九十年代美国情景喜剧中的种族性再现
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摘要
情景喜剧是美国经久不衰、最受欢迎的电视节目之一。尽管如此，情景喜剧却没有受到评论界足够的重视。重悲剧轻喜剧的传统观念是导致评论家、学者对情景喜剧缺乏严肃认真研究的主要原因。我们认为，事实上情景喜剧与其他电视节目一样，弥漫着当代价值观念，同样具有反映、再现、重构美国社会现实与变革的潜质。
在这一思想指导下，本论文试图探讨情景喜剧如何再现种族性，这一多民族的美国社会中最普遍而又最棘手的问题．基于以往对情景喜剧及族性的研究，本文着重研究九十年代美国情景喜剧中种族性的再现。本研究综合话语分析及符号学理论，定量分析与定性分析相结合，对九十年代一些最有影响的黑人情景喜剧、亚裔人情景喜剧、白人情景喜剧进行了深入的探讨。研究发现，与七、八十年代相比，九十年代的情景喜剧在再现种族性方面变化不大。白人无论在出现频率与人物形象方面都占统治地位。尽管黑人情景喜剧有迅速的增长，而其他有色人种的情景喜剧却仍然稀少甚至空缺。在再现少数族裔的人物与文化方面，九十年代情景喜剧出现了歧义、矛盾、对立等特点。为满足不断增长的少数民族观众的需求，电视网络推出了更多少数民族的情景喜剧，其中不乏正面的、多样的人物形象，然而人们所熟识的一些刻板形象仍然没有完全消失。在分析白人情景喜剧《宋飞正传》及《老友记》时，我们发现，在看似正面积极的少数族裔形象背后，仍隐藏着刻板化、他者化的痕迹。新型的种族主义仍然存在。在九十年代的情景喜剧中，这种种族主义主要以再现白人为中心、为主角、为标准，而将非白人再现为边缘、配角、异常的形象。
作为对情景喜剧中种族性再现的多视角、跨学科探讨与批评，本论文从不同领域、各流派中获得理论支持。符号学、传统马克思主义、新马克思主义、福柯的知识—话语—权力学说、喜剧理论、后殖民研究、以及流行文化与电视理论等构成了本文的理论框架。其主要目的不仅是为了批判性地理解电视屏幕上的所示所现，还要批判性地理解这些意义的构成与解读过程。换言之，我们不仅要探寻、揭示九十年代情景喜剧中种族性再现的复杂性、多义性、以及矛盾对立的现象，还要深究更深层的力量与话语，如经济的、政治的、社会文化的、心理结构的力量因素，以及来自于电视台站、制作人、演员、观众与评论家的话语。所有这些力量与话语共同作用，不断地构成与重构，建构与解构、改变与维持着情景喜剧中种族性再现的版图。本文的结论是，九十年代情景喜剧中种族性再现是各种社会力量角逐的结果，是多种不同声音竞争话语权的产物。九十年代情景喜剧深深地打上了白人至上、父权为中心、资本主义的主流意识形态的烙印。情景喜剧是不同种族再现其存在、争夺其意义与快乐的空间、场所。
Situation comedy, or sitcom, has been one of the most durable and most popular television genres in the United States of America. However, despite its longstanding popularity, sitcom has not received its due attention from the critical world. The traditional prejudice of valuing tragedy over comedy has impeded many critics and scholars from taking sitcoms seriously. In opposition to the conventional bias towards comedy, it is our conviction that sitcom, like any other television drama, is deeply inscribed with prevailing ideologies and is also equally capable of reflecting, representing, and reshaping the social changes in the United States.
Equipped with this conviction, this study attempts to examine how American sitcoms represent ethnicity, one of the most pervasive and contending issues in the multi-ethnic American society. Built on the previous studies of sitcoms in relation to ethnicity, this study focuses on the representations of ethnicity in American sitcoms in the 1990s. By combining both discursive and semiotic analyses, complementing quantitative with qualitative methods, this study makes an original exploration of how ethnic groups are represented in some of the most influential and popular black, yellow and white sitcoms during this period. It is found that, compared with sitcoms in the 1970s and 1980s, the landscape of sitcom on American television in the 1990s changed but only within certain aspects in representing ethnicity. Whiteness continued to dominate the screen either in terms of appearance and /or character construction. "White and black" division continued to be the main feature of ethnic representations in sitcoms. While black sitcoms increased dramatically, the other colored sitcoms remained marginal or invisible. In terms of representing ethnic characters and their cultures and communities, ambiguities, ambivalences and contradictions permeated and characterized the sitcoms in the 1990s. In the study of the colored sitcoms, we found that while trying to produce more colored sitcoms with more positive and diversified images of colored people to counter the conventional stereotypes and satisfy the increasing minority audiences, the networks were found hard to discard the "tested and tried" familiar stereotypes. In the analysis of popular white sitcoms, namely, Seinfeld and Friends, it is found that underneath the seemingly positive portrayals of ethnic minorities still lie the traces of stereotyping and otherizing the people of color. New types of racism, mainly in the form of representing the whites as the center, the heroes and/or heroines, and the norm, but the colored people as the peripheral, the supporting and the deviant are found in the discourse of sitcom representations of ethnicity in the 1990s.
As an interdisciplinary inquiry and critique of representations of ethnicity in sitcoms, this study draws on different schools of thoughts and critical discourses, such as semiotics, classical /neo Marxism, Foucauldian analysis of knowledge, discourse and power, theories of comedy, postcolonial studies and more recent studies on popular culture and television. A major objective of doing so is to understand critically not only what was shown and seen, but also how their meanings were actually constructed and interpreted. In other words, we not only try to explore and reveal the complexities, contradictions, ambiguities, ambivalences in the representations of ethnicity in sitcoms in the 1990s, we also try to probe the underlying contending forces and discourses, forces of economic, political, socio-cultural and psychological nature and discourses of the television networks, the producers, the performers, the audiences and the critics, that jointly form and reform, construct and deconstruct, transform and perpetuate the landscape of representations of ethnicity in sitcoms. It is our conclusion that representations of ethnicity in sitcoms in the 1990s were the results of the contestation and articulation of various social forces and voices in the American society; and sitcoms in the 1990s were deeply inscribed with the dominant ideology of white supremacist patriarchal capitalism. Sitcoms serve as the site for different ethnic groups to represent their existence and contest for meaning and pleasure.
在这一思想指导下，本论文试图探讨情景喜剧如何再现种族性，这一多民族的美国社会中最普遍而又最棘手的问题．基于以往对情景喜剧及族性的研究，本文着重研究九十年代美国情景喜剧中种族性的再现。本研究综合话语分析及符号学理论，定量分析与定性分析相结合，对九十年代一些最有影响的黑人情景喜剧、亚裔人情景喜剧、白人情景喜剧进行了深入的探讨。研究发现，与七、八十年代相比，九十年代的情景喜剧在再现种族性方面变化不大。白人无论在出现频率与人物形象方面都占统治地位。尽管黑人情景喜剧有迅速的增长，而其他有色人种的情景喜剧却仍然稀少甚至空缺。在再现少数族裔的人物与文化方面，九十年代情景喜剧出现了歧义、矛盾、对立等特点。为满足不断增长的少数民族观众的需求，电视网络推出了更多少数民族的情景喜剧，其中不乏正面的、多样的人物形象，然而人们所熟识的一些刻板形象仍然没有完全消失。在分析白人情景喜剧《宋飞正传》及《老友记》时，我们发现，在看似正面积极的少数族裔形象背后，仍隐藏着刻板化、他者化的痕迹。新型的种族主义仍然存在。在九十年代的情景喜剧中，这种种族主义主要以再现白人为中心、为主角、为标准，而将非白人再现为边缘、配角、异常的形象。
作为对情景喜剧中种族性再现的多视角、跨学科探讨与批评，本论文从不同领域、各流派中获得理论支持。符号学、传统马克思主义、新马克思主义、福柯的知识—话语—权力学说、喜剧理论、后殖民研究、以及流行文化与电视理论等构成了本文的理论框架。其主要目的不仅是为了批判性地理解电视屏幕上的所示所现，还要批判性地理解这些意义的构成与解读过程。换言之，我们不仅要探寻、揭示九十年代情景喜剧中种族性再现的复杂性、多义性、以及矛盾对立的现象，还要深究更深层的力量与话语，如经济的、政治的、社会文化的、心理结构的力量因素，以及来自于电视台站、制作人、演员、观众与评论家的话语。所有这些力量与话语共同作用，不断地构成与重构，建构与解构、改变与维持着情景喜剧中种族性再现的版图。本文的结论是，九十年代情景喜剧中种族性再现是各种社会力量角逐的结果，是多种不同声音竞争话语权的产物。九十年代情景喜剧深深地打上了白人至上、父权为中心、资本主义的主流意识形态的烙印。情景喜剧是不同种族再现其存在、争夺其意义与快乐的空间、场所。
Situation comedy, or sitcom, has been one of the most durable and most popular television genres in the United States of America. However, despite its longstanding popularity, sitcom has not received its due attention from the critical world. The traditional prejudice of valuing tragedy over comedy has impeded many critics and scholars from taking sitcoms seriously. In opposition to the conventional bias towards comedy, it is our conviction that sitcom, like any other television drama, is deeply inscribed with prevailing ideologies and is also equally capable of reflecting, representing, and reshaping the social changes in the United States.
Equipped with this conviction, this study attempts to examine how American sitcoms represent ethnicity, one of the most pervasive and contending issues in the multi-ethnic American society. Built on the previous studies of sitcoms in relation to ethnicity, this study focuses on the representations of ethnicity in American sitcoms in the 1990s. By combining both discursive and semiotic analyses, complementing quantitative with qualitative methods, this study makes an original exploration of how ethnic groups are represented in some of the most influential and popular black, yellow and white sitcoms during this period. It is found that, compared with sitcoms in the 1970s and 1980s, the landscape of sitcom on American television in the 1990s changed but only within certain aspects in representing ethnicity. Whiteness continued to dominate the screen either in terms of appearance and /or character construction. "White and black" division continued to be the main feature of ethnic representations in sitcoms. While black sitcoms increased dramatically, the other colored sitcoms remained marginal or invisible. In terms of representing ethnic characters and their cultures and communities, ambiguities, ambivalences and contradictions permeated and characterized the sitcoms in the 1990s. In the study of the colored sitcoms, we found that while trying to produce more colored sitcoms with more positive and diversified images of colored people to counter the conventional stereotypes and satisfy the increasing minority audiences, the networks were found hard to discard the "tested and tried" familiar stereotypes. In the analysis of popular white sitcoms, namely, Seinfeld and Friends, it is found that underneath the seemingly positive portrayals of ethnic minorities still lie the traces of stereotyping and otherizing the people of color. New types of racism, mainly in the form of representing the whites as the center, the heroes and/or heroines, and the norm, but the colored people as the peripheral, the supporting and the deviant are found in the discourse of sitcom representations of ethnicity in the 1990s.
As an interdisciplinary inquiry and critique of representations of ethnicity in sitcoms, this study draws on different schools of thoughts and critical discourses, such as semiotics, classical /neo Marxism, Foucauldian analysis of knowledge, discourse and power, theories of comedy, postcolonial studies and more recent studies on popular culture and television. A major objective of doing so is to understand critically not only what was shown and seen, but also how their meanings were actually constructed and interpreted. In other words, we not only try to explore and reveal the complexities, contradictions, ambiguities, ambivalences in the representations of ethnicity in sitcoms in the 1990s, we also try to probe the underlying contending forces and discourses, forces of economic, political, socio-cultural and psychological nature and discourses of the television networks, the producers, the performers, the audiences and the critics, that jointly form and reform, construct and deconstruct, transform and perpetuate the landscape of representations of ethnicity in sitcoms. It is our conclusion that representations of ethnicity in sitcoms in the 1990s were the results of the contestation and articulation of various social forces and voices in the American society; and sitcoms in the 1990s were deeply inscribed with the dominant ideology of white supremacist patriarchal capitalism. Sitcoms serve as the site for different ethnic groups to represent their existence and contest for meaning and pleasure.
引文
1 Macionis and Plummer quoted in Casey et al.2002: vi.
2 For more information about McLuhan,see Berger,Arthure Asa 2004: 129-137.
3 For the brief history of television development see Charlotte,Brundson,“Television Studies”edited by Horance Newcomb.Encyclopedia of Television (pp 1646-1649)
4 Rivkin et al 1998.
5 Holloran quoted in Brundson,1997: 1648.
6 For elaborated discussion about Ideology and Television see White,Mimi.(1987) “Ideological Analysis and Television” in Channels of Discourse,ed.by Robert C.Allen.Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina press.Pp 134-171
7 For more discussion about the theories of comedy see Schaeffer,Nail.(1981) The Art of Laughter.New York: Columbia University Press.pp3-16; Frances Gray (1994) Women and Laughter.Charlottesville: University of Vtrginia.pp24-37; Mills,Brett.(2001) “Humor Theory” in Glen Creeber ed.The Television Genre Book.London: BFI Publishing.p63; Berger,Arthur Asa.(2004) Making Sense of Media.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.pp 37-39.
8 Hobbes quoted in Frances,G.1994:25.
9 Kant quoted in Mills,2001: 63.
10 Morreall quoted in Mills,2001: 63.
11 Lippmann quoted in Dyer,2002.
12 Burk quoted in Loomba 1998:115.
13 Carr quoted in Loomba 1998: 160.
14 Renan quoted in Loomba 1998: 125-126.
15 Guba & Lincoln quoted in Coleman,1998: 282.
16 Guba & Lincoln,and Lindlof quoted in Coleman,1998: 283.
1 Richard Taflinger (1996),“Sitcom: What It Is and How It Works” at http:/www,wsu.edu:8080/～Taflinge/sitcom.htm/.Richard Taflinger is a professor at Washington State University specializedin the study of sitcom and his calculation includes almost all the sitcoms aired from 1947 till 1996.But some of them are not aired on the commercial network during the primetime television,i.e.7-10 pm in the U.S,and that major commercial prime time shows mounts to over 900.
2 Arthur Hough,“Trials and Tribulations-Thirty Years of Sitcom” in Richard P Adler (ed.),Understanding Television,Praeger,New York,1981: 201-224.Hough's pioneering study chartedthe development of American sitcom from 1947 to 1978.
3 China has witnessed a rapid growth of sitcom from the inception of the first sitcom I Love MyFamily (《我爱我家》 Wo ai wo jia) in 1993,directed by Ying Da ( 英达 ) who initiated the firstChinese sitcom after he came back from the United States in the early 1990s and now he isgenerally regarded as “the Father of Chinese sitcom”.The other popular Chinese sitcoms includeBusybody Sister Ma (《闲人马大姐》 Xian ten ma da jie),A Family from Northeast China ( 《东北一家人》、 Dong bei yi jia ren),Story of a Kitchen Squad (《炊事班的故事》 Chui shi bande gu shi),Foreign Wife and Local Husband (《外来媳妇本地郎》 Wai lai xi fu ben di lang,in Cantonese) andA Family with Children (《家有儿女》 Jia you er nu).
4 Arthur Hough,“Trials and Tribulations-Thirty Years of Sitcom” in Richard P.Adler (ed.),Understanding Television,Praeger,New York,1981:201-224.
5 Richard Taflinger (1996),“Sitcom: What It Is and How It Works” at http:/www.wsu.edu:8080/～Taflinge/sitcom.htm/ Although Taflinger's study of sitcom only seem to bereleased on his website,it is still often referred to and quoted by some scholars and critics due toits wide coverage and in-depth analysis of sitcom.As he claims,“Included are my own theory ofcomedy,the business of television,action,character,thought,diction,music and spectacle as applied to the sitcom,and a listing of all the sitcoms that have been on American primetimetelevision since 1947”.
6 Dramedy seems to be a kind of dark or black comedy in which (black) humor is derived from the more serious issues or unpleasant side of reality,such as politics,social problems,death,war etc.
7 Lawrence E.Mintz,(1985),“Ideology in the Television Situation Comedy,” in Nancy.A.Walker (ed.),What's So Funny?: humor in American culture,Scholarly Resources Inc,Wilmington,1998: 273.
8 Attallah (1984) quoted in Robin R.Means Coleman quotes,African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing,Inc.,New York &London,1998: 6.
9 Lawrence E.Mintz,ibid,283.
1 Robin R.Means Coleman,African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing,Inc.1998: 82.
2 ibid.p.84.
3 Thomas Cripps,(1983),“Amos 'n'Andy and the debate Over American Racial Integration” in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 25-40.
4 Patricia Mellencamp,(1986) “Situation Comedy,Feminism,and Freud: Discourses of Gracie and Lucy”,in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 41-55.
5 Harris (1994) quoted in Coleman1998: 87.
6 Aniko Bodroghkozy,(1992) “ 'Is This What You Mean by Color TV?': race,gender,and contested meanings in Julia”,in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 129-149.
7 Arthur Hough,(1981) in Richard Adler (ed.) Understanding Television,New York,Prager Publishers,1981:212-213.
8 David Mark and T.Thompson (1992) quoted in Coleman 1998: 94.
9 Arthur Hough,(1981) in Richard Adler (ed.) Understanding Television,New York,Prager Publishers,1981:212-213.
10 Michael Real,(1989) “Structuralist Analysis: Bill Cosby and Recording Ethnicity” in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003:224-246.
11 Ibid,pp 231
12 For more information and discussion of the audience responses towards The Cosby Show see Sut Jahally and Justin Lewis,Englightened Racism,Westview Press,Oxford,1992.
13 Greenberg and Collectte quoted in Spangler,Television Women from Lucy to “Friends”: fifty years of sitcom and feminism,Prager,Connecticut,2003: 8.
14 David Atkin (1992) quoted in Spangler,2003: 7-8.
15 For more information about racial and cultural assimilation and hybridity see Robert Young,Colonial Desire: hybridity in theory,culture and race,Routledge,London and New York,1995,
16 As stated by Hamamoto (1994:39),in the United States,before the 1940s,miscegenation had been legally banned in many western states.Even after such discriminatory laws were rendered invalid at the federal level in the late 1960s,intermarriage between a nonwhite male and a white female still remains tattoo.
17 Entman (1990) quoted in Chris Barker,Television,Globalization and Cultural Identities,Open University Press,Buckingham & Philadelphia,1999:80.
1 B. Lee Artz, (1998) "Hegemony in Black and White: Interracial Buddy Films and the New Racism" in Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media, (eds.) Yahya R. Kamalipour and Theresa Carilli, State University of New York Press, New York, 1998: 67-78.
3 Moore (2000: 177) made the calculation from data contained in U. S. Bureau of the Census,Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1960, Table 137 (1960), and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1998,Table 260 (1998).
4 Moore (2000:179) calculated from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 321, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 646.
5 Moore (2000:180) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 486, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 746.
6 Moore (2000:181) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 502, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 756.
7 Moore (2000:181) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census Web Site, 1999.
9 www.census.gov/main/www/cen1990.html
10 www. census. gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-1.pdf
11 Vance Pachard quoted in Ellis Cashmore, ...and there was television, Routledge, London,1994:113.
12 Nelson quoted in Coleman, African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1998:116.
13 Ibid, Coleman, 1998:117.
14 Ibid, Coleman, 1998:131.
15 Yvette Lee Bowser quoted in Coleman 1998:125.
16 Ibid,Coleman,1998:126-127,
17 Stanley Crouch quoted in Coleman 1998:131.
18 Bianco quoted in Coleman 1998:128.
19 Spike Lee quoted in Coleman 1998:130.
20 Bill Cosby quoted in Coleman 1998:136.
21 Nelson George quoted in Coleman,1998:140.
22 Angela Nelson quoted in Coleman 1998:140.
23 For more information about the relation between blackness and rap music,see Hermay Gray,Watching Race: television and the struggle for “Blackness”,University of Minnesota Press,Minneapolis & London,1995:53-54.
24 www.census.gov/main/www/cen1990.html/we-americans-education-1 lpdf.
25 Ong &Hee quoted in Yen Le Espiritu,Asian American Woman and Men,Sage Publications,California and London,1997:65.
26 U.S Bureau of the Census,1993 quoted in Espiritu,1997:71.
27 Ong & Hee quoted in Espiritu,1997:71-72.
28 Braxton quoted in Mark P Orbe,etal.“Ethnic Humor and Ingroup/Outgroup Positioning: Eplicating Viewer Perceptions of All-American Girl” in Cultural Diversity and the U.S.Media,eds.,Yahya R.Kamalipour and Theresa Carilli,State of New York Press,New York,1998:128.
29 More information about the show can be found at www.imbd.com/title/tt0108693.
30 For more information about the show and the comedian see: www.imdb.com/title/tto310460,and www.gale.com/free resources/chh/bio/lopez
1 From www.TVcom/comedy/genre/topshows.html?g--4&era= 1990& 1 =&pop=&tag=gen_subtabs
2 Donald Liebenson from http://www.amazon.com/Seinfeld-Seasons-Original-Shakers-Playing/dp/B0002UE I X0
3 For more discussion about content analysis see “Content Analysis” in Television Studies: The Key Concepts,eds.,Bernadette Casey et al.Routledge,London and New York,2002: 40-42.
4 As mentioned in methodology,we get the full cast list (core cast and guest appearance) from the well known and biggest international movie data base (including television plays) http://www.imdb.com.,and the total appearance is counted from that list.But the appearances of minor ethnic people could only be identified,recorded and coded by viewing the shows episode by episode.
5 The appearances of the supporting cast are counted from the character list at http://seinfeld.wiki.comedvnetuk.com/yadda/Characters.
6 This number is worked out from the episode cast at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098904/epcast) and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098904/fullcredits.
7 These numbers are worked out from episode cast at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/epcast and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/fullcredits.
8 Hall,2003 at www.tvtoday.co.uk/article.php?p=62&more.
1 For the study on the historical development of Jewish sitcom in the United States,see Vincent Brook,Something Ain't Kosher Here:The Rise of the “Jewish” Sitcom,Rutgers University Press,New Brunswick,New Jersey,and London,2003.
2 Berger quoted in Rosalin Krieger,“'Does He Actually Say the Word Jewish?'-Jewish Representations in Seinfeld',Journal for Cultural Research,Vol.7,No.4,2003:400.
3 From www.tvacres,com/ethnic_jewish_f_1.htm 07/02/14.
4 Stratton quoted in Rosalin Krieger,'Does He Actually Say the Word Jewish?'-Jewish Representations in Seinfeld',Journal for Cultural Research,Vol.7,No.4,2003:401.
5 For more discussion about fashion and male body see Mao Sihui,Technologising the Male Body: British Cinema 1957-1987,Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Beijing,1999.
6 Since all the quoted lines in the following discussions are from the same episode,the episode number and name will be omitted.
7 Albert Memmi quoted in Shohat and Stam,Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the media,Routledge,London and New York,1994:18.
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2 For more information about McLuhan,see Berger,Arthure Asa 2004: 129-137.
3 For the brief history of television development see Charlotte,Brundson,“Television Studies”edited by Horance Newcomb.Encyclopedia of Television (pp 1646-1649)
4 Rivkin et al 1998.
5 Holloran quoted in Brundson,1997: 1648.
6 For elaborated discussion about Ideology and Television see White,Mimi.(1987) “Ideological Analysis and Television” in Channels of Discourse,ed.by Robert C.Allen.Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina press.Pp 134-171
7 For more discussion about the theories of comedy see Schaeffer,Nail.(1981) The Art of Laughter.New York: Columbia University Press.pp3-16; Frances Gray (1994) Women and Laughter.Charlottesville: University of Vtrginia.pp24-37; Mills,Brett.(2001) “Humor Theory” in Glen Creeber ed.The Television Genre Book.London: BFI Publishing.p63; Berger,Arthur Asa.(2004) Making Sense of Media.Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.pp 37-39.
8 Hobbes quoted in Frances,G.1994:25.
9 Kant quoted in Mills,2001: 63.
10 Morreall quoted in Mills,2001: 63.
11 Lippmann quoted in Dyer,2002.
12 Burk quoted in Loomba 1998:115.
13 Carr quoted in Loomba 1998: 160.
14 Renan quoted in Loomba 1998: 125-126.
15 Guba & Lincoln quoted in Coleman,1998: 282.
16 Guba & Lincoln,and Lindlof quoted in Coleman,1998: 283.
1 Richard Taflinger (1996),“Sitcom: What It Is and How It Works” at http:/www,wsu.edu:8080/～Taflinge/sitcom.htm/.Richard Taflinger is a professor at Washington State University specializedin the study of sitcom and his calculation includes almost all the sitcoms aired from 1947 till 1996.But some of them are not aired on the commercial network during the primetime television,i.e.7-10 pm in the U.S,and that major commercial prime time shows mounts to over 900.
2 Arthur Hough,“Trials and Tribulations-Thirty Years of Sitcom” in Richard P Adler (ed.),Understanding Television,Praeger,New York,1981: 201-224.Hough's pioneering study chartedthe development of American sitcom from 1947 to 1978.
3 China has witnessed a rapid growth of sitcom from the inception of the first sitcom I Love MyFamily (《我爱我家》 Wo ai wo jia) in 1993,directed by Ying Da ( 英达 ) who initiated the firstChinese sitcom after he came back from the United States in the early 1990s and now he isgenerally regarded as “the Father of Chinese sitcom”.The other popular Chinese sitcoms includeBusybody Sister Ma (《闲人马大姐》 Xian ten ma da jie),A Family from Northeast China ( 《东北一家人》、 Dong bei yi jia ren),Story of a Kitchen Squad (《炊事班的故事》 Chui shi bande gu shi),Foreign Wife and Local Husband (《外来媳妇本地郎》 Wai lai xi fu ben di lang,in Cantonese) andA Family with Children (《家有儿女》 Jia you er nu).
4 Arthur Hough,“Trials and Tribulations-Thirty Years of Sitcom” in Richard P.Adler (ed.),Understanding Television,Praeger,New York,1981:201-224.
5 Richard Taflinger (1996),“Sitcom: What It Is and How It Works” at http:/www.wsu.edu:8080/～Taflinge/sitcom.htm/ Although Taflinger's study of sitcom only seem to bereleased on his website,it is still often referred to and quoted by some scholars and critics due toits wide coverage and in-depth analysis of sitcom.As he claims,“Included are my own theory ofcomedy,the business of television,action,character,thought,diction,music and spectacle as applied to the sitcom,and a listing of all the sitcoms that have been on American primetimetelevision since 1947”.
6 Dramedy seems to be a kind of dark or black comedy in which (black) humor is derived from the more serious issues or unpleasant side of reality,such as politics,social problems,death,war etc.
7 Lawrence E.Mintz,(1985),“Ideology in the Television Situation Comedy,” in Nancy.A.Walker (ed.),What's So Funny?: humor in American culture,Scholarly Resources Inc,Wilmington,1998: 273.
8 Attallah (1984) quoted in Robin R.Means Coleman quotes,African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing,Inc.,New York &London,1998: 6.
9 Lawrence E.Mintz,ibid,283.
1 Robin R.Means Coleman,African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing,Inc.1998: 82.
2 ibid.p.84.
3 Thomas Cripps,(1983),“Amos 'n'Andy and the debate Over American Racial Integration” in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 25-40.
4 Patricia Mellencamp,(1986) “Situation Comedy,Feminism,and Freud: Discourses of Gracie and Lucy”,in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 41-55.
5 Harris (1994) quoted in Coleman1998: 87.
6 Aniko Bodroghkozy,(1992) “ 'Is This What You Mean by Color TV?': race,gender,and contested meanings in Julia”,in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003: 129-149.
7 Arthur Hough,(1981) in Richard Adler (ed.) Understanding Television,New York,Prager Publishers,1981:212-213.
8 David Mark and T.Thompson (1992) quoted in Coleman 1998: 94.
9 Arthur Hough,(1981) in Richard Adler (ed.) Understanding Television,New York,Prager Publishers,1981:212-213.
10 Michael Real,(1989) “Structuralist Analysis: Bill Cosby and Recording Ethnicity” in Joanne Morreale (ed.) Critiquing the Sitcom: a reader,New York,Syracuse University Press,2003:224-246.
11 Ibid,pp 231
12 For more information and discussion of the audience responses towards The Cosby Show see Sut Jahally and Justin Lewis,Englightened Racism,Westview Press,Oxford,1992.
13 Greenberg and Collectte quoted in Spangler,Television Women from Lucy to “Friends”: fifty years of sitcom and feminism,Prager,Connecticut,2003: 8.
14 David Atkin (1992) quoted in Spangler,2003: 7-8.
15 For more information about racial and cultural assimilation and hybridity see Robert Young,Colonial Desire: hybridity in theory,culture and race,Routledge,London and New York,1995,
16 As stated by Hamamoto (1994:39),in the United States,before the 1940s,miscegenation had been legally banned in many western states.Even after such discriminatory laws were rendered invalid at the federal level in the late 1960s,intermarriage between a nonwhite male and a white female still remains tattoo.
17 Entman (1990) quoted in Chris Barker,Television,Globalization and Cultural Identities,Open University Press,Buckingham & Philadelphia,1999:80.
1 B. Lee Artz, (1998) "Hegemony in Black and White: Interracial Buddy Films and the New Racism" in Cultural Diversity and the U.S. Media, (eds.) Yahya R. Kamalipour and Theresa Carilli, State University of New York Press, New York, 1998: 67-78.
3 Moore (2000: 177) made the calculation from data contained in U. S. Bureau of the Census,Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1960, Table 137 (1960), and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1998,Table 260 (1998).
4 Moore (2000:179) calculated from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 321, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 646.
5 Moore (2000:180) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 486, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 746.
6 Moore (2000:181) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the U. S.1970, Table 502, and ibid., Statistical Abstract of the U. S. 1998, Table 756.
7 Moore (2000:181) quoted from U. S. Bureau of the Census Web Site, 1999.
9 www.census.gov/main/www/cen1990.html
10 www. census. gov/prod/2001pubs/c2kbr01-1.pdf
11 Vance Pachard quoted in Ellis Cashmore, ...and there was television, Routledge, London,1994:113.
12 Nelson quoted in Coleman, African American Viewers and the Black Situation Comedy,Garland Publishing, Inc., New York and London, 1998:116.
13 Ibid, Coleman, 1998:117.
14 Ibid, Coleman, 1998:131.
15 Yvette Lee Bowser quoted in Coleman 1998:125.
16 Ibid,Coleman,1998:126-127,
17 Stanley Crouch quoted in Coleman 1998:131.
18 Bianco quoted in Coleman 1998:128.
19 Spike Lee quoted in Coleman 1998:130.
20 Bill Cosby quoted in Coleman 1998:136.
21 Nelson George quoted in Coleman,1998:140.
22 Angela Nelson quoted in Coleman 1998:140.
23 For more information about the relation between blackness and rap music,see Hermay Gray,Watching Race: television and the struggle for “Blackness”,University of Minnesota Press,Minneapolis & London,1995:53-54.
24 www.census.gov/main/www/cen1990.html/we-americans-education-1 lpdf.
25 Ong &Hee quoted in Yen Le Espiritu,Asian American Woman and Men,Sage Publications,California and London,1997:65.
26 U.S Bureau of the Census,1993 quoted in Espiritu,1997:71.
27 Ong & Hee quoted in Espiritu,1997:71-72.
28 Braxton quoted in Mark P Orbe,etal.“Ethnic Humor and Ingroup/Outgroup Positioning: Eplicating Viewer Perceptions of All-American Girl” in Cultural Diversity and the U.S.Media,eds.,Yahya R.Kamalipour and Theresa Carilli,State of New York Press,New York,1998:128.
29 More information about the show can be found at www.imbd.com/title/tt0108693.
30 For more information about the show and the comedian see: www.imdb.com/title/tto310460,and www.gale.com/free resources/chh/bio/lopez
1 From www.TVcom/comedy/genre/topshows.html?g--4&era= 1990& 1 =&pop=&tag=gen_subtabs
2 Donald Liebenson from http://www.amazon.com/Seinfeld-Seasons-Original-Shakers-Playing/dp/B0002UE I X0
3 For more discussion about content analysis see “Content Analysis” in Television Studies: The Key Concepts,eds.,Bernadette Casey et al.Routledge,London and New York,2002: 40-42.
4 As mentioned in methodology,we get the full cast list (core cast and guest appearance) from the well known and biggest international movie data base (including television plays) http://www.imdb.com.,and the total appearance is counted from that list.But the appearances of minor ethnic people could only be identified,recorded and coded by viewing the shows episode by episode.
5 The appearances of the supporting cast are counted from the character list at http://seinfeld.wiki.comedvnetuk.com/yadda/Characters.
6 This number is worked out from the episode cast at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098904/epcast) and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0098904/fullcredits.
7 These numbers are worked out from episode cast at http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/epcast and http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0108778/fullcredits.
8 Hall,2003 at www.tvtoday.co.uk/article.php?p=62&more.
1 For the study on the historical development of Jewish sitcom in the United States,see Vincent Brook,Something Ain't Kosher Here:The Rise of the “Jewish” Sitcom,Rutgers University Press,New Brunswick,New Jersey,and London,2003.
2 Berger quoted in Rosalin Krieger,“'Does He Actually Say the Word Jewish?'-Jewish Representations in Seinfeld',Journal for Cultural Research,Vol.7,No.4,2003:400.
3 From www.tvacres,com/ethnic_jewish_f_1.htm 07/02/14.
4 Stratton quoted in Rosalin Krieger,'Does He Actually Say the Word Jewish?'-Jewish Representations in Seinfeld',Journal for Cultural Research,Vol.7,No.4,2003:401.
5 For more discussion about fashion and male body see Mao Sihui,Technologising the Male Body: British Cinema 1957-1987,Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press,Beijing,1999.
6 Since all the quoted lines in the following discussions are from the same episode,the episode number and name will be omitted.
7 Albert Memmi quoted in Shohat and Stam,Unthinking Eurocentrism: Multiculturalism and the media,Routledge,London and New York,1994:18.
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