离子注入非线性光学晶体光波导折射率改变模型研究
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摘要
集成光学是现代信息技术中的重要研究内容之一。而光波导器件则是集成光学系统的基础和核心。目前,常用的形成光波导的方法有金属扩散法、离子交换法、薄膜生长技术法和离子注入法。其中,离子注入技术能够精确控制光波导的深度和光波导的折射率,能够保留晶体的原始特性,这使得离子注入技术成为一种有效的光波导制作方法。离子注入光波导的折射率分布规律不但与离子注入种类、能量、剂量等参数有关,还与注入晶体的特性有关,形成的机理较为复杂,目前,主要通过实验的方法来确定离子注入后的折射率分布规律,这使得离子注入光波导技术具有较大的随机性、不确定性,限制了该项技术的进一步应用。
因此,研究离子注入晶体后的折射率变化模型具有重要意义。
本论文研究的主要内容与结果如下：
利用数值计算的方法研究了离子注入光波导棱镜耦合暗模特性。
根据光在棱镜耦合系统中的传播特性,从光的Maxwell波动方程出发,得到了光在棱镜耦合法测量离子注入光波导中传播的场幅值关系,利用转移矩阵加以表示,得到了光在棱镜中的反射率表达式。给出符合实际情况的棱镜耦合系统参数,并假设波导折射率分布后,根据光在棱镜中的反射率表达式,利用数值计算的方法研究了不同折射率分布条件下的暗模特性曲线。研究结果表明,在暗模特性曲线中,暗模的特性由暗模幅值和暗模峰的尖锐程度来确描述,根据暗模幅值的大小和暗模峰的尖锐程度能够判断暗模所对应的波导模式是导模还是辐射模,真正的、限制良好的导模,其暗模幅值很大,同时暗模峰也十分尖锐,称这样的暗模具有很好的暗模特性。第0级暗模有效折射率与波导中波导层的表面折射率相关,其大小的变化趋势能够反映波导层表面折射率大小的变化趋势,当暗模特性很好时,能够利用第0级暗模有效折射率来近似波导层的表面折射率,但当暗模特性较差时,其有效折射率与表面折射率之间的误差较大；相邻暗模之间的横向间距与波导层的厚度有关,横向间距越小说明波导层厚度越大。衬底的变化对漏模的暗模特性影响较大。这对于利用棱镜耦合暗模谱分析离子注入光波导的性质具有指导意义。
建立了离子注入铌酸锂光波导折射率改变模型。
总结了离子注入LiNbO3晶体后关于应变测量的实验结果,提出了离子注入晶体后仅存在沿着注入方向的正应变而其它应变值为零、应变与晶格损伤率之间满足线性关系的假设,以此为基础,将弹光效应考虑在内,建立了以晶格损伤率为自变量,包含摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应的折射率变化综合模型。利用已经报道的实验结果,对理论模型进行了验证,结果表明该模型与其它模型相比更能得到实验结果的支持。根据理论模型,研究了损伤率从0增大1时的折射率变化规律,研究了摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率变化量的影响。结果表明,离子注入过程中,晶格损伤率与注入剂量之间满足Avrami公式,退火过程中,晶体损伤率与注入剂量之间满足线性关系,即离子注入过程中的晶格损伤动力学与退火处理中的晶格恢复动力学不同。随着损伤率的增加,寻常光折射率是单调下降的,异常光折射率先增加后减小。当离子注入不同切向的晶体时,在相同的损伤率处,折射率值不相同,即折射率变化规律还与离子注入方向有关。当损伤率由0增加到1时,摩尔极化率摩尔体积引起的折射率改变量是线性增加的,自发极化引起的折射率改变量是单调下降的,而弹光效应引起的折射率改变量先增加后减小,在较低损伤区域和较高损伤区域其作用可以忽略,在损伤率为50%时,其作用不可忽略,尤其是对于x切或y切晶体的异常光折射率改变量和z切的寻常光改变量,其引起的折射率改变量甚至占总改变量的15%左右。弹光效应是折射率变化规律与离子注入方向有关的根本原因。
研究了高剂量低能量He离子注入KTP晶体后的相关特性。
研究了300keV的He离子在4×1016、6×1016、8×1016、10×1016ions/cm2的剂量下注入到z切的KTP样品后的棱镜耦合暗模特性以及背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱特性。研究了150keV的He离子在8×1016的剂量下注入到KTP样品在不同退火温度时的棱镜耦合暗模特性及背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱特性。研究结果表明,在相同注入能量下,随着注入剂量的增加,样品中的暗模特性越来越差,样品中第0级暗模的有效折射率逐渐减小；在相同注入剂量下,nx的暗模特性最差,ny的次之,nz的最好。根据暗模特性与折射率之间的对应关系可知,随着注入剂量的增加,波导层表面折射率逐渐减小。在相同注入剂量下,nx的值最小,ny的次之,nz的最大。300keV的He离子注入KTP后会在晶体中形成非晶层,随着剂量的增加,样品表面损伤是逐渐增加的。150keV、8×1016的He离子注入KTP后,注入剂量达到饱和,其各向同性折射率值约为1.74。150keV的He离子注入KTP经过退火处理后,随着退火温度的升高表面有效折射率增加,当退火温度到400℃后,nx和ny逐渐增加到了未注入KTP晶体的折射率,而nz却相差很远,但是其趋势外延结果表明,当温度达到800℃时nz的值非常接近未注入KTP晶体的折射率。这与离子注入过程中相同剂量下的nx、ny、nz折射率的大小关系不同,表明离子注入过程的折射率变化规律与退火过程中的规律不同。RBS/C谱表明,经过退火处理后样品晶格得到稍微的恢复,未能消除非晶层。同时,研究了上述样品的退火后的表面气泡聚集情况。300keV、8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入样品在400℃的退火温度退火1小时后,样品表面形成稀疏的、最大直径为10μm的He2气泡,再退火后气泡消失。150keV、8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入的样品退火温度达到400℃后出现了气泡集聚,但仅局限在少数几个地方,最大直径约为30μm,而且比300keV样品的密集。离子其它剂量和退火温度下未见气泡集聚,在温度超过800℃后晶体出现部分析出物,超过900℃后晶体部分分解。因此,在z切KTP中,低于8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入不能形成有效的He2气泡集聚。这对于晶体离子切割(CIS)技术应用于KTP具有重要的借鉴意义。
建立了离子注入磷酸钛氧钾光波导折射率改变模型。
以离子注入LiNbO3晶体后的应变分布假设为基础,建立了以晶格损伤率为自变量的离子注入KTP晶体后的折射率变化模型,该模型包含摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率改变的影响。利用最小量的一阶近似展开,研究了摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率改变量的影响,结果表明三个因素对折射率的作用与离子注入LiNbO3晶体后折射率改变模型的相同。根据300keV不同注入剂量样品背散射／沟道(RBS/C)谱得到了损伤提取曲线,估算了样品表面损伤率。根据300keV不同注入剂量下的棱镜耦合暗模特性曲线,得到了样品的表面有效折射率。将表面损伤率带入模型公式,计算得到了理论表面折射率,结果表明,在一定的范围内理论表面折射率与实验表面折射率相符合的较好。同时分析了其中可能的误差因素。离子注入LiNbO3晶体折射率改变模型,与离子注入KTP晶体的折射率改变模型具有相同的形式,只是模型参数不同,这说明当确定了模型参数后这种模型能够应用所有的光学晶体,这对于离子注入光波导的进一步应有具有重要意义。根据该模型,利用背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱得到的损伤提取曲线,研究了300keV不同剂量注入下的折射率深度分布规律,这种分布曲线不同与反射率(RCM)计算法得到曲线,是一种真实的分布曲线。结果表明：在相同的注入剂量下,随着注入深度的增加,折射率nx、ny、nz的值逐渐减小,均在0.9gm处减小到了各向同性值1.74,形成了光学位垒,在nx、ny、nz形成的光波导结构中,nz中最容易形成有效的光波导结构。对于同一种折射率,如nx(ny或nz或),随着注入剂量的增加样品表面的折射率逐渐减小,波导层的有效厚度逐渐减小。这与棱镜耦合暗模特性曲线所反映的规律一致。同时分析了离子注入不同切向晶体后折射率的分布规律,结果表明：随着损伤率的增加,在x、y和z切KTP晶体中折射率均是减小的,其中,ny、n(?)是单调下降的,nx在x和y切KTP晶体中存在下降饱和区域,nx、nv的变化率比nz的变化率小很多。
Integrated optics is a hot topic of the modern information technology. The optical waveguide is the foundation and core of the integrated optical system. At present, there are several conventional techniques for fabricating optical waveguides, including metal diffusion, ion exchange, epitaxial grouth and ion implantation. Among them, ion implantation is an available method to fabricate optical waveguide. The structure of waveguide can be modulated by varying implantation parameters due to accurate control of both the depth of barrier beneath the surface and the refractive indices of the materials. Implantation shows advantages in waveguide fabrication also because the crystal properties in waveguide can be retained. Different from the waveguides formed by other methods, refractive index profile in implant-waveguide is more complicated and shows intimate dependence on the implantation parameters, such as ion species, energy, dose of implanted ions and the crystallographic orientation of crystal. At present, experiment is the main method to determine the refractive index profile in implant-waveguide. This makes the ion implantation as a method of fabricating waveguides, be random and uncertain, thus seriously limits its application.
The investigation of the mechanism is needed and valuable for both research and applications of ion-implanted waveguide.
The main reseach contents and results in this paper are as follows:
The dark mode properties of ion-implantated waveguide are studied using numerical method.
According to the characteristics of light propagation in prism coupling system, the amplitude relationship of electromagnetic field is obtained from the Maxwell wave equation. The reflectivity expression is also obtained based on the the amplitude relationship expressed by transfer matrix.The dark mode spectrum from the different refractive index distribution in waveguide has been studied using numerical method when the parameters of prism coupling system and the refractive index profile are assumed according to the reflectivity expression in prism coupling system. The results show that the charactristic of dark modes can be described by the amplitude and the sharpness of peak in each mode, and the transmission properties of guide-mode can be determined accordingly. For example, a real and well confined guide-mode is always corresponding to a measured dip with large amplitude and good sharpness. The effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode is correspongding to the surface refractive index of waveguide, the change of effective index can also represente the change of the surface refractive index in waveguide. The effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode can be approximated to the surface refractive index of the waveguide when the dark mode characteristic is very good, but there will have a larger error between the effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode and the surface refractive index of the waveguide when the dark mode characteristic is bad. The lateral spacing between the adjacent dark modes is related to the thickness of waveguide layer, the smaller the lateral spacing, the bigger the thickness of waveguide layer. Substrate change has a great effect on the characteristic of the leak dark mode. This result is instructive for the analysis of ion-implanted waveguide based on the measured dark model spectrum using prism coupling.
The theoretical model of refractive index in ion implanted LiNbO3waveguides is established.
According to the measurement results of train induced by ion implantation in LiNbO3crystal, it is assumed that there only has the normal strain along the ion implanted direction and has a linear relation between the strain and the lattice damage ration. A theoretical model is presented to understand the respective contributions of spontaneous polarization, molar polarization and molar volume, and photoelastic effect to the refractive index changes in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal. Compared to previous work, our model yields a better agreement with the measured refractive index profiles in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal. According to the model, the refractive index change during the damage ratio increasing from0tol is caculated and the contributions of the spontaneous polarization, the molar polarization and molar volume in modifying the refractive index in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal are also discussed. The results show that the relationship between lattice damage rate and dose is coincided well with the Avrami formula during ion implantated process. A linear relationship between damage ratio and dose during annealing process is obtained. The result ahows that the lattice damage dynamics during ion implantated process is different from the lattice repairing dynamics dur annealing process. The ordinary index continually decreases with the lattice damage ratio. As for the extraordinary index, it first increases and then decreases with the damage ratio. The change of refractive index is different even at a same lattice damage ratio for the crystal with different crystal orientations, it means that the refractive index varies depending on the direction.of ion implantion. When damage ratio varies from0to1, the refractive-index change related to molar polarization and molar volume increases and that caused by spontaneous polarization decreases. The index change from strain-induced photoelastic effect has a parabolic relation with damage ratio, thus it can be ignored when the damage ratio too low or too high. Around a medium damage level, the contribution of photoelastic effect is not negligible, especially for the extraordinary index change in the x-/y-cut LiNbO3and the ordinary index change in the z-cut LiNbO3, where the strain induced photoelastic effect could account for～15%of the total index change. The refractive index is direction-depending because the strain-induced photoelastic effect depends on the implantation direction.
The characters of KTP crystal formed by He+-ions implantation with high dose and low energy are studied.
The dark mode characteristics by prism coupling and back scattering/channel (RBS/C) spectral characteristics of z cut KTP crystal formed with300keV He ions at dose of4×1016,6×1016,8×1016and10×l016ions/cm2are studied. The dark-mode spectrum and RBS/C spectral characteristics from z cut KTP crystal formed with150keV He ions at dose of8×1016ions/cm2after annealed at different temperature are also studied. The results show that the dark mode characteristics become worse and the effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode decreases as the implanted dose increasing. After implantation with same dose, the dark mode measurement from nx shows the poorest property, a better result is obtained in ny measurement and the best result is got in nz. According to the correspondence between the dark mode characteristic and the refractive index, it can be seen that the surface refractive index decreases with the dose increasing and the change of refractive index value is minimal for nx, moderate in ny, and maximal on nz. The amorphous layer can be found in KTP crystal suffering300keV He ions implantation, and lattice damage at sample surface accumulates with the ion dose increasing. In150keV He ions implanted KTP crystal, the saturated dose is8×1016ions/cm2, and the average index of completely damaged (i.e., amorphous) KTP is about1.74. In the annealing process in KTP crystal implanted with He ions at energy of150keV, the surface effective refractive index increases with the annealing temperature. After the annealing temperature of400℃, nx and nz approach to the refractive index of substrate KTP crystal, while nz still much deviates from the value of substrate KTP. But the extrapolated calculated value shows that along with the annealing temperature increase that the index trends to the value of virgin KTP after annealing at800℃. Different behavior of nx, ny and nz in ion implantation indicates that the refractive index change during ion implantated progress is different from that in annealling progress. The RBS/C spectrum shows that the damage lattice gets slightly recovery after annealing treatment, but the amorphous layer can not be removed. At the same time, the surface bubble agglomeration is studies after annealing. The results show that bubbles distributes sparsely on some area of KTP crystal surface implanted by He ions at300keV and8×1016ions/cm2, and the size of the largest bubble is about10μ m in diameter when the sample annealed at400℃for60mins. Extending annealing time to120mins at400℃, surface blister disappears and a uniform surface is observed. In the suface of KTP crystal implanted by He ions at300keV and8×1016ions/cm2, the bubbles agglomerate when the annealing temperature reaches400℃, but they only appear in a few places, and more bubbles can be observed in150keV sample than that of300keV sample. The maximum diameter of bubbles is about30μm.There has no bubble agglomeration in surface of KTP crystal implantanted at other doses and annealed at other temperatures. The KTP crystal appears some precipitates when the annealed temperature above800℃and is partial decomposited when the temperature more than900℃. Therefore, in the z-cut KTP, the He2bubble can not be agglomerated availably when dose less than8×1016ions/cm2. It has an important significance to the crystal ion cutting (CIS) technology in KTP crystal.
The model of refractive index in ion implanted KTP waveguides is established.
Based on the assumption of strain distrubtion in ion-implanted in LiNbO3crystal, a refractive index change model in ion-implanted KTP crystal is established duiring the lattice damage ratio, the model includes the molar polarizability and molar volume, the spontaneous polarization and the photoelastic effects. Using the first-order approximation of small quality, the effects of the molar polarizability and molar volume, the spontaneous polarization and the photoelastic effect on the refractive index change of is discussed, the results show that the contributatins of the three factors on the refractive index in implanted KTP crystal is the same as in implanted LiNbO3crystal. According the back scattering/channel (RBS/C) spectra of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal, the lattice damage curve is extracted. Based on it, the damage ratio of sample surface is estimated. According to the prism coupling dark mode of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal at different dose, the sample surface effective refractive index is obtained. The theoretical refractive index is obtained according to the model fumulation using the estimated surface damage ratio and the results show a consistent with the experimental refractive index in a certain range.The error between theoretical value and experimental data is also analyzed. The fact that refractive index change model of ion implantated KTP crystal has a same form of LiNbO3crystal, but only different model parameters, indicates that the model could be applied to all optical crystal when the model parameters are determined. It is important to further application of ion implantation waveguide. According to the model, the profile of refractive index versus the depth of waveguide is obtained using the extracted damage curve from backscattered/channel (RBS/C) spectra. The result is different from that of Reflectivity Calculation Method (RCM), which is a real distribution curve. The results indicate that the values of nx, ny and nz decrease during the implanted depthe increasing, until to the average index of completely damaged (i.e., amorphous) KTP which is1.74at the depthe of0.9μm, and then the optical barrer is formed. Among the optical waveguide formed in nx, ny and nz, the waveguide in nz easily becomes an effective waveguide than the others. During the dose increasing, the surface refractive index and the effective thickness of waveguide layer decreases gradually in a same kind of refractive index, such as in nx(or ny or nz). It is concordant with the results from the prism coupling dark mode of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal. The refractive index distribution is also calculated with increasingthe damage ratio for different cut KTP crystal by He ions implanted. The results show that the value of refractive index is reduced with the damage ratio increasing. The value of ny, nz decreases monotonely, but that of nx decreases at first and then reachs a saturation region in x/y-cut KTP crystal. The change ratio of nx,ny is much more smaller then that of nz
因此,研究离子注入晶体后的折射率变化模型具有重要意义。
本论文研究的主要内容与结果如下：
利用数值计算的方法研究了离子注入光波导棱镜耦合暗模特性。
根据光在棱镜耦合系统中的传播特性,从光的Maxwell波动方程出发,得到了光在棱镜耦合法测量离子注入光波导中传播的场幅值关系,利用转移矩阵加以表示,得到了光在棱镜中的反射率表达式。给出符合实际情况的棱镜耦合系统参数,并假设波导折射率分布后,根据光在棱镜中的反射率表达式,利用数值计算的方法研究了不同折射率分布条件下的暗模特性曲线。研究结果表明,在暗模特性曲线中,暗模的特性由暗模幅值和暗模峰的尖锐程度来确描述,根据暗模幅值的大小和暗模峰的尖锐程度能够判断暗模所对应的波导模式是导模还是辐射模,真正的、限制良好的导模,其暗模幅值很大,同时暗模峰也十分尖锐,称这样的暗模具有很好的暗模特性。第0级暗模有效折射率与波导中波导层的表面折射率相关,其大小的变化趋势能够反映波导层表面折射率大小的变化趋势,当暗模特性很好时,能够利用第0级暗模有效折射率来近似波导层的表面折射率,但当暗模特性较差时,其有效折射率与表面折射率之间的误差较大；相邻暗模之间的横向间距与波导层的厚度有关,横向间距越小说明波导层厚度越大。衬底的变化对漏模的暗模特性影响较大。这对于利用棱镜耦合暗模谱分析离子注入光波导的性质具有指导意义。
建立了离子注入铌酸锂光波导折射率改变模型。
总结了离子注入LiNbO3晶体后关于应变测量的实验结果,提出了离子注入晶体后仅存在沿着注入方向的正应变而其它应变值为零、应变与晶格损伤率之间满足线性关系的假设,以此为基础,将弹光效应考虑在内,建立了以晶格损伤率为自变量,包含摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应的折射率变化综合模型。利用已经报道的实验结果,对理论模型进行了验证,结果表明该模型与其它模型相比更能得到实验结果的支持。根据理论模型,研究了损伤率从0增大1时的折射率变化规律,研究了摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率变化量的影响。结果表明,离子注入过程中,晶格损伤率与注入剂量之间满足Avrami公式,退火过程中,晶体损伤率与注入剂量之间满足线性关系,即离子注入过程中的晶格损伤动力学与退火处理中的晶格恢复动力学不同。随着损伤率的增加,寻常光折射率是单调下降的,异常光折射率先增加后减小。当离子注入不同切向的晶体时,在相同的损伤率处,折射率值不相同,即折射率变化规律还与离子注入方向有关。当损伤率由0增加到1时,摩尔极化率摩尔体积引起的折射率改变量是线性增加的,自发极化引起的折射率改变量是单调下降的,而弹光效应引起的折射率改变量先增加后减小,在较低损伤区域和较高损伤区域其作用可以忽略,在损伤率为50%时,其作用不可忽略,尤其是对于x切或y切晶体的异常光折射率改变量和z切的寻常光改变量,其引起的折射率改变量甚至占总改变量的15%左右。弹光效应是折射率变化规律与离子注入方向有关的根本原因。
研究了高剂量低能量He离子注入KTP晶体后的相关特性。
研究了300keV的He离子在4×1016、6×1016、8×1016、10×1016ions/cm2的剂量下注入到z切的KTP样品后的棱镜耦合暗模特性以及背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱特性。研究了150keV的He离子在8×1016的剂量下注入到KTP样品在不同退火温度时的棱镜耦合暗模特性及背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱特性。研究结果表明,在相同注入能量下,随着注入剂量的增加,样品中的暗模特性越来越差,样品中第0级暗模的有效折射率逐渐减小；在相同注入剂量下,nx的暗模特性最差,ny的次之,nz的最好。根据暗模特性与折射率之间的对应关系可知,随着注入剂量的增加,波导层表面折射率逐渐减小。在相同注入剂量下,nx的值最小,ny的次之,nz的最大。300keV的He离子注入KTP后会在晶体中形成非晶层,随着剂量的增加,样品表面损伤是逐渐增加的。150keV、8×1016的He离子注入KTP后,注入剂量达到饱和,其各向同性折射率值约为1.74。150keV的He离子注入KTP经过退火处理后,随着退火温度的升高表面有效折射率增加,当退火温度到400℃后,nx和ny逐渐增加到了未注入KTP晶体的折射率,而nz却相差很远,但是其趋势外延结果表明,当温度达到800℃时nz的值非常接近未注入KTP晶体的折射率。这与离子注入过程中相同剂量下的nx、ny、nz折射率的大小关系不同,表明离子注入过程的折射率变化规律与退火过程中的规律不同。RBS/C谱表明,经过退火处理后样品晶格得到稍微的恢复,未能消除非晶层。同时,研究了上述样品的退火后的表面气泡聚集情况。300keV、8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入样品在400℃的退火温度退火1小时后,样品表面形成稀疏的、最大直径为10μm的He2气泡,再退火后气泡消失。150keV、8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入的样品退火温度达到400℃后出现了气泡集聚,但仅局限在少数几个地方,最大直径约为30μm,而且比300keV样品的密集。离子其它剂量和退火温度下未见气泡集聚,在温度超过800℃后晶体出现部分析出物,超过900℃后晶体部分分解。因此,在z切KTP中,低于8×1016ions/cm2的He离子注入不能形成有效的He2气泡集聚。这对于晶体离子切割(CIS)技术应用于KTP具有重要的借鉴意义。
建立了离子注入磷酸钛氧钾光波导折射率改变模型。
以离子注入LiNbO3晶体后的应变分布假设为基础,建立了以晶格损伤率为自变量的离子注入KTP晶体后的折射率变化模型,该模型包含摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率改变的影响。利用最小量的一阶近似展开,研究了摩尔极化率摩尔体积、自发极化和弹光效应对折射率改变量的影响,结果表明三个因素对折射率的作用与离子注入LiNbO3晶体后折射率改变模型的相同。根据300keV不同注入剂量样品背散射／沟道(RBS/C)谱得到了损伤提取曲线,估算了样品表面损伤率。根据300keV不同注入剂量下的棱镜耦合暗模特性曲线,得到了样品的表面有效折射率。将表面损伤率带入模型公式,计算得到了理论表面折射率,结果表明,在一定的范围内理论表面折射率与实验表面折射率相符合的较好。同时分析了其中可能的误差因素。离子注入LiNbO3晶体折射率改变模型,与离子注入KTP晶体的折射率改变模型具有相同的形式,只是模型参数不同,这说明当确定了模型参数后这种模型能够应用所有的光学晶体,这对于离子注入光波导的进一步应有具有重要意义。根据该模型,利用背散射/沟道(RBS/C)谱得到的损伤提取曲线,研究了300keV不同剂量注入下的折射率深度分布规律,这种分布曲线不同与反射率(RCM)计算法得到曲线,是一种真实的分布曲线。结果表明：在相同的注入剂量下,随着注入深度的增加,折射率nx、ny、nz的值逐渐减小,均在0.9gm处减小到了各向同性值1.74,形成了光学位垒,在nx、ny、nz形成的光波导结构中,nz中最容易形成有效的光波导结构。对于同一种折射率,如nx(ny或nz或),随着注入剂量的增加样品表面的折射率逐渐减小,波导层的有效厚度逐渐减小。这与棱镜耦合暗模特性曲线所反映的规律一致。同时分析了离子注入不同切向晶体后折射率的分布规律,结果表明：随着损伤率的增加,在x、y和z切KTP晶体中折射率均是减小的,其中,ny、n(?)是单调下降的,nx在x和y切KTP晶体中存在下降饱和区域,nx、nv的变化率比nz的变化率小很多。
Integrated optics is a hot topic of the modern information technology. The optical waveguide is the foundation and core of the integrated optical system. At present, there are several conventional techniques for fabricating optical waveguides, including metal diffusion, ion exchange, epitaxial grouth and ion implantation. Among them, ion implantation is an available method to fabricate optical waveguide. The structure of waveguide can be modulated by varying implantation parameters due to accurate control of both the depth of barrier beneath the surface and the refractive indices of the materials. Implantation shows advantages in waveguide fabrication also because the crystal properties in waveguide can be retained. Different from the waveguides formed by other methods, refractive index profile in implant-waveguide is more complicated and shows intimate dependence on the implantation parameters, such as ion species, energy, dose of implanted ions and the crystallographic orientation of crystal. At present, experiment is the main method to determine the refractive index profile in implant-waveguide. This makes the ion implantation as a method of fabricating waveguides, be random and uncertain, thus seriously limits its application.
The investigation of the mechanism is needed and valuable for both research and applications of ion-implanted waveguide.
The main reseach contents and results in this paper are as follows:
The dark mode properties of ion-implantated waveguide are studied using numerical method.
According to the characteristics of light propagation in prism coupling system, the amplitude relationship of electromagnetic field is obtained from the Maxwell wave equation. The reflectivity expression is also obtained based on the the amplitude relationship expressed by transfer matrix.The dark mode spectrum from the different refractive index distribution in waveguide has been studied using numerical method when the parameters of prism coupling system and the refractive index profile are assumed according to the reflectivity expression in prism coupling system. The results show that the charactristic of dark modes can be described by the amplitude and the sharpness of peak in each mode, and the transmission properties of guide-mode can be determined accordingly. For example, a real and well confined guide-mode is always corresponding to a measured dip with large amplitude and good sharpness. The effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode is correspongding to the surface refractive index of waveguide, the change of effective index can also represente the change of the surface refractive index in waveguide. The effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode can be approximated to the surface refractive index of the waveguide when the dark mode characteristic is very good, but there will have a larger error between the effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode and the surface refractive index of the waveguide when the dark mode characteristic is bad. The lateral spacing between the adjacent dark modes is related to the thickness of waveguide layer, the smaller the lateral spacing, the bigger the thickness of waveguide layer. Substrate change has a great effect on the characteristic of the leak dark mode. This result is instructive for the analysis of ion-implanted waveguide based on the measured dark model spectrum using prism coupling.
The theoretical model of refractive index in ion implanted LiNbO3waveguides is established.
According to the measurement results of train induced by ion implantation in LiNbO3crystal, it is assumed that there only has the normal strain along the ion implanted direction and has a linear relation between the strain and the lattice damage ration. A theoretical model is presented to understand the respective contributions of spontaneous polarization, molar polarization and molar volume, and photoelastic effect to the refractive index changes in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal. Compared to previous work, our model yields a better agreement with the measured refractive index profiles in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal. According to the model, the refractive index change during the damage ratio increasing from0tol is caculated and the contributions of the spontaneous polarization, the molar polarization and molar volume in modifying the refractive index in ion implanted LiNbO3crystal are also discussed. The results show that the relationship between lattice damage rate and dose is coincided well with the Avrami formula during ion implantated process. A linear relationship between damage ratio and dose during annealing process is obtained. The result ahows that the lattice damage dynamics during ion implantated process is different from the lattice repairing dynamics dur annealing process. The ordinary index continually decreases with the lattice damage ratio. As for the extraordinary index, it first increases and then decreases with the damage ratio. The change of refractive index is different even at a same lattice damage ratio for the crystal with different crystal orientations, it means that the refractive index varies depending on the direction.of ion implantion. When damage ratio varies from0to1, the refractive-index change related to molar polarization and molar volume increases and that caused by spontaneous polarization decreases. The index change from strain-induced photoelastic effect has a parabolic relation with damage ratio, thus it can be ignored when the damage ratio too low or too high. Around a medium damage level, the contribution of photoelastic effect is not negligible, especially for the extraordinary index change in the x-/y-cut LiNbO3and the ordinary index change in the z-cut LiNbO3, where the strain induced photoelastic effect could account for～15%of the total index change. The refractive index is direction-depending because the strain-induced photoelastic effect depends on the implantation direction.
The characters of KTP crystal formed by He+-ions implantation with high dose and low energy are studied.
The dark mode characteristics by prism coupling and back scattering/channel (RBS/C) spectral characteristics of z cut KTP crystal formed with300keV He ions at dose of4×1016,6×1016,8×1016and10×l016ions/cm2are studied. The dark-mode spectrum and RBS/C spectral characteristics from z cut KTP crystal formed with150keV He ions at dose of8×1016ions/cm2after annealed at different temperature are also studied. The results show that the dark mode characteristics become worse and the effective refractive index of the zeroth dark mode decreases as the implanted dose increasing. After implantation with same dose, the dark mode measurement from nx shows the poorest property, a better result is obtained in ny measurement and the best result is got in nz. According to the correspondence between the dark mode characteristic and the refractive index, it can be seen that the surface refractive index decreases with the dose increasing and the change of refractive index value is minimal for nx, moderate in ny, and maximal on nz. The amorphous layer can be found in KTP crystal suffering300keV He ions implantation, and lattice damage at sample surface accumulates with the ion dose increasing. In150keV He ions implanted KTP crystal, the saturated dose is8×1016ions/cm2, and the average index of completely damaged (i.e., amorphous) KTP is about1.74. In the annealing process in KTP crystal implanted with He ions at energy of150keV, the surface effective refractive index increases with the annealing temperature. After the annealing temperature of400℃, nx and nz approach to the refractive index of substrate KTP crystal, while nz still much deviates from the value of substrate KTP. But the extrapolated calculated value shows that along with the annealing temperature increase that the index trends to the value of virgin KTP after annealing at800℃. Different behavior of nx, ny and nz in ion implantation indicates that the refractive index change during ion implantated progress is different from that in annealling progress. The RBS/C spectrum shows that the damage lattice gets slightly recovery after annealing treatment, but the amorphous layer can not be removed. At the same time, the surface bubble agglomeration is studies after annealing. The results show that bubbles distributes sparsely on some area of KTP crystal surface implanted by He ions at300keV and8×1016ions/cm2, and the size of the largest bubble is about10μ m in diameter when the sample annealed at400℃for60mins. Extending annealing time to120mins at400℃, surface blister disappears and a uniform surface is observed. In the suface of KTP crystal implanted by He ions at300keV and8×1016ions/cm2, the bubbles agglomerate when the annealing temperature reaches400℃, but they only appear in a few places, and more bubbles can be observed in150keV sample than that of300keV sample. The maximum diameter of bubbles is about30μm.There has no bubble agglomeration in surface of KTP crystal implantanted at other doses and annealed at other temperatures. The KTP crystal appears some precipitates when the annealed temperature above800℃and is partial decomposited when the temperature more than900℃. Therefore, in the z-cut KTP, the He2bubble can not be agglomerated availably when dose less than8×1016ions/cm2. It has an important significance to the crystal ion cutting (CIS) technology in KTP crystal.
The model of refractive index in ion implanted KTP waveguides is established.
Based on the assumption of strain distrubtion in ion-implanted in LiNbO3crystal, a refractive index change model in ion-implanted KTP crystal is established duiring the lattice damage ratio, the model includes the molar polarizability and molar volume, the spontaneous polarization and the photoelastic effects. Using the first-order approximation of small quality, the effects of the molar polarizability and molar volume, the spontaneous polarization and the photoelastic effect on the refractive index change of is discussed, the results show that the contributatins of the three factors on the refractive index in implanted KTP crystal is the same as in implanted LiNbO3crystal. According the back scattering/channel (RBS/C) spectra of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal, the lattice damage curve is extracted. Based on it, the damage ratio of sample surface is estimated. According to the prism coupling dark mode of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal at different dose, the sample surface effective refractive index is obtained. The theoretical refractive index is obtained according to the model fumulation using the estimated surface damage ratio and the results show a consistent with the experimental refractive index in a certain range.The error between theoretical value and experimental data is also analyzed. The fact that refractive index change model of ion implantated KTP crystal has a same form of LiNbO3crystal, but only different model parameters, indicates that the model could be applied to all optical crystal when the model parameters are determined. It is important to further application of ion implantation waveguide. According to the model, the profile of refractive index versus the depth of waveguide is obtained using the extracted damage curve from backscattered/channel (RBS/C) spectra. The result is different from that of Reflectivity Calculation Method (RCM), which is a real distribution curve. The results indicate that the values of nx, ny and nz decrease during the implanted depthe increasing, until to the average index of completely damaged (i.e., amorphous) KTP which is1.74at the depthe of0.9μm, and then the optical barrer is formed. Among the optical waveguide formed in nx, ny and nz, the waveguide in nz easily becomes an effective waveguide than the others. During the dose increasing, the surface refractive index and the effective thickness of waveguide layer decreases gradually in a same kind of refractive index, such as in nx(or ny or nz). It is concordant with the results from the prism coupling dark mode of300keV He ions implanted KTP crystal. The refractive index distribution is also calculated with increasingthe damage ratio for different cut KTP crystal by He ions implanted. The results show that the value of refractive index is reduced with the damage ratio increasing. The value of ny, nz decreases monotonely, but that of nx decreases at first and then reachs a saturation region in x/y-cut KTP crystal. The change ratio of nx,ny is much more smaller then that of nz
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