英美社会工作专业化模式及其对中国的启示
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摘要
本研究主要通过英美社会工作专业化模式及其成因的比较研究,结合我国实际探讨英美经验对我国社会工作专业化发展的启示。本研究由两部分组成。
第一部分为理论研究。这一部分首先在文献回顾的基础上,通过完善和整合专业的特征要素研究视角和专业化过程论,建构社会工作专业化的特征-过程理论解释框架。特征-过程理论解释框架提出社会工作专业化本质上就是通过提高社会工作的科学性、利他性与必需性,以维护和提高社会工作的权威性与自主性,从而更好地服务人类与社会的动态过程。因此科学性、利他性、必需性、权威性和自主性是社会工作专业化的五大基本要素。接着,本研究通过文献回顾与概念解析建立社会工作专业化的科学性、利他性、必需性、权威性与自主性要素指标体系。第一部分所建构的理论解释框架与要素指标体系为第二部分英美社会工作专业化模式及其成因的比较研究建立了分析框架与测评工具。
第二部分为实证研究,通过对英美社会工作专业化发展状况及其成因的比较研究,探讨英美经验对我国社会工作专业化发展的启示。通过对英美社会工作专业化模式及其成因的比较研究,本研究发现虽然英美都是社会工作的发源地国,并且两国社会工作的产生背景与社会福利制度方面具有颇多相似之处,但是经过一百多年的发展,英国形成了行政依赖型的社会工作专业化模式,而美国形成了专业主导型的社会工作专业化模式。
英国社会工作专业化模式的主要特点是:(1)政府部门在社会工作专业化过程中发挥着主导作用;(2)社会工作主要向政府部门寻求合法性;(3)社会工作被定位为一门社会服务技术;(4)社会工作的专业化发展水平比较低;(5)社会工作专业化发展的动力不足。美国社会工作专业化模式的主要特点是:(1)社会工作专业协会及专业人士在社会工作专业化发展过程中发挥着主导作用;(2)社会工作通过自身发展证实社会工作专业存在的合法性;(3)社会工作被定位为实用性较强的社会科学和具有较高专业水平的服务性专业;(4)社会工作的专业化水平比较高;(5)社会工作专业化可持续发展的基础比较好。
英美不同的社会工作专业化模式是各自经济、文化、社会、政治等环境因素及其社会工作专业自身努力共同作用的结果。英美社会工作专业化发展的经验表明:(1)社会工作专业化是经济发展到一定阶段的产物,但却不是经济发展的必然产物;(2)政府部门与社会工作专业协会是社会工作专业化的两大主要推动主体,但是由于社会角色与功能不同,这两大主体推动社会工作专业化发展的动机和动力不同;(3)社会工作专业化依赖福利政策与公共财政,但是随着服务领域的拓展和专业水平的提高,社会工作专业化可以降低对国家福利政策与公共财政的依赖。
英美经验告诉我们,中国政府强势建构的社会工作发展模式对我国社会工作专业化发展有利也有弊。其利主要体现在中国社会工作的规模可以在短期内迅速发展,其弊主要表现在政府强势建构模式和行政力量的介入可能损害中国社会工作的专业性,并且不利于社会工作专业化的可持续发展。因此,中国社会工作专业自身应该积极地对社会工作发展的政策与制度支持做出回应,建立政府与社会工作专业自身的合作性建构模式。中国社会工作专业协会与社会工作专业人士应该充分发挥主观能动性,发展实务取向与学术取向并重的社会工作教育模式,发展一般社会工作者与高级社会工作者并存的多层次社会工作服务模式,建立适合我国实际的社会工作专业化模式。
This research aims to explore the implication of the experience of social work professionalization in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA) to China based on the transnational study on the models of social work professionaliztion in the UK and USA. This research is composed of two parts. The first part is a theoretical study and the second is an empirical research. In the first part, this research constructs the theoretical interpretative framework and the index systems of social work professionlization through the literature review and concept analysis, so as to build the analytical framework and measurement tools for the comparable research on the model of social work professionalization and its causes in the UK and USA.
So, the first part firstly constructs a new theoretical interpretative framework of social work professionalization, namely the trait-process approach of social work professionalization through improving and integrating the trait-element approach of profession and the process theory of professionalization based on the literature review. According to the new framework, the professionalization of social work is such a dynamic process to improve the scientism, altruism and essentialism of social work profession so as to maintain and promote authority and autonomy of social work profession, and finally to provide better service for the human beings and the society. And then this part builds the index systems of scientism, altruism, essentialism, authority and autonomy for the elements of social work professionalization based on the literature review and concept analysis.
In the second part, this research compares the development of social work professionalization and the causes that shape the different models of social work professionalization in the UK and USA following the analytical framework and index systems constructed in the first part. This comparable study finds that the UK has formed the administration-led social work professionalization model, while the USA has formed the profession-led social work professionalization model after more than one hundred years of development despite of the similar origins and social welfare systems in the two countries.
The basic traits of the UK model are as follows:
a. The government plays the main role in professionalizing social work;
b. Social work seeks its legitimacy from the government;
c. Social work is taken as a technology for social service;
d. The professional level of social work is not so high;
e. The motivation and power to professionalize social work is not so strong that social work can be developed as a profession with high professional level and status.
In contrast, the USA model takes on the following main characters:
a. The professional associations and the professionals play the leading role in professionalizing social work;
b. Social work confirms the legitimacy of its own existence through professionalizing itself;
c. Social work is taken as a social science with a focus on practice and a profession with high level technologies;
d. The professional level of social work is high;
e. Social work has better foundation to promote the sustainable development of social work professionalization.
It is the economical, cultural, social and political factors as well as the development of social work profession itself that jointly contribute to the shape of the different social work professionalization models in the UK and USA. The experience of social work professionalization in the UK and USA shows that:
a. The professionalization of social work is the product when the economy develops to a certain stage, but not the natural or inevitable outcome of the economic development;
b. The government and the professional association are the two main persons in charge of the professionalization of social work, but the motivation and power of the two persons to professionalize the social work are different due to their different role and function;
c. The professionalization of social work depends on the social welfare policies and public finance, but social work profession can decline its dependence on the social welfare system and public finance with the enhancement of social work's professional standards and the broadening of its working areas.
The experience of social work professionalization in the UK and USA told us that there are both advantages and disadvantages for the model of China government strongly involving and constructing the social work in China. The main advantage is that the social work can rapidly develop, while the main disadvantage is that it may damage the professionalism and hinder the development of social work profession with the strong construction and involvement of the China government. So, the social work profession itself should positively response to the policy supports from the government and build strong cooperation model between the government and the social work profession. It is more reasonable to construct the co-existence model of practical orientation and academic orientation of social work education and build a multi-level model of social work service, permitting the co-existence of general social workers and senior social workers, general social work service and advanced social work service. The professional associations and professionals would have to play a more positive role in professionalizing social work in China.
第一部分为理论研究。这一部分首先在文献回顾的基础上,通过完善和整合专业的特征要素研究视角和专业化过程论,建构社会工作专业化的特征-过程理论解释框架。特征-过程理论解释框架提出社会工作专业化本质上就是通过提高社会工作的科学性、利他性与必需性,以维护和提高社会工作的权威性与自主性,从而更好地服务人类与社会的动态过程。因此科学性、利他性、必需性、权威性和自主性是社会工作专业化的五大基本要素。接着,本研究通过文献回顾与概念解析建立社会工作专业化的科学性、利他性、必需性、权威性与自主性要素指标体系。第一部分所建构的理论解释框架与要素指标体系为第二部分英美社会工作专业化模式及其成因的比较研究建立了分析框架与测评工具。
第二部分为实证研究,通过对英美社会工作专业化发展状况及其成因的比较研究,探讨英美经验对我国社会工作专业化发展的启示。通过对英美社会工作专业化模式及其成因的比较研究,本研究发现虽然英美都是社会工作的发源地国,并且两国社会工作的产生背景与社会福利制度方面具有颇多相似之处,但是经过一百多年的发展,英国形成了行政依赖型的社会工作专业化模式,而美国形成了专业主导型的社会工作专业化模式。
英国社会工作专业化模式的主要特点是:(1)政府部门在社会工作专业化过程中发挥着主导作用;(2)社会工作主要向政府部门寻求合法性;(3)社会工作被定位为一门社会服务技术;(4)社会工作的专业化发展水平比较低;(5)社会工作专业化发展的动力不足。美国社会工作专业化模式的主要特点是:(1)社会工作专业协会及专业人士在社会工作专业化发展过程中发挥着主导作用;(2)社会工作通过自身发展证实社会工作专业存在的合法性;(3)社会工作被定位为实用性较强的社会科学和具有较高专业水平的服务性专业;(4)社会工作的专业化水平比较高;(5)社会工作专业化可持续发展的基础比较好。
英美不同的社会工作专业化模式是各自经济、文化、社会、政治等环境因素及其社会工作专业自身努力共同作用的结果。英美社会工作专业化发展的经验表明:(1)社会工作专业化是经济发展到一定阶段的产物,但却不是经济发展的必然产物;(2)政府部门与社会工作专业协会是社会工作专业化的两大主要推动主体,但是由于社会角色与功能不同,这两大主体推动社会工作专业化发展的动机和动力不同;(3)社会工作专业化依赖福利政策与公共财政,但是随着服务领域的拓展和专业水平的提高,社会工作专业化可以降低对国家福利政策与公共财政的依赖。
英美经验告诉我们,中国政府强势建构的社会工作发展模式对我国社会工作专业化发展有利也有弊。其利主要体现在中国社会工作的规模可以在短期内迅速发展,其弊主要表现在政府强势建构模式和行政力量的介入可能损害中国社会工作的专业性,并且不利于社会工作专业化的可持续发展。因此,中国社会工作专业自身应该积极地对社会工作发展的政策与制度支持做出回应,建立政府与社会工作专业自身的合作性建构模式。中国社会工作专业协会与社会工作专业人士应该充分发挥主观能动性,发展实务取向与学术取向并重的社会工作教育模式,发展一般社会工作者与高级社会工作者并存的多层次社会工作服务模式,建立适合我国实际的社会工作专业化模式。
This research aims to explore the implication of the experience of social work professionalization in the United Kingdom (UK) and the United States of America (USA) to China based on the transnational study on the models of social work professionaliztion in the UK and USA. This research is composed of two parts. The first part is a theoretical study and the second is an empirical research. In the first part, this research constructs the theoretical interpretative framework and the index systems of social work professionlization through the literature review and concept analysis, so as to build the analytical framework and measurement tools for the comparable research on the model of social work professionalization and its causes in the UK and USA.
So, the first part firstly constructs a new theoretical interpretative framework of social work professionalization, namely the trait-process approach of social work professionalization through improving and integrating the trait-element approach of profession and the process theory of professionalization based on the literature review. According to the new framework, the professionalization of social work is such a dynamic process to improve the scientism, altruism and essentialism of social work profession so as to maintain and promote authority and autonomy of social work profession, and finally to provide better service for the human beings and the society. And then this part builds the index systems of scientism, altruism, essentialism, authority and autonomy for the elements of social work professionalization based on the literature review and concept analysis.
In the second part, this research compares the development of social work professionalization and the causes that shape the different models of social work professionalization in the UK and USA following the analytical framework and index systems constructed in the first part. This comparable study finds that the UK has formed the administration-led social work professionalization model, while the USA has formed the profession-led social work professionalization model after more than one hundred years of development despite of the similar origins and social welfare systems in the two countries.
The basic traits of the UK model are as follows:
a. The government plays the main role in professionalizing social work;
b. Social work seeks its legitimacy from the government;
c. Social work is taken as a technology for social service;
d. The professional level of social work is not so high;
e. The motivation and power to professionalize social work is not so strong that social work can be developed as a profession with high professional level and status.
In contrast, the USA model takes on the following main characters:
a. The professional associations and the professionals play the leading role in professionalizing social work;
b. Social work confirms the legitimacy of its own existence through professionalizing itself;
c. Social work is taken as a social science with a focus on practice and a profession with high level technologies;
d. The professional level of social work is high;
e. Social work has better foundation to promote the sustainable development of social work professionalization.
It is the economical, cultural, social and political factors as well as the development of social work profession itself that jointly contribute to the shape of the different social work professionalization models in the UK and USA. The experience of social work professionalization in the UK and USA shows that:
a. The professionalization of social work is the product when the economy develops to a certain stage, but not the natural or inevitable outcome of the economic development;
b. The government and the professional association are the two main persons in charge of the professionalization of social work, but the motivation and power of the two persons to professionalize the social work are different due to their different role and function;
c. The professionalization of social work depends on the social welfare policies and public finance, but social work profession can decline its dependence on the social welfare system and public finance with the enhancement of social work's professional standards and the broadening of its working areas.
The experience of social work professionalization in the UK and USA told us that there are both advantages and disadvantages for the model of China government strongly involving and constructing the social work in China. The main advantage is that the social work can rapidly develop, while the main disadvantage is that it may damage the professionalism and hinder the development of social work profession with the strong construction and involvement of the China government. So, the social work profession itself should positively response to the policy supports from the government and build strong cooperation model between the government and the social work profession. It is more reasonable to construct the co-existence model of practical orientation and academic orientation of social work education and build a multi-level model of social work service, permitting the co-existence of general social workers and senior social workers, general social work service and advanced social work service. The professional associations and professionals would have to play a more positive role in professionalizing social work in China.
引文
[1]2008年11月23日,王思斌教授在中国礼会工作教育协会2008年会上指出我国社会工作基本上确立了专业化之路。具体内容见《中国社会工作教育协会2008年会文件汇编:职业化背景下中国社会工作研究与实务发展》中的《嵌入性与社会工作的发展》一文。
[2]Hutchings,A.& Taylor,I.(2007).Defining the profession? Exploring an international definition of social work in the China context.International Journal of Social Welfare,16:382-390.
[1]王思斌教授在2008年中国社会工作教育年会的发言中提出“在政府强势建构我国社会工作的过程中,社会工作教育者必须在持守专业理念的前提下,以开放的态度和有效的方法参与和谐社会建设,以自己的专业优势在合作中进行强势建构,即从政府的强势建构到政府与社会工作专业的强有力的合作性建构,为建立符合我国实际要求的社会工作制度做出贡献”,本研究认为王思斌教授提出的“政府强势建构”比较准确地揭示了目前我国社会工作发展模式的特点,体现了我国政府主导、发展势头比较迅猛以及可能在短时期内实现社会工作巨大发展等特点。因此,本研究将目前我国社会工作专业化发展模式概括为“政府强势建构模式”。
[2]Hutchings,A.& Taylor,I.(2007).Defining the profession? Exploring an international definition of social work in the China context.International Journal of Social Welfare,16:382-390.
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[1]孙莹.(2006).社会工作职业发展的基本要素分析.王思斌主编:社会工作专业化及本土化实践—中国社会工作教育协会2003-2004论文集.北京:社会科学文献出版社.
[2]王思斌.(2001).试论我国社会工作的本土化.浙江学刊,(2):56-61.
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[5]Gray,M.(1995).The Ethical Implications of Current Theoretical Developments in Social Work,British Journal of Social Work,25:55-70.
[6]Brill,C.K.(2001).Looking at the social work profession through the eye of the NASW code of ethics.Research on Social Work Practice,11(2):223-234.
[7]郭景萍.(2005).现代社会工作的基本特征:制度化利他主义.社会科学研究,(4):114-118。
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[4]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupations,12(1):59-76.
[5]Greenwood,E.(1957).Attribute of a Profession.Social Work,2(3):44-55.
[1]Gibelman,M.(1999).The search for identity:Defining social work—past,present and future.Social Work,44(4):298-310.
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[3]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupations,12(1):59-76.
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[1]Bruner,J.(1990).Acts of meaning.Cambridge,MA:Harvard University Press.
[1]Etzioni,A.(1969).The semi-professions and their organization:Teachers,nurses,social workers.New York:Free Press.
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[3]Flexner,A.(1915).Is social work a profession? Research on Social Work Practice,11(2):152-165.
[4]Cnaan,R.A.& Dichter,M.E.(2007).Thoughts on the Use of Knowledge in Social Work Practice.Research on Social Work Practice,(7):1-7.
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[6]Etzioni,A.(1969).The semi-professions and their organization:Teachers,nurses,social workers.New York:Free Press.
[1]Weiss,I.& Welbourne,P.(2007).(Eds.).Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective.Birmingham:Venture Press.P228.
[1]Moore,W.E.& Rosenblum,G.W.(1970).The professions:Roles and rules.New York:Russell Sage Foundation.
[1]Brill,C.K.(2001).Looking at the social work profession through the eye of the NASW code of ethics.Research on Social Work Practice,11(2),223-234.
[2]Giarchi,G.& Lankshear,G.(1998).The eclipse of social work in Europe.Social Work in Europe,5(3):25-36.
[1]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupations,12(1):59-76.
[2]Gambrill,E.(2001).Social Work:An authority-based Profession.Research on Social Work Practice,11:166-175.
[3]Brill,C.K.(2001).Looking at the social work profession through the eye of the NASW code of ethics.Research on Social Work Practice,11(2),223-234.
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2003).The Power of Social Work.September 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/
[1]陶德强,王宏.(2009).关于韦伯科层制合理性的再思考.法制与社会,(1):384.
[1]孙莹.(2006).社会工作职业发展的基本要素分析.王思斌主编:社会工作专业化及本土化实践—中国社会工作教育协会2003-2004论文集.北京:社会科学文献出版社.
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[2]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/.
[1]孙莹.(2006).社会工作职业发展的基本要素分析.王思斌主编:社会工作专业化及本土化实践—中国社会工作教育协会2003-2004论文集.北京:社会科学文献出版社.
[2]孙莹.(2006).社会工作职业发展的基本要素分析.王思斌主编:社会工作专业化及本土化实践—中国社会工作教育协会2003-2004论文集.北京:社会科学文献出版社.
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[2]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupation,12(1):59-76.
[1]Hall,R.H.(1969).Occupations and the social structure.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall.P82.
[2]Freidson,E.(1970).Profession of Medicine:A study of the sociology of applied knowledge.New York:Harper & Row.
[3]Pavalko,R.M.(1971).Sociology of Occupations and Professions.Itasca,IL:F.E.Peacock.
[4]Lawler,E.J.& Hage,J.(1973).Professional-bureaucratic conflict and intraorganizational powerlessness among social workers.Journal of Sociology and Social Welfare,(1):92-102.
[5]Braude,L.(1975).Work and Workers:A Sociological Analysis.New York:Praeger.
[6]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.
[7]Hall,R.H.(1969).Occupations and the social structure.Englewood Cliffs,NJ:Prentice-Hall.P82.
[8]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupations,12(1):59-76.
[1]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P187.
[1]Forsyth,P.B.& Danisiewicz,T.J.(1985).Toward a Theory of Professionalization.Work and Occupations,12(1):59-76.
[2]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P187.
[1]李迎生,张朝雄,孙平等.(2007).英国社会工作教育发展概况及其启示.华东理工大学学报(社会科学版),(3):11-18.
[1]文学学士的英文全称是Bachelor of Arts or Atrium Baccalaureus,简称BA或者AB。
[2]理学学士的英文全称是Bachelor of Science或者Science Baccalaurens,简称BS、BSc、SB或者ScB。
[3]文学硕士的英文全称为Master of Art,简称MA。
[4]理学硕士的英文全称为Master of Science,简称Msc。
[5]根据斯卡福(Scourfield)2008年的研究(见文后参考文献),英国社会工作博士研究生教育所授予的学位名称比较多样化,比如社会工作博士学位(DSW)、社会工作专业博士学位(professional doctorate in social work)、健康与社会照顾专业博士学位(professional doctorate in health and social care)以及哲学博士(Philosophiae Doctor)等等。
[6]社会工作学士学位的英语名称为Bachelor of Social Work。通常简称为BSW。
[7]社会工作硕士学位的英文名称为Master of Social Work,通常简称为MSW。
[8]哲学博士的英文名称为Philosophiae Doctor,通常简称Ph.D.。同时美国也有个别学校开设社会工作博士课程,授予社会工作博士学位,英文名称为Doctor of Social Work,通常简称DSW。
[9]由于很难获得英国其他三个地区每年的详细数据,因此这里以英格兰为例来介绍英国的基本状况。
[10]2008年7月,英国人口总数大约六千万(60943912人),其中英格兰人口约五千一百万(Central Intelligence Agency,2008a),2008年7月,美国总人口约3亿(303824640人)。
11 General Social Care Council.(2007).Social Work Education in England:Delivering quality and recognizing success-The 2007 Social Work Education Quality Assurance Report.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/848A9CB2-BD80-4F96-BCDF-D2D43A3AD501/0/Assurance_doc_final.
[1]General Social Care Council.(2002).Accreditation of Universities to grant degrees in social work.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Training+and+learning/
[2]Council on Social Work Education.(2008).2008 Educational Policy and Accreditation Standards.June 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/.
[3]General Social Care Council.(2003).Working towards full participation.June 24,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Learning and training/
[4]Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.(2000).Subject Benchmark Statements:Social Policy and Administration and Social Work.UB:Southgate House.
[5]Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.(2000).Subject Benchmark Statements:Social Policy and Administration and Social Work.UB:Southgate House.
[1]Council on Social Work Education Commission on Accreditation.(2006).Compliance,Concern and Noncompliance Statement.December 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CSWE/accreditation/
[1]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).2006 Annual Survey of Social Work Programs.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[2]CCW,GSCC,NISCC & SSSC.(2001).Awards Issued and Courses Approved in Social Work and Social Care by CCETSW and its Predecessor Bodies which are recognized by the CCW,GSCC,NISCC and SSSC.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Home/.
[1]Department of Health Social Services & Public Safety.(2005).Review of the Diploma in Social Work.February 6,2009,retrieved from http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/.
[2]GSCC.(2007).General Social Care Council Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Publications/
[3]GSCC.(2007).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2006-2007.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[4]GSCC.(2005).Social work education and training statistics:2005 Data pack.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[5]GSCC.(2006).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2005-2006.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[6]GSCC.(2007).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2006-2007.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[7]Council on Social Work Education.(2003).Accreditation Questions.February 5,2009,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CSWE/faq/Accred_FAQ.htm
[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[2]英格兰2005-2006学年(2005年4月1日至2006年3月31)首批毕业的社会工作硕士研究生有58名(GSCC,2006c),2006-2007学年共有社会工作硕士毕业生820名,2007-2008及2008-2009学年的数据还没有公布,但是可以推断2007-2008学年的硕士毕业生数量少于2005-2006学年的注册硕士研究生数量1136人,2008-2009年的硕士研究生毕生数量少于2006-2007学年的注册硕士研究生数量1319,因此截至2009年3月31日,英格兰的社会工作硕士毕业生总数不到3600人。
[3]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).2006 Annual Survey of Social Work Programs.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[1]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P193.
[2]Stevenson,O.(2005).Genericism and Specialization:The Story since 1970.British Journal of Social Work,35:569-586.
[3]Younghusband,E.(1978).Social Work in Britain 1950-1975,London:Allen and Unwin.
[4]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P182.
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2008).The Power of Social Work.September 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/
[1]Mizrahi,T.& Clark,J.E.(2007).United States,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P217.
[1]Reamer,F.(1998).Ethical standards in social work:Acritical review of the NASW Code of Ethics.In R.Edwards(Ed.),Encyclopedia of social work(19th ed.).Washington,DC:NASW Press.PI.
[2]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P190.
[1]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P190.
[2]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).NASW Procedures for Professional Review.Jan.14th,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/nasw/ethics/procedures.pdf
[3]National Association of Social Worker.(2008).Legal Defense Fund.January 14,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/ldf/default.asp
[4]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).LDF establishes Ethics and Law Institute.NASW News,50(9).
[1]WTE的全称是“whole time equivalent”,这里的WTE是全职工作人员与兼职人员折算成全职人员之和。所有兼职人员一周或者一个月的全部工作小时数之和除以一周或者一个月一个全职人员的法定工作时间小时数之商就是折算后的兼职人员相当于全职人员的数量。
[2]NASW.(2005).Careers in Social Work.April 23,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/.
[3]U.S.Census Bureau.(2004).Annual Demographic Survey.December 26,2008,retrieved from http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new01_001.htm
[4]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Occupation Outlook Handbook,2008-09 Edition,Social Workers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos060.htm
[5]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Occupation Outlook Handbook,2008-09 Edition,Social Workers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos060.htm
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2003).Practice Research Network Ⅱ Results.December 30,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/behavioral_health/bh1003.pdf
[2]National Association of Social Workers.(2006).Social Work in the United States:50 Years of Challenge and Change.December 29,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/intl/SocialWorkUS50years.pdf
[3]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).LDF establishes Ethics and Law Institute.NASW News 50(9).
[1]GSCC.(2006).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2005-2006.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[2]GSCC.(2007).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2006-2007.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[3]GSCC.(2007).General Social Care Council Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Publications/.
[4]虽然不可能所有社会工作本科与硕士毕业生都成为社会工作者,但是注册社会工作者中也可能有部分社会工作者在国外完成了社会工作学位课程,并获得相应的学位证书,由于本研究无法获得注册社会工作者的具体教育背景资料,因此只能粗略估算。英格兰实际拥有社会工作学位的社会工作者的比例可能要比本研究估算的数目少。
[5]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany.(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[6]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).International social work degree recognition and evaluation service.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2007).Information Booklet with Application and Reference Evaluation Rating Forms:Academy of Certified Social Workers.December 29,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/credentials/eredentials/pdfs/acswApplication0106.pdf
[1]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[2]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[1]DeSilva,E.C.(2006).Social Work in the United States:50 Years of Challenge and Change,released at IFSW World Conference Held at Munich,Germany,in July 31,2006.
[1]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorope,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[1]GSCC.(2006).Protection Professionalism Pride:Annual report 2005 to 2006.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/。
[1]Condie,C.D.,Hanson,J.A.,Lang,N.E.,Moss,D.K.,& Kane,R.A.(1978).How the public views social work.Social Work,23:47-53.
[2]Dennison,S.T.,Poole,J.& Qaqish.(2007).Students' perceptions of social work:Implications for strengthening the image of social work among college students.Social Work,10:20-38.
[3]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).What is the National Social Work Public Education Campaign?July 11,2007,Retrieved from http://www.naswfoundation.org/
[4]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[5]Eborall,C.& Griffiths,D.(2008).The State of the Adult Social Care Workforce in England 2008:The Third Report of Skills for Care's Skills Research and Intelligence Unit.Leeds:Skills for Care.
[6]UNISON.(2009).UNISON memorandum on social workers-January 2009.February 11,2009,retrieved from http://www.unison.org.uk/acrobat/B4419a.pdf
[7]Department of Health.(2008).Department of Health Departmental Report 2008.January 30,2009,retrieved from www.tsoshop.co.uk
[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[1]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[1]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[2]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[1]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Navigating the LCSW Licensing Process.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/app-reg/Ics_presentation.shtml
[1]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Licensee Renewal Information.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/licensees/renewal_licensee.shtml.
[2]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Continuing Education Requirements.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/licensees/ce_licensees.shtml
[1]Department of Health.(2000).Care Standards Act 2000.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.dh.gov.uk/
[2]Department of Health.(2003).What is the difference between social work and social care work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/socialwork/qa/general.asp?qn=2
[1]Social Work Jobs.(2008).January 20,2009,retrieved from http://www.communitycare.co.uk/
[2]这三种基本的证书分别是学院注册社会工作者(Academy of Certified Social Workers,简称ACSW)、文凭临床社会工作(Diploma in Social Work,简称DCSW)和合格临床社会工作者(Qualified Clinical Social Worker,简称QCSW)。
[3]专门针对社会工作硕士毕业生的证书分别是收容所与缓和性照顾高级注册社会工作者(Advanced Certified Hospice and Palliative Social Worker,简称ACHP-SW)、老年人临床社会工作者(Clinical Social Worker in Gerontology.简称CSW-G)、老年人高级社会工作者(Advanccd Social Worker in Gerontology,简称ASW-G)、儿童青少年与家庭高级注册社会工作者(Certified Advanced Children,Youth,and Family Social Worker,简称C-ACYFSW)、健康照顾注册社会工作者(Certified Social Worker in Health Care,简称C-SWHC)、烟酒与其他药物滥用临床注册社会工作者(Certified Clinical Alcohol,Tobacco,and Other Drugs Social Worker,简称C-CATODSW)、高级注册社会工作个案管理者(Certified Advanced Social Work Case Manager,简称C-ASWCM)与学校注册社会工作专家(Certified School Social Work Specialist,简称C-SSWS)。
[4]专门针对社会工作本科毕业生的证书分别是老年社会工作者(Social Worker in Gerontology,简称SW-G)、儿童青少年与家庭注册社会工作者(Certified Children,Youth and Family Social Worker,简称C-CYFSW)与注册社会工作个案管理者(Certified Social Work Case Manager,简称C-SWCM)。
[5]比如《美国社会工作者协会药物滥用社会工作实务标准》、《美国社会工作者协会健康照顾社会工作标准》、《美国社会工作者协会儿童福利社会工作实务标准》等等(January 21,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/default.asp)。
[1]主要从学分和学习的难度两个方面认定个人的职业资格等级。
[2]见文后附表2。
[3]Office of the Qualifications and Examinations Regulator.(2008).National Qualification Framework.January 22,2009,retrieved from http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/52.aspx
[4]Scottish Qualification Authority.(2008).Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/4608.html
[1]Department of Health.(2008).Pay & Conditions.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/socialwork/qa/pay.asp?qn=1
[2]International Average Salary Income Database.(2008).UK Average Salaries & Expenditures.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.worldsalaries.org/uk.shtml#total-personal-average-income
[3]Russell,J.(2008).Economic Report:U.K.Average Salary Surpasses U.S.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.laborradio.org/node/7646
[4]Eborall,C.& Griffiths,D.(2008).The State of the Adult Social Care Workforce in England 2008:The Third Report of Skills for Care's Skills Research and Intelligence Unit.Leeds:Skills for Care.
[1]Association of Social Work Boards.(2008).Examination Information.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.aswb.org/exam_info_registering.shtml
[2]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[3]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Employment and Wages,Annual Averages 2004.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cew/ew04tablel.pdf.
[4]美国每五年对26个行业的税前和税后平均工作进行统计,但是社会工作并没有作为一个独立行业在统计之列。
[5]World Salaries.(2008).United States Average Salaries & Expenditures.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.worldsalaries.org/usa.shtml
[1]Wing,H.(2008).Registration of social work:How will protection of title affect your organization? January 28,2009,retrieved from www.gscc.org.uk
[1]Department of Health.(2006).Our health,our care,our say,London:The Stationery Office.
[2]Duffy,J.(2008).Looking out from the middle:user involvement in health and social care in North Ireland.London:Social Care Institute for Excellence Golding House.Jan.13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk
[3]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2006).Working together:.Caret participation in England,Wales and Northern Ireland:A summary.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[4]Department of Health,Social Services and Public Safety Northern Ireland.(2007).The priorities for action 2007-2008.UK Belfast:DHSSPSNI.
[1]Carr,S.(2004).Has service user participation made a difference to social care services? January 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/positionpapers/pp03.asp
[2]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2006).Working together:Carer participation in England,Wales and Northern Ireland:A summary.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[3]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2007).Developing social care:Service users driving culture change.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[4]Begum,N.(2006).Doing it for themselves:Participation and black and minority ethnic service users.January 1,2008,retrieved from http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/reports/report14.asp
[5]这部分内容参考米兹拉西(Mizrahi T.) 2007的的文章"Models of client and citizen participation in welfare programs in the US".January 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.molsa.gov.il/
[1]Social Work Jobs.(2008).January 20,2009,retrieved from http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/.
[2]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P180.
[3]Wikipedia.(2008).Role of professional social worker.February 1.2009.retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/role-of-the-professional-social-worker
[4]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany.(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[1]Moriarty,J.& Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Comes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[2]Coffey,M.,Dugdill,L.& Tattersall,A.(2004).Stress in social services:mental wellbeing,constraints and job satisfaction.British Journal of Social Work 34(5):735-746.
[3]Evans,S.,Huxley,P.,Gately,C.,Webber,M.,Meats,A.,Pajak,S.,Kendall,T.,& Katona,C.(2006).Mental health,burnout and job satisfaction among mental health social workers in England and Wales.British Journal of Psychiatry,188(1):75-80.
[4]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P187-188.
[5]Clarke,J.& Langan,M.(1993).Restructuring welfare:The British welfare regime in the 1980s,in Cochrane,A.and Clarke,J.(eds),Comparing Welfare States.Britain in International Contex.London:Sage.
[6]General Social Care Council.(2002).Code of practice for social care workers and employers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/For+course+providets/Degree+resources/
[1]Stevenson,O.(2005).Genericism and Specialization:The Story since 1970.British Journal of Social Work,35:569-586.
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[3]Department of Health.(2007).Social Work.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/
[4]Department of Health.(2003).Promoting the Status of Social Work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/7C9373D4-AC47-4184-AE65-45CFFE6739B1/0/consultationonPoT.pdf
[5]Department of Health.(2003).Promoting the Status of Social Work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/7C9373D4-AC47-4184-AE65-45CFFE6739B1/0/consultationonPoT.pdf
[6]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Comes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
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[1]顾俊理,王鹤.(2005).法国德国英国经济发展的主要经验.党建研究内参,(10):23-25.
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[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).Loan Debt Data:Social Work Students.July 11,2007,Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/advocacy/resources
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[1]王思斌教授在2008年中国社会工作教育年会的发言中提出“在政府强势建构我国社会工作的过程中,社会工作教育者必须在持守专业理念的前提下,以开放的态度和有效的方法参与和谐社会建设,以自己的专业优势在合作中进行强势建构,即从政府的强势建构到政府与社会工作专业的强有力的合作性建构,为建立符合我国实际要求的社会工作制度做出贡献”,本研究认为王思斌教授提出的“政府强势建构”比较准确地揭示了目前我国社会工作发展模式的特点,体现了我国政府主导、发展势头比较迅猛以及可能在短时期内实现社会工作巨大发展等特点。因此,本研究将目前我国社会工作专业化发展模式概括为“政府强势建构模式”。
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[1]李迎生,张朝雄,孙平等.(2007).英国社会工作教育发展概况及其启示.华东理工大学学报(社会科学版),(3):11-18.
[1]文学学士的英文全称是Bachelor of Arts or Atrium Baccalaureus,简称BA或者AB。
[2]理学学士的英文全称是Bachelor of Science或者Science Baccalaurens,简称BS、BSc、SB或者ScB。
[3]文学硕士的英文全称为Master of Art,简称MA。
[4]理学硕士的英文全称为Master of Science,简称Msc。
[5]根据斯卡福(Scourfield)2008年的研究(见文后参考文献),英国社会工作博士研究生教育所授予的学位名称比较多样化,比如社会工作博士学位(DSW)、社会工作专业博士学位(professional doctorate in social work)、健康与社会照顾专业博士学位(professional doctorate in health and social care)以及哲学博士(Philosophiae Doctor)等等。
[6]社会工作学士学位的英语名称为Bachelor of Social Work。通常简称为BSW。
[7]社会工作硕士学位的英文名称为Master of Social Work,通常简称为MSW。
[8]哲学博士的英文名称为Philosophiae Doctor,通常简称Ph.D.。同时美国也有个别学校开设社会工作博士课程,授予社会工作博士学位,英文名称为Doctor of Social Work,通常简称DSW。
[9]由于很难获得英国其他三个地区每年的详细数据,因此这里以英格兰为例来介绍英国的基本状况。
[10]2008年7月,英国人口总数大约六千万(60943912人),其中英格兰人口约五千一百万(Central Intelligence Agency,2008a),2008年7月,美国总人口约3亿(303824640人)。
11 General Social Care Council.(2007).Social Work Education in England:Delivering quality and recognizing success-The 2007 Social Work Education Quality Assurance Report.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/848A9CB2-BD80-4F96-BCDF-D2D43A3AD501/0/Assurance_doc_final.
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[4]Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.(2000).Subject Benchmark Statements:Social Policy and Administration and Social Work.UB:Southgate House.
[5]Quality Assurance Agency for Higher Education.(2000).Subject Benchmark Statements:Social Policy and Administration and Social Work.UB:Southgate House.
[1]Council on Social Work Education Commission on Accreditation.(2006).Compliance,Concern and Noncompliance Statement.December 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/CSWE/accreditation/
[1]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).2006 Annual Survey of Social Work Programs.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[2]CCW,GSCC,NISCC & SSSC.(2001).Awards Issued and Courses Approved in Social Work and Social Care by CCETSW and its Predecessor Bodies which are recognized by the CCW,GSCC,NISCC and SSSC.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Home/.
[1]Department of Health Social Services & Public Safety.(2005).Review of the Diploma in Social Work.February 6,2009,retrieved from http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/.
[2]GSCC.(2007).General Social Care Council Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Publications/
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[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[2]英格兰2005-2006学年(2005年4月1日至2006年3月31)首批毕业的社会工作硕士研究生有58名(GSCC,2006c),2006-2007学年共有社会工作硕士毕业生820名,2007-2008及2008-2009学年的数据还没有公布,但是可以推断2007-2008学年的硕士毕业生数量少于2005-2006学年的注册硕士研究生数量1136人,2008-2009年的硕士研究生毕生数量少于2006-2007学年的注册硕士研究生数量1319,因此截至2009年3月31日,英格兰的社会工作硕士毕业生总数不到3600人。
[3]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).2006 Annual Survey of Social Work Programs.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[1]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P193.
[2]Stevenson,O.(2005).Genericism and Specialization:The Story since 1970.British Journal of Social Work,35:569-586.
[3]Younghusband,E.(1978).Social Work in Britain 1950-1975,London:Allen and Unwin.
[4]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P182.
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2008).The Power of Social Work.September 13,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/
[1]Mizrahi,T.& Clark,J.E.(2007).United States,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P217.
[1]Reamer,F.(1998).Ethical standards in social work:Acritical review of the NASW Code of Ethics.In R.Edwards(Ed.),Encyclopedia of social work(19th ed.).Washington,DC:NASW Press.PI.
[2]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P190.
[1]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P190.
[2]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).NASW Procedures for Professional Review.Jan.14th,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/nasw/ethics/procedures.pdf
[3]National Association of Social Worker.(2008).Legal Defense Fund.January 14,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/ldf/default.asp
[4]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).LDF establishes Ethics and Law Institute.NASW News,50(9).
[1]WTE的全称是“whole time equivalent”,这里的WTE是全职工作人员与兼职人员折算成全职人员之和。所有兼职人员一周或者一个月的全部工作小时数之和除以一周或者一个月一个全职人员的法定工作时间小时数之商就是折算后的兼职人员相当于全职人员的数量。
[2]NASW.(2005).Careers in Social Work.April 23,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/.
[3]U.S.Census Bureau.(2004).Annual Demographic Survey.December 26,2008,retrieved from http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032006/perinc/new01_001.htm
[4]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Occupation Outlook Handbook,2008-09 Edition,Social Workers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos060.htm
[5]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Occupation Outlook Handbook,2008-09 Edition,Social Workers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/oco/ocos060.htm
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2003).Practice Research Network Ⅱ Results.December 30,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/behavioral_health/bh1003.pdf
[2]National Association of Social Workers.(2006).Social Work in the United States:50 Years of Challenge and Change.December 29,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/intl/SocialWorkUS50years.pdf
[3]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).LDF establishes Ethics and Law Institute.NASW News 50(9).
[1]GSCC.(2006).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2005-2006.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[2]GSCC.(2007).Social work education and training statistics:Data Pack 2006-2007.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/About+us/Statistics
[3]GSCC.(2007).General Social Care Council Annual Report and Accounts 2006-2007.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/Publications/.
[4]虽然不可能所有社会工作本科与硕士毕业生都成为社会工作者,但是注册社会工作者中也可能有部分社会工作者在国外完成了社会工作学位课程,并获得相应的学位证书,由于本研究无法获得注册社会工作者的具体教育背景资料,因此只能粗略估算。英格兰实际拥有社会工作学位的社会工作者的比例可能要比本研究估算的数目少。
[5]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany.(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[6]Council on Social Work Education.(2006).International social work degree recognition and evaluation service.December 25,2008,retrieved from http://www.cswe.org/
[1]National Association of Social Workers.(2007).Information Booklet with Application and Reference Evaluation Rating Forms:Academy of Certified Social Workers.December 29,2008,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/credentials/eredentials/pdfs/acswApplication0106.pdf
[1]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[2]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[1]DeSilva,E.C.(2006).Social Work in the United States:50 Years of Challenge and Change,released at IFSW World Conference Held at Munich,Germany,in July 31,2006.
[1]Ezell,M.(2001).Advocacy in the Human Services.Belmont,CA:Brooks.
[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorope,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[1]GSCC.(2006).Protection Professionalism Pride:Annual report 2005 to 2006.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/。
[1]Condie,C.D.,Hanson,J.A.,Lang,N.E.,Moss,D.K.,& Kane,R.A.(1978).How the public views social work.Social Work,23:47-53.
[2]Dennison,S.T.,Poole,J.& Qaqish.(2007).Students' perceptions of social work:Implications for strengthening the image of social work among college students.Social Work,10:20-38.
[3]National Association of Social Workers.(2005).What is the National Social Work Public Education Campaign?July 11,2007,Retrieved from http://www.naswfoundation.org/
[4]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[5]Eborall,C.& Griffiths,D.(2008).The State of the Adult Social Care Workforce in England 2008:The Third Report of Skills for Care's Skills Research and Intelligence Unit.Leeds:Skills for Care.
[6]UNISON.(2009).UNISON memorandum on social workers-January 2009.February 11,2009,retrieved from http://www.unison.org.uk/acrobat/B4419a.pdf
[7]Department of Health.(2008).Department of Health Departmental Report 2008.January 30,2009,retrieved from www.tsoshop.co.uk
[1]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[1]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[1]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[2]GSCC.(2008).The General Social Care Council(registration) Rules 2008.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/The+Social+Care+Register/Apply+for+registration
[1]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Navigating the LCSW Licensing Process.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/app-reg/Ics_presentation.shtml
[1]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Licensee Renewal Information.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/licensees/renewal_licensee.shtml.
[2]Board of Behavioral Science.(2008).Continuing Education Requirements.January 19,2009,retrieved from http://www.bbs.ca.gov/licensees/ce_licensees.shtml
[1]Department of Health.(2000).Care Standards Act 2000.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.dh.gov.uk/
[2]Department of Health.(2003).What is the difference between social work and social care work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/socialwork/qa/general.asp?qn=2
[1]Social Work Jobs.(2008).January 20,2009,retrieved from http://www.communitycare.co.uk/
[2]这三种基本的证书分别是学院注册社会工作者(Academy of Certified Social Workers,简称ACSW)、文凭临床社会工作(Diploma in Social Work,简称DCSW)和合格临床社会工作者(Qualified Clinical Social Worker,简称QCSW)。
[3]专门针对社会工作硕士毕业生的证书分别是收容所与缓和性照顾高级注册社会工作者(Advanced Certified Hospice and Palliative Social Worker,简称ACHP-SW)、老年人临床社会工作者(Clinical Social Worker in Gerontology.简称CSW-G)、老年人高级社会工作者(Advanccd Social Worker in Gerontology,简称ASW-G)、儿童青少年与家庭高级注册社会工作者(Certified Advanced Children,Youth,and Family Social Worker,简称C-ACYFSW)、健康照顾注册社会工作者(Certified Social Worker in Health Care,简称C-SWHC)、烟酒与其他药物滥用临床注册社会工作者(Certified Clinical Alcohol,Tobacco,and Other Drugs Social Worker,简称C-CATODSW)、高级注册社会工作个案管理者(Certified Advanced Social Work Case Manager,简称C-ASWCM)与学校注册社会工作专家(Certified School Social Work Specialist,简称C-SSWS)。
[4]专门针对社会工作本科毕业生的证书分别是老年社会工作者(Social Worker in Gerontology,简称SW-G)、儿童青少年与家庭注册社会工作者(Certified Children,Youth and Family Social Worker,简称C-CYFSW)与注册社会工作个案管理者(Certified Social Work Case Manager,简称C-SWCM)。
[5]比如《美国社会工作者协会药物滥用社会工作实务标准》、《美国社会工作者协会健康照顾社会工作标准》、《美国社会工作者协会儿童福利社会工作实务标准》等等(January 21,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/practice/default.asp)。
[1]主要从学分和学习的难度两个方面认定个人的职业资格等级。
[2]见文后附表2。
[3]Office of the Qualifications and Examinations Regulator.(2008).National Qualification Framework.January 22,2009,retrieved from http://www.ofqual.gov.uk/52.aspx
[4]Scottish Qualification Authority.(2008).Scottish Credit and Qualifications Framework.January 4,2009,retrieved from http://www.sqa.org.uk/sqa/4608.html
[1]Department of Health.(2008).Pay & Conditions.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/socialwork/qa/pay.asp?qn=1
[2]International Average Salary Income Database.(2008).UK Average Salaries & Expenditures.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.worldsalaries.org/uk.shtml#total-personal-average-income
[3]Russell,J.(2008).Economic Report:U.K.Average Salary Surpasses U.S.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.laborradio.org/node/7646
[4]Eborall,C.& Griffiths,D.(2008).The State of the Adult Social Care Workforce in England 2008:The Third Report of Skills for Care's Skills Research and Intelligence Unit.Leeds:Skills for Care.
[1]Association of Social Work Boards.(2008).Examination Information.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.aswb.org/exam_info_registering.shtml
[2]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[3]U.S.Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics.(2008).Employment and Wages,Annual Averages 2004.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cew/ew04tablel.pdf.
[4]美国每五年对26个行业的税前和税后平均工作进行统计,但是社会工作并没有作为一个独立行业在统计之列。
[5]World Salaries.(2008).United States Average Salaries & Expenditures.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.worldsalaries.org/usa.shtml
[1]Wing,H.(2008).Registration of social work:How will protection of title affect your organization? January 28,2009,retrieved from www.gscc.org.uk
[1]Department of Health.(2006).Our health,our care,our say,London:The Stationery Office.
[2]Duffy,J.(2008).Looking out from the middle:user involvement in health and social care in North Ireland.London:Social Care Institute for Excellence Golding House.Jan.13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk
[3]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2006).Working together:.Caret participation in England,Wales and Northern Ireland:A summary.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[4]Department of Health,Social Services and Public Safety Northern Ireland.(2007).The priorities for action 2007-2008.UK Belfast:DHSSPSNI.
[1]Carr,S.(2004).Has service user participation made a difference to social care services? January 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/positionpapers/pp03.asp
[2]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2006).Working together:Carer participation in England,Wales and Northern Ireland:A summary.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[3]Social Care Institute for Excellence.(2007).Developing social care:Service users driving culture change.January 13,2008,retrieved from www.scie.org.uk.
[4]Begum,N.(2006).Doing it for themselves:Participation and black and minority ethnic service users.January 1,2008,retrieved from http://www.scie.org.uk/publications/reports/report14.asp
[5]这部分内容参考米兹拉西(Mizrahi T.) 2007的的文章"Models of client and citizen participation in welfare programs in the US".January 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.molsa.gov.il/
[1]Social Work Jobs.(2008).January 20,2009,retrieved from http://www.communitycare.co.uk/Articles/.
[2]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P180.
[3]Wikipedia.(2008).Role of professional social worker.February 1.2009.retrieved from http://www.answers.com/topic/role-of-the-professional-social-worker
[4]Center for Health Workforce Studies School of Public Health,University at Albany.(2006).Licensed Social Workers in the United States.June 12,2008,retrieved from https://www.socialworkers.org/research/default.asp
[1]Moriarty,J.& Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Comes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[2]Coffey,M.,Dugdill,L.& Tattersall,A.(2004).Stress in social services:mental wellbeing,constraints and job satisfaction.British Journal of Social Work 34(5):735-746.
[3]Evans,S.,Huxley,P.,Gately,C.,Webber,M.,Meats,A.,Pajak,S.,Kendall,T.,& Katona,C.(2006).Mental health,burnout and job satisfaction among mental health social workers in England and Wales.British Journal of Psychiatry,188(1):75-80.
[4]Payne,M.(2007).United Kingdom,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.P187-188.
[5]Clarke,J.& Langan,M.(1993).Restructuring welfare:The British welfare regime in the 1980s,in Cochrane,A.and Clarke,J.(eds),Comparing Welfare States.Britain in International Contex.London:Sage.
[6]General Social Care Council.(2002).Code of practice for social care workers and employers.June 12,2008,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/For+course+providets/Degree+resources/
[1]Stevenson,O.(2005).Genericism and Specialization:The Story since 1970.British Journal of Social Work,35:569-586.
[2]Munday,B.(2007).Integrated social services in Europe.Strasbourg in France:Council of Europe Publishing.
[3]Department of Health.(2007).Social Work.January 23,2009,retrieved from http://www.socialworkcareers.co.uk/
[4]Department of Health.(2003).Promoting the Status of Social Work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/7C9373D4-AC47-4184-AE65-45CFFE6739B1/0/consultationonPoT.pdf
[5]Department of Health.(2003).Promoting the Status of Social Work.January 28,2009,retrieved from http://www.gscc.org.uk/NR/rdonlyres/7C9373D4-AC47-4184-AE65-45CFFE6739B1/0/consultationonPoT.pdf
[6]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Comes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
[1]Foster,P.& Wilding,P.(2000).Whither Welfare Professionalism? Social Policy and Administration,34(2),143-159.
[2]Lymbery,M.(2001).Social Work at the Crossroads.British Journal of Social Work,31(3),369-384.
[3]Montagna,P.D.(1968).Professionalization and Bureaucratization in Large Professional Organizations.The American Journal of Sociology,74(2):138-145.
[4]Larner,W.(2000).Neo-liberalism:Policy,Ideology,Governmentality.Studies in Political Economy,63:5-25.
[5]Lymbery,M.(2001).Social Work at the Crossroads.British Journal of Social Work,31(3),369-384.
[6]Hokenstad,M.C.,Khinduka,S.K.& Midgley,J.(eds).(1992).Profiles in International Social Work.New York:NASW Press.P181.
[7]McDonald,C.,Harris,J.& Wintersteen,R.(2003).Contingent on context? Social work and the state in Australia,Britain and the USA.British Journal of Social Work,33(2):191-208.
[8]Midgley,J.(1997).Social Welfare in a Global Context,Thousand Oaks:Sage.
[9]Hokenstad,M.C.,Khinduka,S.K.& Midgley,J.(eds).(1992).Profiles in International Social Work.New York:NASW Press.
[1]Alston,M.& McKinnon,J.(2001).Social Work Fields of Practice.South Melbourne:Oxford University Press.
[2]Tan,N.T.& Envall,E.(1998).Social Work around the World.Switzerland:International Federation of Social Work.
[3]Reisch,M.(1997).The political context of social work.In Reisch,M.& Gambriil,E.(ed),Social Work in the 21~(st) Century.Thousand Oaks CA:Pine Forge Press.P80-92
[1]顾俊理,王鹤.(2005).法国德国英国经济发展的主要经验.党建研究内参,(10):23-25.
[2]顾俊理,王鹤.(2005).法国德国英国经济发展的主要经验.党建研究内参,(10):23-25.
[3]Stevenson,O.(2005).Genericism and Specialization:The Story since 1970.British Journal of Social Work,35:569-586.
[1]顾俊理,王鹤.(2005).法国德国英国经济发展的主要经验.党建研究内参,(10):23-25.
[2]Lovelock,R.,Lyons,K.H.& Powell J.(2004).Reflecting on social work-discipline and profession:Discipline and Profession.UK:Ashgate Publishing,Ltd.
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[4]顾俊理,王鹤.(2005).法国德国英国经济发展的主要经验.党建研究内参,(10):23-25.
[5]Seavoy,R.E.(2007).An Economic History of the United States:From 1607 to the Present.NY:Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
[1]Mizrahi,T.& Clark,J.E.(2007).United States,in Social Work as a Profession:A Comparative Cross-national Perspective edited by Weiss,I.& Welbourne.Birmingham:Venture Press.
[2]Wenocur,S.& Reisch,M.(1989).From Charity and Enterprise:The development of American Social Work in a Market Economy.Urbana and Chicago:University of Illinois Press.
[1]康晓.(2007).英国民主制度的重要特点及其文化成因探悉.经济与社会发展,(10):8-12.
[1]Jansson,B.S.(2001).The Reluctant Welfare State(4th edn),Belmont,CA:Wadsworth.
[2]Gueron,J.M.& Pauly,E.(1991).From Welfare to Work:Summary.New York:Russell Sage.
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[1]Central Intelligence Agency.(2008).The World Factbook:United Kingdom.December 14,2008,retrieved fromhttps://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact-book/print/uk.html
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[4]Central Intelligence Agency.(2008).The World Factbook:United States.December 14,2008,retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-fact-book/print/us.html
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[6]刘小怡.(2004).新自由主义述评.学习论坛,20(8):8-15.
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[3]Moriarty,J.,Manthorpe,J.,Hussein,S.& Cornes,M.(2008).Staff shortage and immigration in the social care sector.February 1,2009,retrieved from http://www.ukba.homeoffice.gov.uk/
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[7]Esping-Andersen,G.(1990).The Three Worlds of Welfare Capitalism.Princeton,New Jersey:Princeton University Press.
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[4]关信平.(2002).经济全球化背景下社会工作发展的新趋势—兼论加入WTO以后中国社会工作专业化发展中的问题及对策.社会福利,(10):4-8.
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