中国古代菊花谱录的园艺学研究
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摘要
菊花谱录是我国所有古代观赏植物谱录中数量最多、内容最丰富的。但至今尚未对其进行完整、系统的研究和总结。菊谱中记载着历代菊花品种的性状,通过分析统计可以寻找中国古代菊花品种演进的线索。菊谱中许多有关品种的记述方式以及品种命名、分类及鉴赏思想至今仍有可借鉴之处。菊谱中记述的详尽、有效的栽培和育种技术对当今菊花栽培和育种仍有一定参考价值。
本文作者在对中国古代菊谱的全面收录的基础上,按照不同朝代、不同问题对其中的数据进行了数学统计分析,从园艺学的角度对中国古代菊谱的内容进行了全面的考证,得到如下结果：
1.对中国古代菊花谱录的数量、成书年代、成书地域、存世状况进行了全面考证,经统计发现,中国菊花谱录历史上曾经出现68部,现尚存世46部。按照内容可将其分为品种谱、栽培技艺谱、画谱、品类诗谱、综合谱五大类。
2.从文献记载的角度分析了中国菊花品种演进的过程。中国古代菊谱中所记载的菊花品种共2886个,经查重发现共有1776个品种。品种发展趋势为：宋朝菊花主要为小菊,花径大多在2.3cm到3.5cm之间；花色以黄、白菊为主；花型表现为筒状花发达,重瓣性较弱等特点。主要为野生菊花向栽培菊花的过渡类型。明代中期菊花花径大约为6.5到10cm之间。晚期有花径超过15cm的品种出现；明代菊花花色与宋代相比,红、紫、粉、复色品种比例大大增高,并出现了墨色品种；花型在明代有了质的发展,在明代晚期,已经上形成了中国现在大菊品种的品种群雏形。清代菊花的花径有了显著的增长,四寸(13.2cm)以上的品种明显增多,甚至有花径30cm的品种出现；清代品种的花色极为丰富,花型也进一步丰富。菊花瓣型的演化规律为平瓣类品种所占比例随着时间的推移逐渐下降,管瓣类则逐渐上升,明代是瓣型分化发展最快的时期,匙瓣和桂瓣开始出现,他们二者和畸瓣一样比例发展较为稳定。清代各个瓣型所占比例已经和现代十分相近。
3.获得了关于菊花品种命名和品种分类的历史发展过程。宋代开创了按花色分类的先河,其品种名多为两个字,主要反映出的信息为花色、花期、产地、瓣型等,体现出了品种的原始性；明代晚期形成了中国古代较为成熟的菊花品种分类体系,即首先根据花期分为“早径”、“中径”、“晚径”,而二级分类单位是品种的“品第”高下：晚花中的优良品种称为“细种”,其余为“粗种”,第三级分类单位是花型,再次是花色。其品种名往往能体现出最后两级的分类标准,其典型品种命名方式为一个单字表示花色+一个表示花型的二字词语。清代菊花品种分类的标准又回归到花色和品第上来。其品种命名以三个字和四个字的居多,除了延续明代的花色+花型组合外,清人善于用四字词语,命名手法倾向于较为诗意地表现品种性状,将中国菊花品种命名的水平提升到了一个新的层次。
4.获得了关于中国古代菊花栽培技术及其发展历程的全面技术资料。栽培技术的记载始于宋代,明清时期得到全面发展,古人通过细心的观察总结出菊花的习性,并不断发展菊花的栽培方法,总结了一整套有效的菊花栽培技术体系。传统菊花栽培技术虽然有些已经不适应现代化生产要求,但仍有很多技术值得我们探讨和借鉴。
5.对中国传统菊花育种的方式和技术特点进行考证发现,中国古代菊花育种的方法多样,主要有引种、嫁接产生嵌合体、芽变选择、实生选择等4种方法。中国古人在菊花育种中十分重视环境因素的作用,并有多样高效的保种措施和相对完善的育种体系。
6.将菊花审美与栽培育种结合论述了中国菊花品种群出现的成因。宋人对花色的审美上升到比德的高度,使菊以黄色为正统的思想影响深远。明代打破了这一审美的框架,开始以更开放的态度欣赏菊花的多种形态和姿色,清代注重对菊花“品第”的欣赏,在留种时往往选择奇特优美的花色、花型,为今天形成有中国特色的品种群特征设定了育种目标。而善于保存芽变的保种技术和越来越成熟的实生苗育种技术则为中国菊花品种的形成提供了技术支撑。
7.总结了菊花在古代的实用和观赏应用的方式。菊花在古人的生活中有着药用、酿酒、泡茶、入馔等实用价值。作为观赏菊,则在室内有编篱、列屏、插瓶等应用方式,室外多与水体结合,造成菊坡、菊江等造景手法。古代文人出于对菊花的厚爱,总结出了菊花一系列的“宜”与“忌”,从中我们可以了解古人对菊花的审美已经进入了一定的“程式”。
In China, there are a large number of chrysanthemum treatises which cover the most abundant contents among all the ancient treatises on ornamental plants. However, the research on it is scanty. By statistical analysis of chrysanthemum treatises in which different chrysanthemum cultivars of the past dynasties are recorded, clues for the evolution of the chrysanthemum cultivars in ancient China can be found. The ways of recording, the naming and classification of the cultivars and the appreciation theory in these chrysanthemum treatises have their merits that people can learn from now. They can provide reference for the composing of modern chrysanthemum treatises. As an important resource database of the profound chrysanthemum culture in China, it gives an detailed and effective account of culture and breeding technique, which is still of certain reference value to the culture and breeding of chrysanthemum nowadays.
On the basis of the existence of ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises and the study on their contents, and by consulting documents of ancient books, this paper further looks into the existence and the development history of ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises, divides them into cultivars treatises, culture technique treatises, painting treatises, poem treatises and comprehensive treatises five categories according to their contents, and finds that the chrysanthemum in different dynasties have the characteristics of a certain historical period, which reflects the culture technique and aesthetic criteria of the period. According to the author, there are 46existing of the 68 chrysanthemums treatises in history. It is the best preserved among all the treatises and books for flowers and the condition of existence is good.
Statistical analysis was carried out on the number of total cultivars, the inherited cultivars and the new cultivars in the treatises of Song, Ming and Qing dynasty respectively, and cultivar duplicate checking was done according to the order of their appearance. The result showed that there are 2886 chrysanthemum cultivarsin the ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises,and there are 1776 after duplicate checking.
The study of ancient documents showed that the chrysanthemum in Song dynasty was mainly the type with the flower diameter from 2.3cm to 3.5cm. The colors were mainly yellow and white, and the morphological characters are quite original which were mostly dish flowers while a few of them have ray flower rings. It is the transitional type from the wild chrysanthemums to the cultured ones. The flower diameter in the Mid-Ming dynasty became between 6.5cm to 10cm, and in the late Ming dynasty there were cultivars whose flower diameters could be more than 15cm. Compare to Song dynasty, the number of red, purple, pink and bicolor flowers increased rapidly and there were also black ones. In the Mid-Ming dynasty there were all the floral types we have nowadays, and the embryonic form of the cultivar groups now we have was already formed in the late Ming dynasty. The flower diameter in Qing dynasty increased phenomenally.The number of cultivars whose flower diameter surpasses 15cm apparently, and some of them even surpassed 30cm. There were various kinds of colors and the floral types were mainly the Flat-petal group and the Quilled-petal group, the proportion is almost the same to that of the modern times. With the enrichment of the morphological characters, the characteristics of the ornamental chrysanthemums have already developed.
The evolution rules of the floral types of chrysanthemum is that the proportion of the Flat-petal group decreased as time went on while that of the Quilled-petal group gradually increased, especially in Ming dynasty during which the differentiation of floral types was the fast. As for Spoon-petal group and Anemone-petal group, they appeared in Ming dynasty, and their proportion developed as stable as the Filiform-petal group.
Before Song dynasty, chrysanthemums were classified according to their practical value. Song dynasty initiated the tradition of classifying chrysanthemums according to the color. In the late Ming dynasty, the comparatively mature classification system in ancient China was formed, that is to classify them into "early stem", "middle stem" and "late stem" by their blooming time firstly, and then classify them according to their "grade":the elite cultivars among the "lateflower diameter" are "fine breeds" while the rest are "crude breeds". The third classification unit is floral type, and then the flower color. In Qing dynasty, the criteria for the classification went back to the flower color and the "grade" again.
In Song dynasty, the naming for chrysanthemums cultivars usually used two characters, it was comparatively simple. Most of the names only provided one characteristic of the cultivar among flower color, blooming time, producing area, floral type etc. In Ming dynasty, most of the names of chrysanthemums consisted of 3 characters, and the typical naming of a cultivar was to use one character to describe its color and a two character word to express its floral type. In Qing dynasty, most of the cultivars were named by three or four characters. Besides the color plus floral type mode began in Ming dynasty, people in Qing dynasty also liked to use four character words which was not only a reflection of the characteristic of the cultivar but also very poetic. It promoted the naming of chrysanthemums in China into a new level.However, the phenomenon that different cultivars shares one name and different names are used for one cultivar exited since ancient times and it was very serious, which resulted in the confusion in its naming at present.
Beginning in Song dynasty, the record of culture technique developed in an all-round way in Ming and Qing dynasties. China has made great achievement in the culture technique of different cultivars and the breeding theories since ancient times, especially for chrysanthemums, an effective culture technique system was summed up by ancient people through careful observation of its habits and constant development of its culture method. Even though some of the traditional culture technique can hardly meet the needs of modernized production, they still deserve our study and discussion.
There were various ways of chrysanthemum breeding, among them introduction, grafting, sport selection and seedling selection were the most commonly used. The sport selection breeding was mainly used before Qing dynasty while the method of seedling selection which combines natural hybridization with artificial selection was used in Qing dynasty. The ancient people in China paid special attention to the effects of the environment and used many effective measures to protect the seed in their comparatively perfect breeding system. These data can help us achieve better understanding on why there are all kinds of cultivars and variations in China and their evolution process.
In ancient China, people always adopted the selective breeding method, and the aesthetic tendency of people decided the choice in breeding. However, the aesthetic criteria varied with time.
People in Song dynasty related the aesthetic of chrysanthemums to the moral and ethical standards in the society, so they believe the best chrysanthemums are yellow which is the orthodox color. In Ming dynasty people broke out this frame and became to appreciate various kinds of colors and morphological characteristics of chrysanthemums in a more open way. This promoted the enrichment of chrysanthemum cultivars. People began to lay emphasis on its "Grade" in Qing dynasty, so they usually chose those ones with special and beautiful colors and floral types in breeding. This laid the foundation for the formation of the cultivars of Chinese characteristics.
Chrysanthemums also had many practical values in ancient people's lives, like treating disease, brewing wines, drinking, eating etc. Ornamental chrysanthemums were used as hedge, screen, and vase planting indoors and as chrysanthemums slope, river by combining with water outdoors. Men of letters in ancient times shown so great love on chrysanthemums that they concluded a train of "suitable" and "unsuitable", from which we can know that the aesthetics of ancient people on chrysanthemums have already fallen into a certain "formula".
本文作者在对中国古代菊谱的全面收录的基础上,按照不同朝代、不同问题对其中的数据进行了数学统计分析,从园艺学的角度对中国古代菊谱的内容进行了全面的考证,得到如下结果：
1.对中国古代菊花谱录的数量、成书年代、成书地域、存世状况进行了全面考证,经统计发现,中国菊花谱录历史上曾经出现68部,现尚存世46部。按照内容可将其分为品种谱、栽培技艺谱、画谱、品类诗谱、综合谱五大类。
2.从文献记载的角度分析了中国菊花品种演进的过程。中国古代菊谱中所记载的菊花品种共2886个,经查重发现共有1776个品种。品种发展趋势为：宋朝菊花主要为小菊,花径大多在2.3cm到3.5cm之间；花色以黄、白菊为主；花型表现为筒状花发达,重瓣性较弱等特点。主要为野生菊花向栽培菊花的过渡类型。明代中期菊花花径大约为6.5到10cm之间。晚期有花径超过15cm的品种出现；明代菊花花色与宋代相比,红、紫、粉、复色品种比例大大增高,并出现了墨色品种；花型在明代有了质的发展,在明代晚期,已经上形成了中国现在大菊品种的品种群雏形。清代菊花的花径有了显著的增长,四寸(13.2cm)以上的品种明显增多,甚至有花径30cm的品种出现；清代品种的花色极为丰富,花型也进一步丰富。菊花瓣型的演化规律为平瓣类品种所占比例随着时间的推移逐渐下降,管瓣类则逐渐上升,明代是瓣型分化发展最快的时期,匙瓣和桂瓣开始出现,他们二者和畸瓣一样比例发展较为稳定。清代各个瓣型所占比例已经和现代十分相近。
3.获得了关于菊花品种命名和品种分类的历史发展过程。宋代开创了按花色分类的先河,其品种名多为两个字,主要反映出的信息为花色、花期、产地、瓣型等,体现出了品种的原始性；明代晚期形成了中国古代较为成熟的菊花品种分类体系,即首先根据花期分为“早径”、“中径”、“晚径”,而二级分类单位是品种的“品第”高下：晚花中的优良品种称为“细种”,其余为“粗种”,第三级分类单位是花型,再次是花色。其品种名往往能体现出最后两级的分类标准,其典型品种命名方式为一个单字表示花色+一个表示花型的二字词语。清代菊花品种分类的标准又回归到花色和品第上来。其品种命名以三个字和四个字的居多,除了延续明代的花色+花型组合外,清人善于用四字词语,命名手法倾向于较为诗意地表现品种性状,将中国菊花品种命名的水平提升到了一个新的层次。
4.获得了关于中国古代菊花栽培技术及其发展历程的全面技术资料。栽培技术的记载始于宋代,明清时期得到全面发展,古人通过细心的观察总结出菊花的习性,并不断发展菊花的栽培方法,总结了一整套有效的菊花栽培技术体系。传统菊花栽培技术虽然有些已经不适应现代化生产要求,但仍有很多技术值得我们探讨和借鉴。
5.对中国传统菊花育种的方式和技术特点进行考证发现,中国古代菊花育种的方法多样,主要有引种、嫁接产生嵌合体、芽变选择、实生选择等4种方法。中国古人在菊花育种中十分重视环境因素的作用,并有多样高效的保种措施和相对完善的育种体系。
6.将菊花审美与栽培育种结合论述了中国菊花品种群出现的成因。宋人对花色的审美上升到比德的高度,使菊以黄色为正统的思想影响深远。明代打破了这一审美的框架,开始以更开放的态度欣赏菊花的多种形态和姿色,清代注重对菊花“品第”的欣赏,在留种时往往选择奇特优美的花色、花型,为今天形成有中国特色的品种群特征设定了育种目标。而善于保存芽变的保种技术和越来越成熟的实生苗育种技术则为中国菊花品种的形成提供了技术支撑。
7.总结了菊花在古代的实用和观赏应用的方式。菊花在古人的生活中有着药用、酿酒、泡茶、入馔等实用价值。作为观赏菊,则在室内有编篱、列屏、插瓶等应用方式,室外多与水体结合,造成菊坡、菊江等造景手法。古代文人出于对菊花的厚爱,总结出了菊花一系列的“宜”与“忌”,从中我们可以了解古人对菊花的审美已经进入了一定的“程式”。
In China, there are a large number of chrysanthemum treatises which cover the most abundant contents among all the ancient treatises on ornamental plants. However, the research on it is scanty. By statistical analysis of chrysanthemum treatises in which different chrysanthemum cultivars of the past dynasties are recorded, clues for the evolution of the chrysanthemum cultivars in ancient China can be found. The ways of recording, the naming and classification of the cultivars and the appreciation theory in these chrysanthemum treatises have their merits that people can learn from now. They can provide reference for the composing of modern chrysanthemum treatises. As an important resource database of the profound chrysanthemum culture in China, it gives an detailed and effective account of culture and breeding technique, which is still of certain reference value to the culture and breeding of chrysanthemum nowadays.
On the basis of the existence of ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises and the study on their contents, and by consulting documents of ancient books, this paper further looks into the existence and the development history of ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises, divides them into cultivars treatises, culture technique treatises, painting treatises, poem treatises and comprehensive treatises five categories according to their contents, and finds that the chrysanthemum in different dynasties have the characteristics of a certain historical period, which reflects the culture technique and aesthetic criteria of the period. According to the author, there are 46existing of the 68 chrysanthemums treatises in history. It is the best preserved among all the treatises and books for flowers and the condition of existence is good.
Statistical analysis was carried out on the number of total cultivars, the inherited cultivars and the new cultivars in the treatises of Song, Ming and Qing dynasty respectively, and cultivar duplicate checking was done according to the order of their appearance. The result showed that there are 2886 chrysanthemum cultivarsin the ancient Chinese chrysanthemum treatises,and there are 1776 after duplicate checking.
The study of ancient documents showed that the chrysanthemum in Song dynasty was mainly the type with the flower diameter from 2.3cm to 3.5cm. The colors were mainly yellow and white, and the morphological characters are quite original which were mostly dish flowers while a few of them have ray flower rings. It is the transitional type from the wild chrysanthemums to the cultured ones. The flower diameter in the Mid-Ming dynasty became between 6.5cm to 10cm, and in the late Ming dynasty there were cultivars whose flower diameters could be more than 15cm. Compare to Song dynasty, the number of red, purple, pink and bicolor flowers increased rapidly and there were also black ones. In the Mid-Ming dynasty there were all the floral types we have nowadays, and the embryonic form of the cultivar groups now we have was already formed in the late Ming dynasty. The flower diameter in Qing dynasty increased phenomenally.The number of cultivars whose flower diameter surpasses 15cm apparently, and some of them even surpassed 30cm. There were various kinds of colors and the floral types were mainly the Flat-petal group and the Quilled-petal group, the proportion is almost the same to that of the modern times. With the enrichment of the morphological characters, the characteristics of the ornamental chrysanthemums have already developed.
The evolution rules of the floral types of chrysanthemum is that the proportion of the Flat-petal group decreased as time went on while that of the Quilled-petal group gradually increased, especially in Ming dynasty during which the differentiation of floral types was the fast. As for Spoon-petal group and Anemone-petal group, they appeared in Ming dynasty, and their proportion developed as stable as the Filiform-petal group.
Before Song dynasty, chrysanthemums were classified according to their practical value. Song dynasty initiated the tradition of classifying chrysanthemums according to the color. In the late Ming dynasty, the comparatively mature classification system in ancient China was formed, that is to classify them into "early stem", "middle stem" and "late stem" by their blooming time firstly, and then classify them according to their "grade":the elite cultivars among the "lateflower diameter" are "fine breeds" while the rest are "crude breeds". The third classification unit is floral type, and then the flower color. In Qing dynasty, the criteria for the classification went back to the flower color and the "grade" again.
In Song dynasty, the naming for chrysanthemums cultivars usually used two characters, it was comparatively simple. Most of the names only provided one characteristic of the cultivar among flower color, blooming time, producing area, floral type etc. In Ming dynasty, most of the names of chrysanthemums consisted of 3 characters, and the typical naming of a cultivar was to use one character to describe its color and a two character word to express its floral type. In Qing dynasty, most of the cultivars were named by three or four characters. Besides the color plus floral type mode began in Ming dynasty, people in Qing dynasty also liked to use four character words which was not only a reflection of the characteristic of the cultivar but also very poetic. It promoted the naming of chrysanthemums in China into a new level.However, the phenomenon that different cultivars shares one name and different names are used for one cultivar exited since ancient times and it was very serious, which resulted in the confusion in its naming at present.
Beginning in Song dynasty, the record of culture technique developed in an all-round way in Ming and Qing dynasties. China has made great achievement in the culture technique of different cultivars and the breeding theories since ancient times, especially for chrysanthemums, an effective culture technique system was summed up by ancient people through careful observation of its habits and constant development of its culture method. Even though some of the traditional culture technique can hardly meet the needs of modernized production, they still deserve our study and discussion.
There were various ways of chrysanthemum breeding, among them introduction, grafting, sport selection and seedling selection were the most commonly used. The sport selection breeding was mainly used before Qing dynasty while the method of seedling selection which combines natural hybridization with artificial selection was used in Qing dynasty. The ancient people in China paid special attention to the effects of the environment and used many effective measures to protect the seed in their comparatively perfect breeding system. These data can help us achieve better understanding on why there are all kinds of cultivars and variations in China and their evolution process.
In ancient China, people always adopted the selective breeding method, and the aesthetic tendency of people decided the choice in breeding. However, the aesthetic criteria varied with time.
People in Song dynasty related the aesthetic of chrysanthemums to the moral and ethical standards in the society, so they believe the best chrysanthemums are yellow which is the orthodox color. In Ming dynasty people broke out this frame and became to appreciate various kinds of colors and morphological characteristics of chrysanthemums in a more open way. This promoted the enrichment of chrysanthemum cultivars. People began to lay emphasis on its "Grade" in Qing dynasty, so they usually chose those ones with special and beautiful colors and floral types in breeding. This laid the foundation for the formation of the cultivars of Chinese characteristics.
Chrysanthemums also had many practical values in ancient people's lives, like treating disease, brewing wines, drinking, eating etc. Ornamental chrysanthemums were used as hedge, screen, and vase planting indoors and as chrysanthemums slope, river by combining with water outdoors. Men of letters in ancient times shown so great love on chrysanthemums that they concluded a train of "suitable" and "unsuitable", from which we can know that the aesthetics of ancient people on chrysanthemums have already fallen into a certain "formula".
引文
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2.陈冬生.明代以来曹州牡丹栽培发展史考述[J].古今农业,1998,(4)：38-45.
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