化传播与交流的使者,从文化传播的环境、主体、方式和内容、客体等文化传播行为的构成因素方面,对传教士在美国华人社会的宗教文化传播行为进行研究,并对传教士的宗教文化传播效果进行评估。
除了引言和结论之外,本文分为四章。
第一章考察了19世纪传教士在美国华人社会进行宗教文化传播的传播环境的形成。文化交流与传播的发生首先依赖于不同文化在特定历史条件下的激烈碰撞,形成必要的传播环境。19世纪中期以前,由于地理环境的阻隔和科技发展水平的落后,中西文化之间缺乏大范围的民众层面的交流与传播。1848年,美国加利福尼亚州发现金矿之后,华人开始大规模地登陆美国。由于当时美国社会对华人的排斥和歧视,以及美国华人自身的旅居观念,美国华人将中国传统文化原封不动地移植到了北美大陆。这样,在北美大陆便形成了中西两种文化激烈冲突碰撞的局面,传教士宗教文化传播的环境由此形成。
第二章主要考察了作为文化传播主体的美国传教士的宗教文化传播动机。一方面,传教士的传教动机源自于一神论基督教的传播上帝福音的神圣使命;另一方面则源自于传教士的种族主义华人观,传教士认为,中国文化是低劣的文化,华人是美国盎格鲁——萨克逊白人社会的威胁,向美国华人社会传播上帝福音,使他们皈依基督教是解除这种威胁的根本途径。此外,在美国传教士看来,他们的传教活动还具有培养华人事工返回中国传教的目的。
第三章主要考察了传教士在美国华人中进行宗教文化传播的方式,其中主要包括宗教性的建立华人传教会和华人教会、街头传教等,以及世俗性的成立女馆,解救美国华人妇女,成立教会学校,对美国华人进行英语和基督教教育等。
第四章考察了作为传教士文化传播客体的美国华人社会对于传教士宗教文化传播行为的反应。面对传教士的宗教文化传播,美国华人社会内部产生了分化:大多数美国华人大众和社会精英阶层对于传教士的文化传播行为采取了抵制态度,但也有很少一部分美国华人接受了传教士所传播的基督教文化,改信了基督教,游离于中华传统文化和美国文化之间。
结论部分,通过对存在于19世纪美国传教士对美国华人进行宗教文化传播活动中诸多重要因素的考察,并对这种宗教文化传播的效果进行评估,本文得出结论:19世纪传教士在美国华人社会进行的宗教文化传播并未实现其预期目的,因为文化的交流与传播受控于非常具体和历史性的多元因素,其效果需经历漫长而复杂的历程才能充分体现出来。
America is an immigrant and religious country. So the history of American religion could also be taken as the history of American immigrants. The immigrant and religious problems mix with to be the inseparable to one to another. Moreover, the mixture goes in two ways. On the one hand, American immigrants land on with their traditional religions, such as Catholicism, Judaism, Islamism, Buddhism, Taoism, etc, which make American religion special and pluralistic. On the other hand, Christianity the American biggest culture attempts to assimilate the immigrants into her dominance. With that lots of Christian missionaries spread the gospels among the immigrants. They manage to unite all immigrants under the light of the God. The pluralistic situation and the Christian will of integration make the two twist lines of the American immigrants and their religion. Due to that contradiction is unavoidable.
As the earliest immigrant group from Asia, Chinese American has the contradiction. Chinese immigrants bring with them the Chinese traditional religion, including Buddhism, Taoism, and folk religions. They are different from European’s. As soon as the Chinese land on America, American Christian churches notice them and Christian missionaries come onto the Chinese community engaging the conversion to involve the Chinese with the American Christianity. The missionaries make up of cultural communication between Chinese traditional culture and American culture in the 19th century and ground work the Chinese American Christianization.
This dissertation tries to use cultural communication theory to analyze the historical course of the missionaries’culture communication action in 19th Chinese American community from the angle of culture communication’s circumstance, subject, manner and contents, and object etc, and probes the evaluation of the cultural communication effect. In addition to the preface and conclusion, this dissertation consists of four chapters as follows:
ChapterⅠprobes the form of the cultural communication circumstance among Chinese Americans in the 19th century. With the golden rash in California, Chinese ship to the west coast of America in great numbers. Because of the exclusion and discrimination of American society, and sojourn intention of Chinese immigrates, Chinese American transplants their traditional culture from China to America. The clash between Chinese culture and Christian culture is unavoidable. It also enhances the culture communication between them.
ChapterⅡprobes the motions of the American missionaries. First, the missionaries have the motion to transmit the God’s evangelicalism. Second, the missionaries regarded Chinese immigrant as the menace to the Anglo-Saxon white society. By means of the conversion they believe they can mop out the Oriental spoils on Chinese Americans. Third, the missionaries intent to train Chinese missionaries to spread their belief in China.
ChapterⅢprobes the cultural communication manner of Christian missionaries in Chinese American community in the 19th century, including establishment of Chinese missions and churches; street preach; Rescue Home founding, rescuing of Chinese women; setting up Sunday School, etc.
ChapterⅣprobes the Chinese American’s reaction to the American missionaries. Most of Chinese immigrants both Chinese masses and outstanding persons resist on the missionary. However, there is a group of minority Chinese establish their belief on Christianity.
The conclusion sums up the factors that work on the cultural communication impacts, among them are, circumstance, motivation, manner, object’s resistance and so on. Accordingly, it draws the conclusion that the missionaries could not succeed their mission among Chinese Americans in the 19th century.
引文
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⑥http://old.cccowe.org/churchreport,2009年3月10日下载。
①杨凤岗:《简析美国华人基督教的社会历史和现状》,王忠欣主编,《多元化的中国与基督教》,加拿大恩福协会出版,2001年,第111—121页。
②杨凤岗:《北美华人宗教》,《中国宗教》,2001年第1期,第51-53页。
③刘权:《美国华人教会的社会功能探析》,《华侨华人历史研究》,2006年第2期。
④文军:《感受美国的基督教文化——一位社会学者的访美札记》,网络http://www.xschina.org/show.php?id=458,2009年3月8日下载。
⑤黎静、马碧雯、欧阳伏:《对美国华人宗教组织及其作用的新认识》,《华侨与华人》2006年12月第2期。
⑥邱燕娜:《美国华人信仰基督教的历程研究》,硕士论文,暨南大学,2007年。
⑦贾志月:《美国华人基督教研究综述》,《八桂侨刊》,2008年第1期。
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④刘澎:《当代美国宗教》,北京:社会科学出版社,2001年。
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①Charles Edwin Bradt,William Robert King and Herbert Ware Reherd, Around The World Studies and Stories of Presbyterian Foreign Missions, Wichita,Kanasas:The Missionary Press CO.(Inc.),1912,p.439.
①孙逊在其博士论文《美国华侨华人与台湾当局对其政策研究(1949-2002)》(中国人民解放军外国语学院,2007年)中对美国华人社会的界定,本文认同该概念。
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⑦Lorilla E. Bushnell,The Story of Our Baptist Missionary Work, American Baptist Publication Society, 1909.
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⑩Rev. J. M, Reid, D.D., Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church,New York:Phillips& Hunt,1879. 11American Missionary Association , Congregational Home Missionary Society,The American Missionary(1888-1896、1917、1919、1921). 12American Home Missionary Society and Congregational Home Missionary Society,The Home Missionary (1852-1900). 13American Baptist Foreign Mission Society,The Missionary Magazine (1850-1869). 14Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A .,The Church at Home and Abroad (1887-1894). 15Rev. Justus Doolittle, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal(1871-1914).
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①陈依范著,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第22页。
②林德荣:《西洋航路移民—明清闽粤移民荷属东印度与海峡殖民地的研究》,第32页。
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⑤刘权:《广东华侨华人史》,第3页。
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①故宫博物院:《恩平县志(卷14)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第10页
②故宫博物院:《新宁县志(卷4)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第27页
③故宫博物院:《赤溪县志(卷8)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第26页
④李连广:《1848—1882年华人移民美国原因探析》,第95页。
⑤前引书,第95页。
⑥中共中央编译局:《马克思恩格斯全集(第39卷)》,北京:人民出版社,1974年,第297页。
①[美]福克纳:《美国经济史》(上册),上海:商务印书馆,1989年,第373页。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第43页。
③周敏著,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,北京:商务印书馆,1995年,第37页。
④杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第2页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第120页。
②生键红:《美国太平洋铁路建设中的华工》,博士论文,上海师范大学,2007年,第24页。
③李明欢:《欧洲华侨华人史》,北京:中国华侨出版社,2002年,第21页。
④《大清会典事例》,卷120。
⑤王铁崖编:《中外旧约章汇编》第一册,三联书店,1957年,第145页。
⑥前引书,第262页。
①陈依范,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第5页。
②前引书,第4页。
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第13页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第116页。
⑤吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第13页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第117页。
②庄国士:《从移民到选民:1965年以来美国华人社会的发展变化》,《世界历史》,2004年第2期。
③由于本文考察的对象为19世纪时期的美国华人教会情况,故对于19世纪以后的美国华人移民情况不做详细介绍。
①杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第11页。
②前引书,第223页。
③李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第197页。李春辉、杨生茂两位先生在书中列出的1910年华人妇女的数据为161人,而令狐萍先生在《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》中第146页列出的数据为4675人,二者相差实在悬殊,权衡再三,161实为太少,不足信,故采纳令狐萍先生的数据补之。
④Lucie Cheng Hirata,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth- Century America”, Women in Latin America (Autumn, 1979),Signs, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.3-29.
①Sucheng Chan,“The Exclusion of Chinese Women”,in Entry Denied:Exclusion and the Chinese Community in American, 1882-1943, ed,Sucheng Chan,Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1991,pp.94-146.
②George Anthony Peffer,“Forbidden Families:Emigration Experence of Chinese Women under the Page Law, 1875-1882”, Journal of American Ethnic History6,No.1(1986):pp.28-46.
③Vincent Tang,“Chinese Women Immigrants and the Two-Edged Sword of Habeas Corpus”, in The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference on Chinese American Studies,ed.Genny Lim,Chinese Historical Society of America&the Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco,1980,pp.48-56.
④彼察《厦门志》(Pitcher, In and About Amoy),1910年,第130页,转引自生键红:《美国中央太平洋铁路建设中的华工》,博士论文,上海师范大学,2007年。
①万晓宏:《当代美国华人政治参与》,博士论文,暨南大学,2005年,第16页。
②刘莲芬:《试论19世纪后半期美国的排华问题》,《贵州师范大学学报》,1999年第3期。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第113页。
②前引书,第113页。
③陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第七辑,第167页。
④陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第166页。
⑤前引书,第88页。
⑥前引书,第101页。
①陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第172—173页。
②前引书,第171页。
③前引书,第171页。
④刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第510页。
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第171页。
⑥乔治·F·西华:《美国的中国移民——论它的社会和经济方面》,转引自陈翰笙主编:《华工出国史料汇编》(七) ,第63页。
⑦刘莲芬:《试论19世纪后半期美国的排华问题》,《贵州师范大学学报》,1999年第3期。
①高秋芬:《美国1882年排华法案的历史原因探析》,《公会论坛》,2007年第6期。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第172—174页。
③前引书,第234—235页。
①U. S. Laws, Statistics etc., Laws Applicable to Immigration and Nationality , Washington : Government Printing Office,1953, pp.211-219.
②杨国标、刘汉标,杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第257页。
③前引书,第260页。
④沈已尧:《海外排华百年史》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1980年,第26—27页。
⑤朱士嘉:《美国迫害华工史料》,北京:中华书局,1958年,第84—85页。
①周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第51—52页。
②何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
①邝治中:《新唐人街》,第86页
②周敏著,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第44页。
③吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第71—72页。
①尤育号:《早期美国华人社团形成的心理因素》,《广西社会科学》,2006年第4期。
②何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第65页。
④周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第52页。
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第224页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第68页。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第293页。
③前引书,第295页。
④杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第296页。
⑤前引书,第294页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第155页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第60—61页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第101页。
④前引书,第102页。
⑤杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第295页。
⑥前引书,第310页。
①杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第274页。
②李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第157页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第107页。
④陈依范著,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第67页。
《唐人街:共生与同化》,第70页。
①陈依范,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第230页。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第273—274页。
③前引书,第293页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第237页。
①周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第51页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第77页。
③Milton M.Gordon,Assimilation in American Life:The Role of Race,Religion and National Origins,New York: Oxford University Press,p.81.
④(马)谢爱萍:《族群关系与文化因素》, (马)《星洲日报》,1995年1月1日。
⑤《辞海》(下),上海:上海辞书出版社,1979年,第3510页。
①张岱年、方克立主编:《中国文化概论》,北京:北京师范大学出版社,1994年,第5一7页。
②叶春生:《广府民俗》,广东人民出版社,2000年,第127页。
③谢廷玉:《檀香山先辈华人史》,檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1875年,第244页。
④陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第87页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑥吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第167—168页。
⑦前引书,第167—168页。
⑧陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第74页。
①前引书,第294页。
②Arif Dirlik,Chinese on the American Frontier, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2001,p.59.
③李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
④前引书,第156页。
⑤吴琦幸:《淘金路上》,第136页。
⑥刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第109页。
⑦陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第122页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第221—223页。
②邝治中先生则认为,房口的人员组成在二十到一百人之间。邝治中,杨万译:《纽约唐人街:劳工和政治》,第36页。
③David Te-chao Cheng,Acculturation of the Chinese in the United States: A Philadelphia Study, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,1948, p.120.
①前引书,第193页。
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第29页。
③何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
④麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第40页。
⑤前引书,第35页。
⑥王迪:《华人社区的冲突、控制与自治——“二战”前美国城市中的中国传统社会组织》,《史学月刊》,2006年第11期。
①麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第36页。
②前引书,第37页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第109页。
②吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第152页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第110页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑥前引书,第109—110页。
⑦薛素珍、陈静英:《美国纽约华人家庭》,三联书店上海分店,1993年,第19页。
⑧陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第78页。
①前引书,第78页。关于鸿福堂演员人数存在争议,麦礼谦先生认为应为123名,而刘伯骥先生则认为应为130名。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
③前引书,第112页。
④前引书,第112页。
⑤陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑥刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑦前引书,第111页。
⑧吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。
⑨刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第112页。
⑩吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
②吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。笔者以为,刘伯骥先生的此种说法似乎存在疑问,因为早期华工一月工资一般不超30美元,还要扣除归还的契约金,食宿费用等,一月所剩无几,怎么可能花费如此高的票价看戏。相较而言,吴景超先生的说法则比较靠谱。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨教育》,台北:海外出版社,1957年出,第71页。
④陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第78页。
⑤丁世良、赵放编:《中国地方志民俗资料汇编·中南卷》下,书目文献出版社,1991年,第813、814、825页台。
⑥陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑦吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第168—169页。
⑧陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》第152页。
⑨前引书,第29页。
⑩前引书,第120页。
①吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第180页。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第120页。
③贡特·巴特著,彭家礼译:《苦力:1850—1870年美国华工史》,哈佛大学出版社,1964年,转引自陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第82页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁录》,第62—63页。
③吴景超著,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第265—266页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第413页。
②前引书,第415页。
③刘伯骥编:《美国华侨教育》,第71页。
④陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第411页。
⑥前引书,第412页。
①前引书,第412页。
②前引书,第413页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第437页。
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.40.
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第87页。
⑥前引书,第152页。
①前引书,第155页。
②庄晓东编:《文化传播:历史、理论与现实》,北京:人民出版社2003年,第35页。
③吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第79页。
①朱增朴:《文化传播论》〔M〕,北京:中国广播电视出版社,1993年,第55页。
②雷雨田:《传教士与近代香港的中西文化交流》,《广州师院学报》,1997年第3期。
③《旧约全书》,“以赛亚书”,第45章。
①《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第28章。
②《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第16章。
③《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第16章。
④张群芳:《近代来华传教士笔下的中国形象》,《乐山师范学院学报》,2006年第4期,第92页。
⑤《在〈人民报〉创刊纪念会上的演讲》,《马克思恩格斯选集》(第2卷),北京:人民出版社,1972年,第79页。
⑥威利斯顿·沃克:《基督教会史),北京:中国社会科学出版社,1991年,第595页。
⑦史静环、王立新:《基督教教育与中国只知识分子》,福州:福建教育出版社1998年,第38页。
①王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,天津:天津人民出版社,2008年,第8页。
②前引书,第8页。
③蒋锐:《“他者”的映像——读《19世纪德国新教传教士的中国观》》,《史学理论研究》,2003年第4期,第131—136页。
①Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.2.
②Otis Gibson,Chinese in American, pp.125-127.
③Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.141.
④Joseph Cook, The Three Despised Races in the United States, or the Chinman,the Idian,the Freeman,New York Missionary Association,1878,p.50.
⑤Ibid,p.20.
⑥杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第181页。
①前引书,第185页。
②Wesley Woo, Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850-1920, p.38.
③Daniel Liestman,“To Win Redeemed Souls from Heathen Darkness: Protestant Response to the Chinese of the Pacific Northwest in the Late Nineteenth Century”.
①Robert SeagerⅡ,“Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California ,1856-1892”.
②Ibid,,p.65.
③Ibid,p.62.
④Ibid,p.62.
⑤Editorial, Independent, Mar.10,1892,p.13.
⑥Robert SeagerⅡ,“Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California ,1856-1892”, p.64.
①Wesley Woo, Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850 -1920, pp.45-56.
②Kenneth J. Guest, God in Chinatown: Religion and Scuvival in New York’s Evolving Immmigrant Community, p.103.
③Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876—1994), pp.43-44.
④王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第10—13页。
①T.K.Thomas,Christianity in Asia:Northeast Asia,Christian Conference of Asia,1979,p.13.转引自王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第11页。
①前引书,第12页。
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.19.
③Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.54.
①Witness Lee, Behold the lamb of God,Who take away the sins of the world,New York: CCB Publishing, p.14.
②Townsend,L.,the Chinese Problem,Boston:Lee and Shepardl,1876,p.178.
③Witness Lee,Behold the lamb of God,Who take away the sins of the world,p.14.
④Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A .,The Church at Home and Abroad ,Volume IV,1890, Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath School Work etc.,Pp.277-278.
⑤Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, P.5.
①刘新良:《文化传播方式与文化传播手段》,《广东教育》,2006年第20期。
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第26页。
③Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.73.
①Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, Introduction, p.5.
②Charles King-Wai Kwok, the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.23.
③早期在美国华人中间传教的传教士许多都有过在中国传教的经历,比如,士比亚牧师曾于1846—1849年在广东传教,罗美斯牧师则在宁波传教7年,舒克牧师是第一位到中国传教的浸信会牧师。但遗憾的事,笔者在查阅关于在中国的传教士的学术研究中并没有发现关于他们的记载。
④Charles King-Wai Kwok, the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.24.
①Ibid, p.63.
②L.Townsend,the Chinese Problem, p.165.
③Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.67.
④刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第440页。
①Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.64.
②Ibid,p.64.
③Ibid,p.65.
④L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem, p.167.
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第225页。
⑥Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.67.
①Wesley Woo,Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850 -1920, p.45.
②Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.83.
③Ibid,p.66.
④J. M. Reid, D. D.,Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church,Volumes Vol.1,p.67.
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第420—421页。
②Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.66.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第423页。
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), pp.67-68.
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第225页。
⑥Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., pp.23-24.
①麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第26页。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第440页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第420页。
①Karl Fung ,The Dragon Pilgrims :A Historical Study of A Chinese Church ,p.28.
②Ibid,p.28.
③Ibid,p.23.
④Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.65.
①Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration, p.446.
②表中最后一项成员数统计存在问题:表中各个数据之和应为324人,而该项的合计项给出的是419人。
③Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”,Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①根据《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》(第6页)、《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》(第146页)、《美洲华侨华人史》(第197页)中的数据综合计算而来。
②令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,前言第2页。有学者提出了不同的数据,认为“1870年,1769名年龄在15岁以上的华人女性中,1452名是娼妓”(Charles King-Wai Kwok: the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.36.)。笔者查阅了历年美国华人妇女移民的人数,发现1870年美国华人妇女人数为4,357人,因此,推断1870年15岁以上的美国华人妇女人数不应该只有1769人,不到妇女总数的50%,因此,推断第一种说法是正确的。
③令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第58页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.; Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., 2000, UMI:9977618,pp.38-39.;令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第37页。
⑤陈依范:《美国华人史》,第78页。
①令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第37页。
②前引书,第60页。
③前引书,第60页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A.,pp.24-35.
②Ibid,pp.24-35.
③J. M. Reid,D.D.,Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Volumes Vol.1,pp.147-163.
④令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
⑤Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., Pp.37-38.;陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第228页。
⑥Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.38.
⑦Ibid,p.36.
⑧Ibid,p.40.
⑨Lucie Cheng Hirata,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America Signs”, pp.27-28.
①Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①Ibid, pp.637-638.
②Ibid, p. 638.
③Victor G.Nee and Brett de Bary Nee,Longtime California:A Documentary Study of An American Chinatown,New York: Pantheon Books,1973,pp.85-86.
①令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
②Carol Green Wilson,China Quest:One Hundred Years of Donaldina Cameron House 1874-1974,San Francisco: California Historical Society,1974,p.31.
③令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第118页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
⑤M.H.Faton., "A Christian Chinese Wedding," Occident, May 1, 1878, p. 6.
①Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, P.636.
②Ibid,P. 636.
③Ibid,P. 636.
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), pp.66-67.
⑤Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women”, p. 637.
①Woman's Occidental Board of Foreign Missions, Annual Report, 1901.
②Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, p. 640.
③Lucie Cheng Hirata ,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America”, p.28.
④令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
①Otis Gibson, Chinese in American, pp.111-112.
②Rev.Ira M.Condit,D.D.,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him,p.107.
①L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem. p.69.
②Ibid, p.69.
③Rev. Obtis Gibson,Chinese in American, pp.179-180.
①L.Townsend,The Chinese Problem, p.178.
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,p.132.
③吴景超著,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:同化与共生》,第166页。
④William Speer,The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China and the United States,pp.659-660.
⑤陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,Canada,Toronto: Royal Kingsway Inc,第23页。
⑥Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.175.
⑦Ibid,p.420.
⑧陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
⑨Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.69.
①吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第166页。
②Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration, p.446.
③陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
④Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.234.
⑤Ibid,p.256.
①Karl Fung, The Dragon Pilgrims :A Historical Study of A Chinese Church, p.21.
②Ibid,p.21.
③Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.415.
④Rev. Robert G. Hutchins,“Los Angeles Congregational Chinese Mission”, The American Missionary,May, 1889 Vol XLⅢ, NO.5.
①“The Evangelistic Work”, The American Missionary, Vol. XLII. June, 1888. No.6.
②Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.69.
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.111.
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.77.
⑤Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.109.
①William Pond,“Evangelistic Work”, The American Missionary,Vol. XLII. June, 1888. No. 6.
②Ira M.Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.112.
③Ibid, p.112.
①Rev.Otis Gibson,Chinese in American,pp.186-189.
②Ibid,p.190.
③Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.114.
④吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第166页。
⑤Rev.Otis Gibson,Chinese in American,pp.192-193.
①Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.78.
②顾长声:《传教士与近代中国》,上海:上海人民出版社1991年,第336页。
③陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
①方箫:《跨文化传播过程中的误读与歧视》,《新闻传播》,2007年第10期,第57页。
①杨秉捷:《传播学基础知识》,北京:中国财经经济出版社,第39页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,台北:南天书局1997年,第66页。
①董芳苑等著:《另一个世界的秘密》,台湾:宇宙光出版社1981,第232—237页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,第68页。
①[美]许烺光,彭凯平、刘文静译:《美国人与中国人:两种生活方式比较》,北京:华夏出版社1989年,第241页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,第67页。
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.126.
④Jacques Gernet,China and Christian Impact:A Conflict of Cultures,London:Cambridge University Press,p.84.
⑤Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, p.208.
①L.Townsend, The Chinese Problem, P.74.
②范正义:《20世纪80年代以来基督教与民间信仰关系研究述评》,《福建师范大学学报》,2005年第6期,第116页。
③“教案”,指西方传教士在中国传教过程中与中国民众发生的冲突事件,有时会酿成流血冲突。据张广智先生记载,自1861年贵阳教案开始至1900年义和团运动的爆发,中国共发生大小教案400余起,尤以19世纪60年代、70年代和90年代发生的“贵阳教案”、“天津教案”和“巨野教案”等最为严重。张广智:《近代中国对基督教人华的回应—一项现代新史学的理论论释》,《复旦学报》,1998年第3期,第54页。
④Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, The Church at Home and Abroad, Volume XIII, 1893, P.269.
⑤Louis J.Beck, New York’s Chinatown: an Historical Presentation of it’s People and Places, New York: Bothemia Publishing 1898,pp.243-244.
⑥Ibid,p.243.
①Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, The Church at Home and Abroad, Volume XIII, 1893, p.267.
②Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.124.
③Thomas G. Selby,As A Chinaman Saw Us,London:T.Fisher Unwin,1901,p.217.
①Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.123.
②Louis J.Beck, New York’s Chinatown: an Historical Presentation of it’s People and Places, p.231.
③胡维革、郑权:《文化冲突与反洋教斗争—中国近代“教案”的文化透视》,《东北师大学报》,1999年第1期,第21页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第157页。
②前引书,第158页。
①Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.70.
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③范正义:《20世纪80年代以来基督教与民间信仰关系研究述评》,第115页。
④Rev. Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.36.; Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.230.
⑤杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第452页。
①吴琦幸:《淘金路上》,第155页。
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③陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》第152页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第240页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第341—344页,第355—356页。
⑥张传明:《冲突、调适与融合:美国华人认同变迁(1849——1979)》,硕士论文,暨南大学,2006年,第18—19页。
①Otis Gibson, Chinese in American, pp.87-88.
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第143页
③Wang Zhongxin, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.88.
④杨凤岗:《简析美国华人基督教的社会历史和现状》,第111—121页。
⑤Stewart Culi, Customs of the Chinese in American,p.192.
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第229页。
③Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese immigration, p.90.
④吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第164页。
①John Morrison Reid , Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church1820-1896, Volumes Vol.1, p.151.
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第421页。
①F.J.Master,“Can a Chinese be a Christian?”, Californian, 2(1892), pp627-28.转引自吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第164页。
②Mrs.C.A.Sheldon,“Death Of Leung Kee”,The American Missionary, September, 1889, VOL.XLIII, NO. 9.
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第309页。
④Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”, p.128.
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,,p.137.
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第157页。
④前引书,第243页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第116—117页。
②J.S.Tow, Real Chinese American Being an attempt to give the general American public a fuller knowledge and a better understanding of the Chinese people in the United States ,The Academy Press 112 Fourth Ave., N- Y. C. 1923,pp.69-71.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第118页。
①Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration,p.439.
②J. S. Tow, Real Chinese American Being an attempt to give the general American public a fuller knowledge and a better understanding of the Chinese people in the United States , pp.68-69.
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”, p.154-168.
①Rev. Ira M. Condit, D.D., The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years Work for Him.
②“Confucius and Christ—A Letter From Hong Sing”,The American Missionary ,October, 1888. Volume XLII, No. 10.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
①J.E.Roy,D.D. ,“Two Chinese Anniversaries”, The American Missionary,April, 1890, Vol. XLIV. No. 4.
②“Confucius and Christ—A Letter From Hong Sing”,The American Missionary ,October, 1888. Volume XLII No. 10.
③J.E.Roy,D.D.“Two Chinese Anniversaries”, The American Missionary,April, 1890, Vol. XLIV, No. 4.
④Paul Cohen,Discovering History in China:American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past,Columbia University Press,1984.转引自王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国的现代化》,第303页。①L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem, p.65.
①王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第237页。
②前引书,第134页。
①前引书,第250页。
②张群芳:《近代来华传教士笔下的中国形象》,《乐山师范学院学报》,2006年第4期,第92页。
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1. http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=%28missionary%20chinese%29
2. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3167/is_2001_Annual?pnum=11&opg=n28831558&tag=artBody;col1
3. http://www.digitalbookindex.com/_SEARCH/search010hstusimmigchinesea.asp
4. http://www.cla.purdue.edu/sociology/religion/Articles/Articles.htm
②许国林:《20余年来我国学者对美国移民史的研究》,《郑州大学学报》,2004年第5期。
③丁智勇:《美国大选中的宗教因素》,《中国宗教》, 2005年第1期。
①N.J.Smith-Hefner,“Ethnicity and the force of faith: Christian conversion among Khmer Refugees”, Anthropological Quarterly 67(1994):24-37.
②Stephen R.Warner,“Approaching Religious Diversity: Barriers, Byways, and Beginnings”, Sociology of Religion , Vol. 59, No. 3 (Autumn, 1998), pp. 193-215.
③Ibid, pp193-215.
④Harry S. Stout,“Ethnicity: The Vital Center of Religion in America,”Ethnicity2(2):204-24. 1975,p.204.
①Steven J. Gold,“Review: Gatherings in the Diaspora: Religious Communities and the New Immigration”, Social Forces , Vol. 77, No. 4 (Jun., 1999), pp. 1666-1668.
②Fenggang Yang; Helen Rose Ebaugh,“Transformations in New Immigrant Religions and Their Global Implications”, American Sociological Review 66 (2), 2001, pp.269-288.
③例如:Portes, Alejandro; Ruben G. Rumbaut, Immigrant American: A Portrait, Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1990;Charles Hirschman, Philip Kasinitz, and Josh De Wind, eds, the Handbook of International Migration: The American Experience. New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1999.都很少关于移民宗教的研究等。
④Peter A Kivisto,“Religion and the New Immigrants”,in A Future for Religion? New Paradigms for Social Analysis, edited by W. H. Swators. Jr. Newbury, Park,CA: Sage, 1993, Pp. 92-107.; R. Stephen Warner,“Approaching Religious Diversity: Barriers, Byways and Beginnings”,Sociology of Religion 59, 1998, Pp.193-215.; David Yoo,“For Those Who Have Eyes to See: Religious Sightings in Asian American”, Amerasia Journal 22, 1996, pp. xiii-xxii.
⑤Pyong Gap Min and Jung Ha Kim eds., Religions in Asian America: Building Faith Communities, Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press, 2002, p. 275.
①杨凤岗:《北美华人宗教》,《中国宗教》,2001年第1期。
②《在美华人的信教:移民帮助重燃美国的基督教》,《华盛顿邮报》,2003年1月11日。
③文军:《感受美国的基督教文化——一位社会学者的访美札记》,网络http://www.xschina.org/show.php?id=458,2009年3月8日下载。
①Fenggang Yang,“Chinese Conversion to Evangelical Christianity: The Importance of Social and Cultural Contexts”, Sociology of Religion: A Quarterly Review59 (3), 1998,pp.237-257.
②Yuting Wang and Fenggang Yang,“More Than Evangelical and Ethnic: The Ecological Factor in Chinese Conversion to Christianity in the United States”, Sociology of Religion: A Quarterly Review 67 (2), 2006, pp.179-192.
①Brian Hall, Chinese American Students at the Border of Christian Faith, A Dissertation submitted to the Graduate School-New Brunswick Rutgers, The States University of New Jerdey,2002,UMI Number:3055055
②Xuefeng Zhang,“How Religious Organization Influence Chinese Conversion to Evangelical Protestantism in the United States”, Sociology of Religion, 2006, Vol. 67,pp.149-159.
③杨凤岗:《简析美国华人基督教的社会历史和现状》,载王忠欣主编:《多元化的中国与基督教》,加拿大恩福协会,2001年,第111—121页。
④Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, 1999.
⑤Fenggang Yang,“Tenacious Unity in a Contentious Community: Cultural and Religious Dynamics in a Chinese Christian Church”,Gatherings in Diaspora: Religious Communities and the New Immigration, edited by R. Stephen Warner and Judith G.Wittner,Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press,1998, pp.333-361.
①Erika Amuse, The Evangelical Church in Boston’s Chinatown: A Discourse of Language Gender and Identity, New York: Routledge, 2005.
②Kwai Hang Ng,“Seeking the Christian Tutelage: Agency and Culture in Chinese Immigrants' Conversion to Christianity”, Sociology of Religion, Vol. 63, No. 2 (Summer, 2002), pp.195-214.
③Tony Carnes and Fenggang Yang, Asian American religions: The Making and Remaking of Borders and Boundaries, New York: New York University Press, 2004.
①Fenggang Yang,“ABC and XYZ: Religious, Ethnic and Racial Identities of the New Second Generation Chinese in Christian Churches”, Amerasia Journal 25 (1), 1999, pp.89-114.
②Russell Jeung, Faithful Generations: Race and New Asian American Churches, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press,2005,p.158.
③Carolyn Chen,“The Religious Varieties of Ethnic Presence: A Comparison between a Taiwanese Immigrant Buddhist Temple and an Evangelical Christian Church”,Sociology of Religion,Vol.63,No.2(Summer, 2002),pp.215-238.
④Fenggang Yang,“The Chinese Gospel Church: The Sinicization of Christianity”, in Religion and The New Immigrants: Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant Congregations, eds by Helen Rose Ebaugh and Janet S.Chafetz,Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press,2000,pp.89-107.
⑤Fenggang Yang,“Hsi Nan Buddhist Temple: Seeking to Americanize”,in Religion and The New Immigrants: Continuities and Adaptations in Immigrant Congregations, eds by Helen Rose Ebaugh and Janet S. Chafetz, Walnut Creek, CA: AltaMira Press, 2000, pp.67-87.
①Fenggang Yang and Helen Rose Ebaugh,“Religion and Ethnicity among New Immigrants: The Impact of Majority/Minority Status in Home and Host Countries”,Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 40 (3) 2001, pp.367-378.
②Kenneth J.Guest,God in Chinatown: Religion and Scuvival in New York’s Evolving Immmigrant Community,New York:New York University Press,2003.
①Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, California, San Diego: Providence Press,1989.
②Wesley Woo, Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850-1920, Ph.D Dissertation, Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley,California, 1983.
③Robert SeagerⅡ,“Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California,1856-1892”,The Pacific Historical Review, Vol.28, N0.1.(Feb., 1959),pp.49-66.
④Daniel Liestman,“To Win Redeemed Souls from Heathen Darkness: Protestant Response to the Chinese of the Pacific Northwest in the Late Nineteenth Century”,The Western Historical Quarterly,Vol. 24, No. 2. (May, 1993), Pp.179-201.
⑤Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), Dissertation, Boston University School of Theology, 2000,UMI Number:9972181.
①Charles King-Wai Kwok,The Chinese Churches in The U.S.A.,A Dissertation Submitted to The Faculty of Hartford Seminary in Candidacy,2000, UMI Number: 9977618.
②Joseph shu-Kin Mok, D.Min, Healing Ministry and The North American Cantonese -speaking Chinese Churches, A Dissertation Submitted to Fuller Theological Seminary, Doctor of Ministry,1993, UMI:48106
③Arnold Jone Wong,Case Studies Comparing Pastor/Staff Relationships in Chinese Churches, Dissertation: Dallas Theological Seminary, Dallas, Texas,1997, NMI Number:9724374.
④Alan Keung Ginn,Vital Signs of Multiple-staff Ministry in Chinese Churches, A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Talbot School of Theology Biola University,1995, UMI Number:9613136.
⑤Beverly Joan Butcher,Ph.D.,Remembrance, Emulation,Imagination: The Chinese and Chinese American Catholic Ancestor Memorial Service, Dissertation, University,1994, Order Number:9503744.
⑥http://old.cccowe.org/churchreport,2009年3月10日下载。
①杨凤岗:《简析美国华人基督教的社会历史和现状》,王忠欣主编,《多元化的中国与基督教》,加拿大恩福协会出版,2001年,第111—121页。
②杨凤岗:《北美华人宗教》,《中国宗教》,2001年第1期,第51-53页。
③刘权:《美国华人教会的社会功能探析》,《华侨华人历史研究》,2006年第2期。
④文军:《感受美国的基督教文化——一位社会学者的访美札记》,网络http://www.xschina.org/show.php?id=458,2009年3月8日下载。
⑤黎静、马碧雯、欧阳伏:《对美国华人宗教组织及其作用的新认识》,《华侨与华人》2006年12月第2期。
⑥邱燕娜:《美国华人信仰基督教的历程研究》,硕士论文,暨南大学,2007年。
⑦贾志月:《美国华人基督教研究综述》,《八桂侨刊》,2008年第1期。
⑧杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,广州:广东高等教育出版社,1989年。
⑨刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,台北:黎明文化事业股份有限公司,1982年。
⑩刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,台北:黎明文化事业股份有限公司,1981年。11麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人发展史》,香港:三联书店有限公司,1992年。12令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1999年。13陈依范先生的著作国内学界共有三个译本:陈依范著,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,北京:工人出版社,1985年;陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,北京:世界知识出版社,1987年;陈依范著,殷志鹏、廖慈节译:《美国华人发展史》,三联书店香港分店,1982年。14[美]宋李瑞芳,朱永涛译:《美国华人的历史和现状》,北京:商务印书馆,1984年。15吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,天津:天津人民出版社,1991年。
①董小川:《20世纪美国宗教与政治》,北京:人民出版社,2002年。
②董小川:《儒家文化与美国基督新教文化》,北京:商务印书馆,1999年。
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④刘澎:《当代美国宗教》,北京:社会科学出版社,2001年。
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①Charles Edwin Bradt,William Robert King and Herbert Ware Reherd, Around The World Studies and Stories of Presbyterian Foreign Missions, Wichita,Kanasas:The Missionary Press CO.(Inc.),1912,p.439.
①孙逊在其博士论文《美国华侨华人与台湾当局对其政策研究(1949-2002)》(中国人民解放军外国语学院,2007年)中对美国华人社会的界定,本文认同该概念。
②罗杰斯,殷晓蓉译:《传播学史:一种传记式的方法》,上海:上海译文出版社,2002年,第211—254页。
①王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国的现代化》,天津:天津人民出版社,2008年,第303—304页。
②Jiwu Wang,“His Dominion”and the“Yellow Peril”:Protestant Missions to Chinese Immigrants: 1859-1967,Canadian corporation for Studies in Religion/Corporation canadianne des Science Religieues and wilfrid Iaurier University Press, 2006.
①William Speer ,D.D, The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China and the United States, Hartford, Conn.: Scranton and Company,1870.
②Rev. Otis Gibson, A. M.,Chinese in American, Cincinnati: Hitchcock & Walden,1877.
③Rev. Ira M. Condit, D.D., The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him,New York: Fleming H. Revell Company,1900.
④Samuel Wells Williams, Chinese immigration, New York: Charles Scribner's sons, 1879.
⑤American Home Missionary Society,American Home Missionary Society Executive Committee,Report of the American Home Missionary Society (1851,1852).
①Presbyterian mission,Report of the Presbyterian mission to the Chinese in California, San Francisco: George Spaulding & co., 1881.;Board of Foreign Missions. Annual reports of the mission of the Presbyterian Church to the Chinese in California, for 1874.San Francisco: Occident print, 434 California street, 1875.
②Methodist Episcopal Church,Report of the Chinese mission to California Conference, for year ending August 31st, 1889,San Francisco, 1889.
③Methodist Episcopal Church,History of the mission of the Methodist Episcopal Church in California,San Francisco: B. F. Street, printer, 532 Clay street, 1877.
④California Chinese Mission,Twenty-sixth annual report,Presented at the annual meeting held in San Francisco, December 30,1901.San Francisco: Bacon & co., 508 Clay st., 1876.
⑤Presbyterian Church & Woman's foreign missionary society, Historical Sketches of the Missions Under the Care of the Board of Foreign Missions of the Presbyterian Church (1881、1886、1891)
⑥Mary Emily Wright,The Missionary Work Of The Southern Baptist Convention, Philadelphia: Emerican Baptist publication Society 1420 Chestnut Street,1902.
⑦Lorilla E. Bushnell,The Story of Our Baptist Missionary Work, American Baptist Publication Society, 1909.
⑧Rev. Edmund F. Merriam,The American Baptist Missionary Union And Its Missions, Boston: American Baptist Missionary Union,1897.
⑨S.D. Denison, A History Foreign Missionary Work of the protestant Episcopal Church, New York: The Church Press: M.H. Mallory and Company, Hartford,CT.1871.
⑩Rev. J. M, Reid, D.D., Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church,New York:Phillips& Hunt,1879. 11American Missionary Association , Congregational Home Missionary Society,The American Missionary(1888-1896、1917、1919、1921). 12American Home Missionary Society and Congregational Home Missionary Society,The Home Missionary (1852-1900). 13American Baptist Foreign Mission Society,The Missionary Magazine (1850-1869). 14Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A .,The Church at Home and Abroad (1887-1894). 15Rev. Justus Doolittle, The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal(1871-1914).
①吴景超著,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第23页。
②林德荣:《西洋航路移民—明清闽粤移民荷属东印度与海峡殖民地的研究》,江西高校出版社,2006年,第2页。
①陈依范著,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第22页。
②林德荣:《西洋航路移民—明清闽粤移民荷属东印度与海峡殖民地的研究》,第32页。
③李连广:《1848—1882年华人移民美国原因探析》,《黑龙江教育学院学报》,2005年第6期。
④梅伟强、张国雄:《五邑华侨华人史》,广州:广东高等教育出版社,2001年,第29页。
⑤刘权:《广东华侨华人史》,第3页。
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①故宫博物院:《恩平县志(卷14)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第10页
②故宫博物院:《新宁县志(卷4)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第27页
③故宫博物院:《赤溪县志(卷8)》,海口:海南出版社,2001年,第26页
④李连广:《1848—1882年华人移民美国原因探析》,第95页。
⑤前引书,第95页。
⑥中共中央编译局:《马克思恩格斯全集(第39卷)》,北京:人民出版社,1974年,第297页。
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②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第43页。
③周敏著,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,北京:商务印书馆,1995年,第37页。
④杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第2页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第120页。
②生键红:《美国太平洋铁路建设中的华工》,博士论文,上海师范大学,2007年,第24页。
③李明欢:《欧洲华侨华人史》,北京:中国华侨出版社,2002年,第21页。
④《大清会典事例》,卷120。
⑤王铁崖编:《中外旧约章汇编》第一册,三联书店,1957年,第145页。
⑥前引书,第262页。
①陈依范,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第5页。
②前引书,第4页。
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第13页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第116页。
⑤吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第13页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第117页。
②庄国士:《从移民到选民:1965年以来美国华人社会的发展变化》,《世界历史》,2004年第2期。
③由于本文考察的对象为19世纪时期的美国华人教会情况,故对于19世纪以后的美国华人移民情况不做详细介绍。
①杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第11页。
②前引书,第223页。
③李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第197页。李春辉、杨生茂两位先生在书中列出的1910年华人妇女的数据为161人,而令狐萍先生在《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》中第146页列出的数据为4675人,二者相差实在悬殊,权衡再三,161实为太少,不足信,故采纳令狐萍先生的数据补之。
④Lucie Cheng Hirata,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth- Century America”, Women in Latin America (Autumn, 1979),Signs, Vol. 5, No. 1, pp.3-29.
①Sucheng Chan,“The Exclusion of Chinese Women”,in Entry Denied:Exclusion and the Chinese Community in American, 1882-1943, ed,Sucheng Chan,Philadelphia:Temple University Press, 1991,pp.94-146.
②George Anthony Peffer,“Forbidden Families:Emigration Experence of Chinese Women under the Page Law, 1875-1882”, Journal of American Ethnic History6,No.1(1986):pp.28-46.
③Vincent Tang,“Chinese Women Immigrants and the Two-Edged Sword of Habeas Corpus”, in The Chinese American Experience: Papers from the Second National Conference on Chinese American Studies,ed.Genny Lim,Chinese Historical Society of America&the Chinese Culture Foundation of San Francisco,1980,pp.48-56.
④彼察《厦门志》(Pitcher, In and About Amoy),1910年,第130页,转引自生键红:《美国中央太平洋铁路建设中的华工》,博士论文,上海师范大学,2007年。
①万晓宏:《当代美国华人政治参与》,博士论文,暨南大学,2005年,第16页。
②刘莲芬:《试论19世纪后半期美国的排华问题》,《贵州师范大学学报》,1999年第3期。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第113页。
②前引书,第113页。
③陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第七辑,第167页。
④陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第166页。
⑤前引书,第88页。
⑥前引书,第101页。
①陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第172—173页。
②前引书,第171页。
③前引书,第171页。
④刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第510页。
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第171页。
⑥乔治·F·西华:《美国的中国移民——论它的社会和经济方面》,转引自陈翰笙主编:《华工出国史料汇编》(七) ,第63页。
⑦刘莲芬:《试论19世纪后半期美国的排华问题》,《贵州师范大学学报》,1999年第3期。
①高秋芬:《美国1882年排华法案的历史原因探析》,《公会论坛》,2007年第6期。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第172—174页。
③前引书,第234—235页。
①U. S. Laws, Statistics etc., Laws Applicable to Immigration and Nationality , Washington : Government Printing Office,1953, pp.211-219.
②杨国标、刘汉标,杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第257页。
③前引书,第260页。
④沈已尧:《海外排华百年史》,北京:中国社会科学出版社,1980年,第26—27页。
⑤朱士嘉:《美国迫害华工史料》,北京:中华书局,1958年,第84—85页。
①周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第51—52页。
②何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
①邝治中:《新唐人街》,第86页
②周敏著,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第44页。
③吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第71—72页。
①尤育号:《早期美国华人社团形成的心理因素》,《广西社会科学》,2006年第4期。
②何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第65页。
④周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第52页。
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第224页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第68页。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第293页。
③前引书,第295页。
④杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第296页。
⑤前引书,第294页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第155页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第60—61页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第101页。
④前引书,第102页。
⑤杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第295页。
⑥前引书,第310页。
①杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第274页。
②李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第157页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第107页。
④陈依范著,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第67页。
《唐人街:共生与同化》,第70页。
①陈依范,郁怡民、郁苓译:《美国华人》,第230页。
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第273—274页。
③前引书,第293页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第237页。
①周敏,鲍霭斌译:《唐人街:深具特色的华人经济社区》,第51页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第77页。
③Milton M.Gordon,Assimilation in American Life:The Role of Race,Religion and National Origins,New York: Oxford University Press,p.81.
④(马)谢爱萍:《族群关系与文化因素》, (马)《星洲日报》,1995年1月1日。
⑤《辞海》(下),上海:上海辞书出版社,1979年,第3510页。
①张岱年、方克立主编:《中国文化概论》,北京:北京师范大学出版社,1994年,第5一7页。
②叶春生:《广府民俗》,广东人民出版社,2000年,第127页。
③谢廷玉:《檀香山先辈华人史》,檀香山:夏威夷大学出版社,1875年,第244页。
④陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第87页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑥吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第167—168页。
⑦前引书,第167—168页。
⑧陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第74页。
①前引书,第294页。
②Arif Dirlik,Chinese on the American Frontier, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.2001,p.59.
③李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
④前引书,第156页。
⑤吴琦幸:《淘金路上》,第136页。
⑥刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第109页。
⑦陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第122页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第221—223页。
②邝治中先生则认为,房口的人员组成在二十到一百人之间。邝治中,杨万译:《纽约唐人街:劳工和政治》,第36页。
③David Te-chao Cheng,Acculturation of the Chinese in the United States: A Philadelphia Study, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania,1948, p.120.
①前引书,第193页。
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第29页。
③何大劲:《早期美国唐人街现象与中华文化凝聚力》,《广州师院学报》,1995年第4期。
④麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第40页。
⑤前引书,第35页。
⑥王迪:《华人社区的冲突、控制与自治——“二战”前美国城市中的中国传统社会组织》,《史学月刊》,2006年第11期。
①麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第36页。
②前引书,第37页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第109页。
②吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第152页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第110页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑥前引书,第109—110页。
⑦薛素珍、陈静英:《美国纽约华人家庭》,三联书店上海分店,1993年,第19页。
⑧陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第78页。
①前引书,第78页。关于鸿福堂演员人数存在争议,麦礼谦先生认为应为123名,而刘伯骥先生则认为应为130名。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
③前引书,第112页。
④前引书,第112页。
⑤陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑥刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
⑦前引书,第111页。
⑧吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。
⑨刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第112页。
⑩吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
②吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第170页。笔者以为,刘伯骥先生的此种说法似乎存在疑问,因为早期华工一月工资一般不超30美元,还要扣除归还的契约金,食宿费用等,一月所剩无几,怎么可能花费如此高的票价看戏。相较而言,吴景超先生的说法则比较靠谱。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨教育》,台北:海外出版社,1957年出,第71页。
④陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第78页。
⑤丁世良、赵放编:《中国地方志民俗资料汇编·中南卷》下,书目文献出版社,1991年,第813、814、825页台。
⑥陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑦吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第168—169页。
⑧陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》第152页。
⑨前引书,第29页。
⑩前引书,第120页。
①吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第180页。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第120页。
③贡特·巴特著,彭家礼译:《苦力:1850—1870年美国华工史》,哈佛大学出版社,1964年,转引自陈翰笙编:《华工出国史料汇编》,第82页。
①李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第154页。
②吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁录》,第62—63页。
③吴景超著,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第265—266页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第413页。
②前引书,第415页。
③刘伯骥编:《美国华侨教育》,第71页。
④陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第152页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第411页。
⑥前引书,第412页。
①前引书,第412页。
②前引书,第413页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第437页。
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.40.
⑤陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第87页。
⑥前引书,第152页。
①前引书,第155页。
②庄晓东编:《文化传播:历史、理论与现实》,北京:人民出版社2003年,第35页。
③吴前进:《美国华侨华人文化变迁论》,第79页。
①朱增朴:《文化传播论》〔M〕,北京:中国广播电视出版社,1993年,第55页。
②雷雨田:《传教士与近代香港的中西文化交流》,《广州师院学报》,1997年第3期。
③《旧约全书》,“以赛亚书”,第45章。
①《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第28章。
②《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第16章。
③《新约全书》,“马太福音”,第16章。
④张群芳:《近代来华传教士笔下的中国形象》,《乐山师范学院学报》,2006年第4期,第92页。
⑤《在〈人民报〉创刊纪念会上的演讲》,《马克思恩格斯选集》(第2卷),北京:人民出版社,1972年,第79页。
⑥威利斯顿·沃克:《基督教会史),北京:中国社会科学出版社,1991年,第595页。
⑦史静环、王立新:《基督教教育与中国只知识分子》,福州:福建教育出版社1998年,第38页。
①王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,天津:天津人民出版社,2008年,第8页。
②前引书,第8页。
③蒋锐:《“他者”的映像——读《19世纪德国新教传教士的中国观》》,《史学理论研究》,2003年第4期,第131—136页。
①Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.2.
②Otis Gibson,Chinese in American, pp.125-127.
③Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.141.
④Joseph Cook, The Three Despised Races in the United States, or the Chinman,the Idian,the Freeman,New York Missionary Association,1878,p.50.
⑤Ibid,p.20.
⑥杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第181页。
①前引书,第185页。
②Wesley Woo, Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850-1920, p.38.
③Daniel Liestman,“To Win Redeemed Souls from Heathen Darkness: Protestant Response to the Chinese of the Pacific Northwest in the Late Nineteenth Century”.
①Robert SeagerⅡ,“Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California ,1856-1892”.
②Ibid,,p.65.
③Ibid,p.62.
④Ibid,p.62.
⑤Editorial, Independent, Mar.10,1892,p.13.
⑥Robert SeagerⅡ,“Some Denominational Reactions to Chinese Immigration to California ,1856-1892”, p.64.
①Wesley Woo, Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850 -1920, pp.45-56.
②Kenneth J. Guest, God in Chinatown: Religion and Scuvival in New York’s Evolving Immmigrant Community, p.103.
③Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876—1994), pp.43-44.
④王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第10—13页。
①T.K.Thomas,Christianity in Asia:Northeast Asia,Christian Conference of Asia,1979,p.13.转引自王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第11页。
①前引书,第12页。
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,, p.19.
③Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.54.
①Witness Lee, Behold the lamb of God,Who take away the sins of the world,New York: CCB Publishing, p.14.
②Townsend,L.,the Chinese Problem,Boston:Lee and Shepardl,1876,p.178.
③Witness Lee,Behold the lamb of God,Who take away the sins of the world,p.14.
④Presbyterian Church in the U.S.A .,The Church at Home and Abroad ,Volume IV,1890, Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath School Work etc.,Pp.277-278.
⑤Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, P.5.
①刘新良:《文化传播方式与文化传播手段》,《广东教育》,2006年第20期。
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第26页。
③Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.73.
①Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, Introduction, p.5.
②Charles King-Wai Kwok, the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.23.
③早期在美国华人中间传教的传教士许多都有过在中国传教的经历,比如,士比亚牧师曾于1846—1849年在广东传教,罗美斯牧师则在宁波传教7年,舒克牧师是第一位到中国传教的浸信会牧师。但遗憾的事,笔者在查阅关于在中国的传教士的学术研究中并没有发现关于他们的记载。
④Charles King-Wai Kwok, the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.24.
①Ibid, p.63.
②L.Townsend,the Chinese Problem, p.165.
③Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.67.
④刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第440页。
①Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.64.
②Ibid,p.64.
③Ibid,p.65.
④L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem, p.167.
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第225页。
⑥Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.67.
①Wesley Woo,Protestant Work Among the Chinese In the San Francisco Area,1850 -1920, p.45.
②Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.83.
③Ibid,p.66.
④J. M. Reid, D. D.,Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church,Volumes Vol.1,p.67.
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第420—421页。
②Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.66.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第423页。
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), pp.67-68.
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第225页。
⑥Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., pp.23-24.
①麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第26页。
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第440页。
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第420页。
①Karl Fung ,The Dragon Pilgrims :A Historical Study of A Chinese Church ,p.28.
②Ibid,p.28.
③Ibid,p.23.
④Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.65.
①Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration, p.446.
②表中最后一项成员数统计存在问题:表中各个数据之和应为324人,而该项的合计项给出的是419人。
③Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”,Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①根据《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》(第6页)、《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》(第146页)、《美洲华侨华人史》(第197页)中的数据综合计算而来。
②令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,前言第2页。有学者提出了不同的数据,认为“1870年,1769名年龄在15岁以上的华人女性中,1452名是娼妓”(Charles King-Wai Kwok: the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.36.)。笔者查阅了历年美国华人妇女移民的人数,发现1870年美国华人妇女人数为4,357人,因此,推断1870年15岁以上的美国华人妇女人数不应该只有1769人,不到妇女总数的50%,因此,推断第一种说法是正确的。
③令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第58页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.; Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., 2000, UMI:9977618,pp.38-39.;令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第37页。
⑤陈依范:《美国华人史》,第78页。
①令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第37页。
②前引书,第60页。
③前引书,第60页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A.,pp.24-35.
②Ibid,pp.24-35.
③J. M. Reid,D.D.,Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church, Volumes Vol.1,pp.147-163.
④令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
⑤Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., Pp.37-38.;陈依范,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》,第228页。
⑥Charles King-Wai Kwok,the Chinese Churches in the U.S.A., p.38.
⑦Ibid,p.36.
⑧Ibid,p.40.
⑨Lucie Cheng Hirata,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America Signs”, pp.27-28.
①Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
①Ibid, pp.637-638.
②Ibid, p. 638.
③Victor G.Nee and Brett de Bary Nee,Longtime California:A Documentary Study of An American Chinatown,New York: Pantheon Books,1973,pp.85-86.
①令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
②Carol Green Wilson,China Quest:One Hundred Years of Donaldina Cameron House 1874-1974,San Francisco: California Historical Society,1974,p.31.
③令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第118页。
④Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, Journal of Social History, Vol. 22, No. 4, (Summer, 1989), pp.631-652.
⑤M.H.Faton., "A Christian Chinese Wedding," Occident, May 1, 1878, p. 6.
①Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, P.636.
②Ibid,P. 636.
③Ibid,P. 636.
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), pp.66-67.
⑤Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women”, p. 637.
①Woman's Occidental Board of Foreign Missions, Annual Report, 1901.
②Peggy Pascoe,“Gender Systems in Conflict: The Marriages of Mission-Educated Chinese American Women, 1874-1939”, p. 640.
③Lucie Cheng Hirata ,“Free, Indentured, Enslaved: Chinese Prostitutes in Nineteenth-Century America”, p.28.
④令狐萍:《金山谣:美国华裔妇女史》,第65—66页。
①Otis Gibson, Chinese in American, pp.111-112.
②Rev.Ira M.Condit,D.D.,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him,p.107.
①L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem. p.69.
②Ibid, p.69.
③Rev. Obtis Gibson,Chinese in American, pp.179-180.
①L.Townsend,The Chinese Problem, p.178.
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,p.132.
③吴景超著,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:同化与共生》,第166页。
④William Speer,The Oldest and the Newest Empire: China and the United States,pp.659-660.
⑤陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,Canada,Toronto: Royal Kingsway Inc,第23页。
⑥Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.175.
⑦Ibid,p.420.
⑧陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
⑨Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.69.
①吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第166页。
②Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration, p.446.
③陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
④Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.234.
⑤Ibid,p.256.
①Karl Fung, The Dragon Pilgrims :A Historical Study of A Chinese Church, p.21.
②Ibid,p.21.
③Rev.Ira M.Condit,The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.415.
④Rev. Robert G. Hutchins,“Los Angeles Congregational Chinese Mission”, The American Missionary,May, 1889 Vol XLⅢ, NO.5.
①“The Evangelistic Work”, The American Missionary, Vol. XLII. June, 1888. No.6.
②Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.69.
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.111.
④Zhongxin Wang, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.77.
⑤Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.109.
①William Pond,“Evangelistic Work”, The American Missionary,Vol. XLII. June, 1888. No. 6.
②Ira M.Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.112.
③Ibid, p.112.
①Rev.Otis Gibson,Chinese in American,pp.186-189.
②Ibid,p.190.
③Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.114.
④吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第166页。
⑤Rev.Otis Gibson,Chinese in American,pp.192-193.
①Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.78.
②顾长声:《传教士与近代中国》,上海:上海人民出版社1991年,第336页。
③陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年1690—1990》,第23页。
①方箫:《跨文化传播过程中的误读与歧视》,《新闻传播》,2007年第10期,第57页。
①杨秉捷:《传播学基础知识》,北京:中国财经经济出版社,第39页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,台北:南天书局1997年,第66页。
①董芳苑等著:《另一个世界的秘密》,台湾:宇宙光出版社1981,第232—237页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,第68页。
①[美]许烺光,彭凯平、刘文静译:《美国人与中国人:两种生活方式比较》,北京:华夏出版社1989年,第241页。
②[美]许烺光,单德兴译:《美国梦的挑战:在美国的华人》,第67页。
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.126.
④Jacques Gernet,China and Christian Impact:A Conflict of Cultures,London:Cambridge University Press,p.84.
⑤Fenggang Yang,Chinese Christians in America: Conversion, Assimilation, and Adhesive Identities, p.208.
①L.Townsend, The Chinese Problem, P.74.
②范正义:《20世纪80年代以来基督教与民间信仰关系研究述评》,《福建师范大学学报》,2005年第6期,第116页。
③“教案”,指西方传教士在中国传教过程中与中国民众发生的冲突事件,有时会酿成流血冲突。据张广智先生记载,自1861年贵阳教案开始至1900年义和团运动的爆发,中国共发生大小教案400余起,尤以19世纪60年代、70年代和90年代发生的“贵阳教案”、“天津教案”和“巨野教案”等最为严重。张广智:《近代中国对基督教人华的回应—一项现代新史学的理论论释》,《复旦学报》,1998年第3期,第54页。
④Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, The Church at Home and Abroad, Volume XIII, 1893, P.269.
⑤Louis J.Beck, New York’s Chinatown: an Historical Presentation of it’s People and Places, New York: Bothemia Publishing 1898,pp.243-244.
⑥Ibid,p.243.
①Presbyterian Board of Publication and Sabbath-School Work, The Church at Home and Abroad, Volume XIII, 1893, p.267.
②Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.124.
③Thomas G. Selby,As A Chinaman Saw Us,London:T.Fisher Unwin,1901,p.217.
①Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.123.
②Louis J.Beck, New York’s Chinatown: an Historical Presentation of it’s People and Places, p.231.
③胡维革、郑权:《文化冲突与反洋教斗争—中国近代“教案”的文化透视》,《东北师大学报》,1999年第1期,第21页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史续编》,第157页。
②前引书,第158页。
①Zhongxin Wang,A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994),p.70.
②王立新:《后殖民理论与基督教在华传教史研究》,《史学理论研究》,2005年第3期,第35页。
③范正义:《20世纪80年代以来基督教与民间信仰关系研究述评》,第115页。
④Rev. Ira M. Condit, The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years work for Him, p.36.; Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”,p.230.
⑤杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第452页。
①吴琦幸:《淘金路上》,第155页。
②陈国华编:《先驱者的脚印:海外华人教育三百年,1690—1990》〔M〕,Royal Kingsway Inc.1992年,第29页。
③陈依范著,韩有毅、何勇、鲍川运译:《美国华人史》第152页。
④李春辉、杨生茂编:《美洲华侨华人史》,第240页。
⑤刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第341—344页,第355—356页。
⑥张传明:《冲突、调适与融合:美国华人认同变迁(1849——1979)》,硕士论文,暨南大学,2006年,第18—19页。
①Otis Gibson, Chinese in American, pp.87-88.
②麦礼谦:《从华侨到华人:二十世纪美国华人社会发展史》,第143页
③Wang Zhongxin, A History of Chinese Churches in Boston(1876-1994), p.88.
④杨凤岗:《简析美国华人基督教的社会历史和现状》,第111—121页。
⑤Stewart Culi, Customs of the Chinese in American,p.192.
②杨国标、刘汉标、杨安尧:《美国华侨史》,第229页。
③Mary Roberts Coolidge, Chinese immigration, p.90.
④吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第164页。
①John Morrison Reid , Missions and Missionary Society of the Methodist Episcopal Church1820-1896, Volumes Vol.1, p.151.
②刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第421页。
①F.J.Master,“Can a Chinese be a Christian?”, Californian, 2(1892), pp627-28.转引自吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第164页。
②Mrs.C.A.Sheldon,“Death Of Leung Kee”,The American Missionary, September, 1889, VOL.XLIII, NO. 9.
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第309页。
④Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”, p.128.
②Karl Fung,The Dragon Pilgrims: A History of A Chinese Church,,p.137.
③吴景超,筑生译,郁林校:《唐人街:共生与同化》,第157页。
④前引书,第243页。
①刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第116—117页。
②J.S.Tow, Real Chinese American Being an attempt to give the general American public a fuller knowledge and a better understanding of the Chinese people in the United States ,The Academy Press 112 Fourth Ave., N- Y. C. 1923,pp.69-71.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第118页。
①Mary Roberts Coolidge,Chinese immigration,p.439.
②J. S. Tow, Real Chinese American Being an attempt to give the general American public a fuller knowledge and a better understanding of the Chinese people in the United States , pp.68-69.
③Wesley Woo,“Chinese Protestants in the San Francisco Bay Area”, p.154-168.
①Rev. Ira M. Condit, D.D., The Chinaman as We See Him and Fifty Years Work for Him.
②“Confucius and Christ—A Letter From Hong Sing”,The American Missionary ,October, 1888. Volume XLII, No. 10.
③刘伯骥:《美国华侨史》,第111页。
①J.E.Roy,D.D. ,“Two Chinese Anniversaries”, The American Missionary,April, 1890, Vol. XLIV. No. 4.
②“Confucius and Christ—A Letter From Hong Sing”,The American Missionary ,October, 1888. Volume XLII No. 10.
③J.E.Roy,D.D.“Two Chinese Anniversaries”, The American Missionary,April, 1890, Vol. XLIV, No. 4.
④Paul Cohen,Discovering History in China:American Historical Writing on the Recent Chinese Past,Columbia University Press,1984.转引自王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国的现代化》,第303页。①L.Townsend, the Chinese Problem, p.65.
①王立新:《美国传教士与晚清中国现代化》,第237页。
②前引书,第134页。
①前引书,第250页。
②张群芳:《近代来华传教士笔下的中国形象》,《乐山师范学院学报》,2006年第4期,第92页。
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1. http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=%28missionary%20chinese%29
2. http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_hb3167/is_2001_Annual?pnum=11&opg=n28831558&tag=artBody;col1
3. http://www.digitalbookindex.com/_SEARCH/search010hstusimmigchinesea.asp
4. http://www.cla.purdue.edu/sociology/religion/Articles/Articles.htm