仁爱与纯洁：哈代小说中新宗教的二维研究
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摘要
托马斯·哈代（1840-1928）是英国文学史上最伟大的小说家和诗人之一。其作品倾注着对因受盲目力量操纵而遭受苦难的人类殷殷的关切之情。自二十五岁左右放弃对上帝的信仰后，哈代终生怀有把基督教改造成新宗教的愿望。在他看来，在盲目力量掌控一切的世界上，人类的幸福离不开这样的宗教。然而，尽管批评家已开始关注哈代的新宗教思想，但大多认为哈代在十九世纪八十年中期以后才形成把基督教改造为以传播仁爱为旨归的宗教思想。显然，哈代早期小说中的新宗教思想及其后期小说彰显的宗教新内涵均未受到应有的重视。本文旨在深入探讨哈代小说中的新宗教主题与内涵。
哈代宣传的新宗教脱胎于基督教。它认可基督教的传教形式，但否定基督教神秘成份和僵死教义，其内涵包括“仁爱”和“纯洁”两个维度，分别源于耶稣的“博爱”教义和“纯洁”观。在哈代看来，耶稣不是神而是人，是一位伟大的道德传播者和犹太教的改革家。耶稣认为，“博爱”是与“爱上帝”相仿的最大诫命，基督教的其他教义、律法均应体现爱人这一原则，否则就应废弃或置之不顾。耶稣还是一位道德动机论者，他认为善在于心灵的纯洁，内心没有恶念才是人纯洁的标志。因此，行为的道德价值存在于行为的动机之中，动机而不是外在行为及效果是衡量善恶的依据。研究表明，在其发表于十九世纪七十和八十年代的小说中，哈代宣传“仁爱宗教”，在九十年代发表的晚期小说中哈代传播“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”。无疑，由于其哲学观的发展和时代精神的影响，哈代构建的新宗教的内涵不断丰富和发展，几乎贯穿了他小说创作的全过程。但限于论文的篇幅，本文将集中探讨其三部重要小说《还乡》、《德伯家的苔丝》和《无名的裘德》中所宣传的新宗教思想。上述三部小说为哈代七十和九十年代的代表作，反映出其新宗教思想嬗变的轨迹。
本文共分三章，另有引语和结语。引语分为四个部分。第一部分对国内外哈代宗教思想研究进行了一番梳理，指出了研究中尚存在的不足，主要表现在研究者对其早期小说中的新宗教思想和后期小说中的宗教新内涵均未给予足够的重视；第二部分简述了哈代一生宗教思想变化的过程，认为可分为笃信基督教和逐步形成并宣传“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”两个阶段；第三部分厘清了新宗教所涉及的两个关键术语：“仁爱”和“纯洁”，认为其内涵分别来自于耶稣的“博爱”和“纯洁”的教义；最后一部分介绍了论文的选题与结构，表明本文撰写的目的在于揭示哈代小说中的新宗教主题与内涵。
第一章探讨了《还乡》中凸显的“仁爱宗教”思想。本章首先简述了哈代在科学家、哲学家和宗教改革家的影响下“仁爱宗教”思想形成的过程，突出了哈代寄希望于改造基督教以传播仁爱这一道德价值观念的根本缘由：基督教的传教形式能拨动人的情感，而道德价值观念唯有在情感的作用下才会提升人的道德水平。值得一提的是，哈代先相信快乐的情感作用，七十年代中后期开始强调痛苦的情感作用。主体部分分析了作品中人物悲、喜剧产生的根源。小说中的三位悲剧人物分别为希腊式的以个人为中心的享乐主义者、实证主义者和基督徒。由于缺乏仁爱精神，他们听任自己受“激情”、“偏见”和“野心”的支配，相互之间产生了一系列的矛盾。在以巧合为表现形式的盲目力量的推动下，矛盾逐渐加剧激化，导致了两位悲剧人物的死亡。其实，只要他们在矛盾发生后及时宽恕对方悲剧就可避免。上述悲剧表明，希腊文化、实证主义和基督教不利于培养人的仁爱之心。小说还塑造了两位具有仁爱精神的次要人物，他们帮助他人避免了不少痛苦和灾难。然而，由于偶然作祟，他们的善举并非都达到了预期的目的。哈代以此表明，在盲目力量掌控的世界上，少数人的仁爱之举不能起到扭转乾坤的作用，只有越来越多的人拥有仁爱之心，人间的痛苦和灾难才会愈来愈少。
第二章剖析了《德伯家的苔丝》所倡导的新宗教内涵的另一维度—纯洁。本章首先简述了哈代在叔本华和哈特曼等哲学家的影响下经过独立思考形成的哲学观和时代批判精神对其创作的影响。主体部分分析了女主人公悲剧产生的根源和其纯洁的依据。按照犹太教经典《圣经》中的《旧约》主张的效果论道德观，女人失身无疑是堕落的。在这种道德观的支配下，教士和邻里均视失身女主人公为堕落的女人，甚至思想开明的丈夫和明知自己无心犯错的女主人公也持相同的看法。女主人公悲剧的根源当属这种以效果评判人们行为道德价值的道德观。然而，根据耶稣确立的动机论道德观，女主人公是纯洁的女人。她的失身是遭强暴的结果。失身后未马上离开是因其受到“内在意志”的控制，非理性暂时压倒了理性。因此，这种不是由不良动机促成的行为不能视为不道德行为。女主人公的纯洁在其恢复理性后所做的选择中得到彰显：宁可背上“堕落女人”的恶名，也不留恋物质享受做男人的玩物。从其短暂的一生看，女主人公从无自私自利的想法，甘愿为他人利益牺牲自己的一切，实为“一个纯洁的女人”。其实，假如女主人公学会虚伪，处处为自己着想，其悲剧是不会发生的。哈代以女主人公的悲剧告诉世人：在“内在意志”控制的世界上，纯洁的人也难免犯下无心的过错；因此，必须把耶稣主张的纯洁观作为新宗教教义的一个重要组成部分，让人们懂得区分善恶，给人间以光明。
第三章阐释了在《无名的裘德》中作者如何用“仁爱”和“纯洁”两面明亮的镜鉴使受到基督教会维护的维多利亚时代婚姻制度露出不道德的真面目。本章首先简要论述了促成哈代创作的时代背景。主体部分分析了维多利亚时代婚姻制度不道德的两个依据。通过对两桩失败婚姻缔结和给当事人造成痛苦的因由的揭示，小说旨在说明：在“内在意志”掌控的世界上难免出现不应结合的婚姻，维多利亚时代婚姻制度不道德的一个重要方面在于它不给饱受婚姻精神折磨的人们以离婚的权利，违背了耶稣主张的律法应体现爱人这一原则。这一婚姻制度的不道德还在于它给出于善良动机行为违背它的人带来的是苦难乃至悲剧，给出于自私动机遵守它的人带来的是利益和前程，使人们善恶不分，道德退化低下。因此，必须以“仁爱”和“纯洁”精神为指导修改婚姻法。实际上，作者借小说告诉人们，人间的任何法律制度都不能违背这种精神。由此可见，在哈代看来，“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”对人类是何其重要！
结语对全文进行了总结，重申了时代科学、哲学和社会思潮以及宗教改革对哈代形成“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”的构想所起的作用。哈代的小说清晰地呈现了其新宗教思想逐渐形成的轨迹，揭示了哈代关注人间痛苦的人道情怀。毫无疑问，哈代构想的新宗教传播的是伦理道德观念，完全祛除了基督教神秘主义成份。其如此重视以宗教途径传播道德观念，根本原因在于他相信宗教的传教形式所唤起的情感有利于提升人的道德水平。尽管人们可以质疑其以宗教形式提升人道德素质的想法，但可以肯定，哈代以小说为载体传播的“仁爱”和“纯洁”等道德价值观念具有普世的意义。
Thomas Hardy is regarded as one of the greatest novelists and poets in Englishliterature. He is a writer who demonstrates a deep concern for man’s suffering and miseryin a world governed by an indifferent force. After his loss of faith, a vision of a newreligion，which he believed Christianity would modulate into, remained rooted in his heartthroughout the remainder of his life, for in his view it could play an indispensible role inenabling man to experience a happy existence. Because few critics have noticed histhought on a new religion in his early fiction and the development of his concept ofreligion, further studies are required. This dissertation is intended to explore the theme andsignificance of the new religion in Hardy’s major novels.
Hardy’s new religion is born out of Christianity. It attaches importance to the externalaspects of Christianity, but rejects its supernatural and dead creeds. It promulgates theethics of loving-kindness and purity, both coming from the moral teachings of Jesus Christ,whom Hardy regards as a great mortal teacher of morality and reformer of Judaism.Loving-kindness is synonymous with Jesus’ concept of loving your neighbour，which notonly requires men to selflessly and devotedly extend their love and concern to all peopleand forgive others for their transgressions but also is a touchstone of all other Christianlaws. Purity, in the eyes of Jesus, refers to freedom from selfish and base motives. In otherwords, a pure man is one who has cleansed his heart of selfish desires and always acts outof altruistic motives. Therefore, it is crystal clear that motivation is the basis for ethicalassessments. It is theorized that a promulgation of a new religion occupies a vital positionin Hardy’s novels. Furthermore, his concept of the religion in his fiction follows a line ofevolution, in response to the development of his philosophical ideas and the changing spiritof the time. That is, his fiction in the1870s and1880s promulgates a religion ofloving-kindness; the fiction in the1890s, the last period of his novel-writing career, adds anew dimension—purity—to the new religion. In view of manageability, this dissertation isdevoted to the exploration of Hardy’s concept of new religion in his three majornovels—The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure—anddetails the continuity and development of his religious thoughts.
This dissertation consists of three main chapters, in addition to the Introduction andthe Conclusion. The Introduction of the dissertation consists of four sections: a review ofEnglish and Chinese scholarship on Hardy’s religious concept, which reveals that Hardy’sthought on a new religion in his early fiction and his concept of purity in his later fictionhave failed to be noticed by Hardy critics; a brief account of the process of thedevelopment of Hardy’s concept of religion,which should be considered in two stages:the complete acceptance of Christianity and the gradual formation and promulgation ofhis concept of new religion; a definition of two key terms:“loving-kindness” and “purity”,which are synonymous respectively with Jesus’ loving your neighbour and his concept ofpurity;and also a brief introduction of the scope of this research and the structure of thedissertation，which aims to explore the theme and significance of the new religion inHardy’s major novels.
Chapter One investigates the religion of loving-kindness in The Return of the Nativewith two sections respectively dealing with tragedies for lack of loving-kindness andloving-kindness in the world of chance. Central to this chapter is the argument thatloving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down to a minimum inthe chance-governed world. Before engaging in concentrated discussions, this chapter firstbriefly examines the influence, on Hardy, of the scientists, philosophers and reformers ofChristianity of the time who may have contributed to his loss of faith in God; hisconviction of an indifferent and unconscious force that dictates life on this earth, whichincarnates itself as chance; and his belief in the valuable function of a newreligion,which Christianity should develop into and which can arouse sympathetic feelingsthat are able to alter men’s moral natures. Section One investigates how lack ofloving-kindness leads to tragedies in the chance-governed world. Through the depiction ofthree major characters who are followers of Hellenism, positivism and Christianityrespectively, Hardy reveals that Hellenism and positivism can not enhance moral qualitiesand that Christianity impairs moral qualities. In default of loving-kindness they are selfish,giving way to passions, prejudices, and ambitions. It is bound to happen that they are atvariance with each other. Chance increases the contradictions between people andcontributes to the deaths of two female characters. The tragedies could have been averted ifthey had hastened to forgive each other. The ensuing section, centering on how loving-kindness contributes to man’s felicity in the world of chance, uncovers the author’sovertone that loving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down toa minimum. Two minor characters, who possess the moral quality of loving-kindness,always act altruistically. They are also in chance’s claw but they endeavor greatly to keeppeople away from the pain which would have been caused by chance. However, one’sgood intentions do not necessarily reap benefits in the chance-governed world. Thissuggests that in the chance-governed world no man is a savior and that the avoidance oftragic happenings leans on the combined efforts of everyone. Therefore, it is absolutelyimperative that the religion of loving-kindness be promulgated.
Chapter Two next examines Hardy’s concept of purity, the second dimension of themature new religion, in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. The introduction of this chapterconducts a brief examination of the development of Hardy’s philosophical ideasinfluenced by Schopenhauer and Von Hartmann and the increasing popular tendency tocriticize prevalent moral and social ideas. This examination provides a foundation for thefollowing two sections of the chapter. The first section probes into Hardy’s view that theVictorian concept of a fallen woman is erroneous and ridiculous in that it attachesimportance to external performance rather than motivation. This ethical assessment basedon actions, coming from the Old Testament, is entrenched in the minds of all people,including the heroine, a victim and her husband, an enlightened young man. Theunderlying cause of the suffering and death of the heroine is nothing else but the ethicalassessment. The second section focuses on Hardy’s defense of Tess’s purity in terms ofChrist’s ethical assessment based on motives. Controlled by the Immanent Will, theheroine’s loss of virginity and her temporary sexual relationship with the rapist can notspeak volumes for her impurity because she acts inadvertently. The heroine’s purity isunquestionable in that on coming to her senses she chooses to leave her rapist and seducerin spite of his attempts to use his wealth to insure her loyalty. Being a pure woman, shealways acts voluntarily for the benefit of others at the sacrifice of her own interests. In asense it is her purity that brings about her tragedy. It can be concluded that the novelsuggests that in the world governed by the Immanent Will Jesus’ concept of purity canguide people to proper ethical assessments.
Chapter Three is devoted to the investigation of Hardy’s criticism in Jude the Obscure of the Victorian institution of marriage for its immorality made crystal clear by Jesus’teaching on love and purity. The social and literary concern for the marriage problem isbriefly analyzed at the beginning of the chapter to justify his criticism of the Victorianinstitution of marriage.Section One probes into the attack, through the examination of twobad marriages, on the Victorian institution of marriage in the name of loving-kindness.Through the analysis of the reasons for the sufferings of two major characters trapped intheir respective marriages, it is discovered that in a world controlled by the Immanent Willthere ineluctably exist ill-matched marriages. The Victorian institution of marriage is inopposition to Jesus’ commandment of loving others in that it does not grant people theright to divorce on grounds of mental suffering. Section Two examines Hardy’s criticism ofthe Victorian institution of marriage in the name of purity. Through the scrutiny of twocharacters’ motives for their violation of the matrimonial codes, the motives of one of themfor remarriage, and their different trajectories, the immorality of the institution is clearlyexposed because it brings misery to those who flout the marriage law out of altruisticmotives and benefits to those who comply with it out of egoistic motives. To conclude, byusing loving-kindness and purity as a touchstone, Hardy bitterly criticizes the Victorianinstitution of marriage and expresses his hope that the marriage laws should be modified.
The dissertation concludes with a short summary of its main contents, followed by ashort account of the social and intellectual backgrounds which contribute to the formationof Hardy’s new religion. Hardy’s major novels clearly show the trajectory of the gradualdevelopment of his conception of a new religion, which reveals his constant preoccupationwith human misery and suffering.It should be noted that the religion of loving-kindnessand purity is an ethical system of belief without a metaphysical basis. Hardy’s firmconviction that the ethics of loving-kindness and purity should be promulgated by a newChurch consists in his view that it can evoke feelings indispensible for changing man’smoral nature. One may disagree with Hardy on the function of a new Church but can notunderestimate the immense significance of the moral values of loving-kindness and puritycommunicated in his novels.
哈代宣传的新宗教脱胎于基督教。它认可基督教的传教形式，但否定基督教神秘成份和僵死教义，其内涵包括“仁爱”和“纯洁”两个维度，分别源于耶稣的“博爱”教义和“纯洁”观。在哈代看来，耶稣不是神而是人，是一位伟大的道德传播者和犹太教的改革家。耶稣认为，“博爱”是与“爱上帝”相仿的最大诫命，基督教的其他教义、律法均应体现爱人这一原则，否则就应废弃或置之不顾。耶稣还是一位道德动机论者，他认为善在于心灵的纯洁，内心没有恶念才是人纯洁的标志。因此，行为的道德价值存在于行为的动机之中，动机而不是外在行为及效果是衡量善恶的依据。研究表明，在其发表于十九世纪七十和八十年代的小说中，哈代宣传“仁爱宗教”，在九十年代发表的晚期小说中哈代传播“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”。无疑，由于其哲学观的发展和时代精神的影响，哈代构建的新宗教的内涵不断丰富和发展，几乎贯穿了他小说创作的全过程。但限于论文的篇幅，本文将集中探讨其三部重要小说《还乡》、《德伯家的苔丝》和《无名的裘德》中所宣传的新宗教思想。上述三部小说为哈代七十和九十年代的代表作，反映出其新宗教思想嬗变的轨迹。
本文共分三章，另有引语和结语。引语分为四个部分。第一部分对国内外哈代宗教思想研究进行了一番梳理，指出了研究中尚存在的不足，主要表现在研究者对其早期小说中的新宗教思想和后期小说中的宗教新内涵均未给予足够的重视；第二部分简述了哈代一生宗教思想变化的过程，认为可分为笃信基督教和逐步形成并宣传“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”两个阶段；第三部分厘清了新宗教所涉及的两个关键术语：“仁爱”和“纯洁”，认为其内涵分别来自于耶稣的“博爱”和“纯洁”的教义；最后一部分介绍了论文的选题与结构，表明本文撰写的目的在于揭示哈代小说中的新宗教主题与内涵。
第一章探讨了《还乡》中凸显的“仁爱宗教”思想。本章首先简述了哈代在科学家、哲学家和宗教改革家的影响下“仁爱宗教”思想形成的过程，突出了哈代寄希望于改造基督教以传播仁爱这一道德价值观念的根本缘由：基督教的传教形式能拨动人的情感，而道德价值观念唯有在情感的作用下才会提升人的道德水平。值得一提的是，哈代先相信快乐的情感作用，七十年代中后期开始强调痛苦的情感作用。主体部分分析了作品中人物悲、喜剧产生的根源。小说中的三位悲剧人物分别为希腊式的以个人为中心的享乐主义者、实证主义者和基督徒。由于缺乏仁爱精神，他们听任自己受“激情”、“偏见”和“野心”的支配，相互之间产生了一系列的矛盾。在以巧合为表现形式的盲目力量的推动下，矛盾逐渐加剧激化，导致了两位悲剧人物的死亡。其实，只要他们在矛盾发生后及时宽恕对方悲剧就可避免。上述悲剧表明，希腊文化、实证主义和基督教不利于培养人的仁爱之心。小说还塑造了两位具有仁爱精神的次要人物，他们帮助他人避免了不少痛苦和灾难。然而，由于偶然作祟，他们的善举并非都达到了预期的目的。哈代以此表明，在盲目力量掌控的世界上，少数人的仁爱之举不能起到扭转乾坤的作用，只有越来越多的人拥有仁爱之心，人间的痛苦和灾难才会愈来愈少。
第二章剖析了《德伯家的苔丝》所倡导的新宗教内涵的另一维度—纯洁。本章首先简述了哈代在叔本华和哈特曼等哲学家的影响下经过独立思考形成的哲学观和时代批判精神对其创作的影响。主体部分分析了女主人公悲剧产生的根源和其纯洁的依据。按照犹太教经典《圣经》中的《旧约》主张的效果论道德观，女人失身无疑是堕落的。在这种道德观的支配下，教士和邻里均视失身女主人公为堕落的女人，甚至思想开明的丈夫和明知自己无心犯错的女主人公也持相同的看法。女主人公悲剧的根源当属这种以效果评判人们行为道德价值的道德观。然而，根据耶稣确立的动机论道德观，女主人公是纯洁的女人。她的失身是遭强暴的结果。失身后未马上离开是因其受到“内在意志”的控制，非理性暂时压倒了理性。因此，这种不是由不良动机促成的行为不能视为不道德行为。女主人公的纯洁在其恢复理性后所做的选择中得到彰显：宁可背上“堕落女人”的恶名，也不留恋物质享受做男人的玩物。从其短暂的一生看，女主人公从无自私自利的想法，甘愿为他人利益牺牲自己的一切，实为“一个纯洁的女人”。其实，假如女主人公学会虚伪，处处为自己着想，其悲剧是不会发生的。哈代以女主人公的悲剧告诉世人：在“内在意志”控制的世界上，纯洁的人也难免犯下无心的过错；因此，必须把耶稣主张的纯洁观作为新宗教教义的一个重要组成部分，让人们懂得区分善恶，给人间以光明。
第三章阐释了在《无名的裘德》中作者如何用“仁爱”和“纯洁”两面明亮的镜鉴使受到基督教会维护的维多利亚时代婚姻制度露出不道德的真面目。本章首先简要论述了促成哈代创作的时代背景。主体部分分析了维多利亚时代婚姻制度不道德的两个依据。通过对两桩失败婚姻缔结和给当事人造成痛苦的因由的揭示，小说旨在说明：在“内在意志”掌控的世界上难免出现不应结合的婚姻，维多利亚时代婚姻制度不道德的一个重要方面在于它不给饱受婚姻精神折磨的人们以离婚的权利，违背了耶稣主张的律法应体现爱人这一原则。这一婚姻制度的不道德还在于它给出于善良动机行为违背它的人带来的是苦难乃至悲剧，给出于自私动机遵守它的人带来的是利益和前程，使人们善恶不分，道德退化低下。因此，必须以“仁爱”和“纯洁”精神为指导修改婚姻法。实际上，作者借小说告诉人们，人间的任何法律制度都不能违背这种精神。由此可见，在哈代看来，“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”对人类是何其重要！
结语对全文进行了总结，重申了时代科学、哲学和社会思潮以及宗教改革对哈代形成“仁爱和纯洁的宗教”的构想所起的作用。哈代的小说清晰地呈现了其新宗教思想逐渐形成的轨迹，揭示了哈代关注人间痛苦的人道情怀。毫无疑问，哈代构想的新宗教传播的是伦理道德观念，完全祛除了基督教神秘主义成份。其如此重视以宗教途径传播道德观念，根本原因在于他相信宗教的传教形式所唤起的情感有利于提升人的道德水平。尽管人们可以质疑其以宗教形式提升人道德素质的想法，但可以肯定，哈代以小说为载体传播的“仁爱”和“纯洁”等道德价值观念具有普世的意义。
Thomas Hardy is regarded as one of the greatest novelists and poets in Englishliterature. He is a writer who demonstrates a deep concern for man’s suffering and miseryin a world governed by an indifferent force. After his loss of faith, a vision of a newreligion，which he believed Christianity would modulate into, remained rooted in his heartthroughout the remainder of his life, for in his view it could play an indispensible role inenabling man to experience a happy existence. Because few critics have noticed histhought on a new religion in his early fiction and the development of his concept ofreligion, further studies are required. This dissertation is intended to explore the theme andsignificance of the new religion in Hardy’s major novels.
Hardy’s new religion is born out of Christianity. It attaches importance to the externalaspects of Christianity, but rejects its supernatural and dead creeds. It promulgates theethics of loving-kindness and purity, both coming from the moral teachings of Jesus Christ,whom Hardy regards as a great mortal teacher of morality and reformer of Judaism.Loving-kindness is synonymous with Jesus’ concept of loving your neighbour，which notonly requires men to selflessly and devotedly extend their love and concern to all peopleand forgive others for their transgressions but also is a touchstone of all other Christianlaws. Purity, in the eyes of Jesus, refers to freedom from selfish and base motives. In otherwords, a pure man is one who has cleansed his heart of selfish desires and always acts outof altruistic motives. Therefore, it is crystal clear that motivation is the basis for ethicalassessments. It is theorized that a promulgation of a new religion occupies a vital positionin Hardy’s novels. Furthermore, his concept of the religion in his fiction follows a line ofevolution, in response to the development of his philosophical ideas and the changing spiritof the time. That is, his fiction in the1870s and1880s promulgates a religion ofloving-kindness; the fiction in the1890s, the last period of his novel-writing career, adds anew dimension—purity—to the new religion. In view of manageability, this dissertation isdevoted to the exploration of Hardy’s concept of new religion in his three majornovels—The Return of the Native, Tess of the d’Urbervilles and Jude the Obscure—anddetails the continuity and development of his religious thoughts.
This dissertation consists of three main chapters, in addition to the Introduction andthe Conclusion. The Introduction of the dissertation consists of four sections: a review ofEnglish and Chinese scholarship on Hardy’s religious concept, which reveals that Hardy’sthought on a new religion in his early fiction and his concept of purity in his later fictionhave failed to be noticed by Hardy critics; a brief account of the process of thedevelopment of Hardy’s concept of religion,which should be considered in two stages:the complete acceptance of Christianity and the gradual formation and promulgation ofhis concept of new religion; a definition of two key terms:“loving-kindness” and “purity”,which are synonymous respectively with Jesus’ loving your neighbour and his concept ofpurity;and also a brief introduction of the scope of this research and the structure of thedissertation，which aims to explore the theme and significance of the new religion inHardy’s major novels.
Chapter One investigates the religion of loving-kindness in The Return of the Nativewith two sections respectively dealing with tragedies for lack of loving-kindness andloving-kindness in the world of chance. Central to this chapter is the argument thatloving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down to a minimum inthe chance-governed world. Before engaging in concentrated discussions, this chapter firstbriefly examines the influence, on Hardy, of the scientists, philosophers and reformers ofChristianity of the time who may have contributed to his loss of faith in God; hisconviction of an indifferent and unconscious force that dictates life on this earth, whichincarnates itself as chance; and his belief in the valuable function of a newreligion,which Christianity should develop into and which can arouse sympathetic feelingsthat are able to alter men’s moral natures. Section One investigates how lack ofloving-kindness leads to tragedies in the chance-governed world. Through the depiction ofthree major characters who are followers of Hellenism, positivism and Christianityrespectively, Hardy reveals that Hellenism and positivism can not enhance moral qualitiesand that Christianity impairs moral qualities. In default of loving-kindness they are selfish,giving way to passions, prejudices, and ambitions. It is bound to happen that they are atvariance with each other. Chance increases the contradictions between people andcontributes to the deaths of two female characters. The tragedies could have been averted ifthey had hastened to forgive each other. The ensuing section, centering on how loving-kindness contributes to man’s felicity in the world of chance, uncovers the author’sovertone that loving-kindness is the only means to keep man’s pain and suffering down toa minimum. Two minor characters, who possess the moral quality of loving-kindness,always act altruistically. They are also in chance’s claw but they endeavor greatly to keeppeople away from the pain which would have been caused by chance. However, one’sgood intentions do not necessarily reap benefits in the chance-governed world. Thissuggests that in the chance-governed world no man is a savior and that the avoidance oftragic happenings leans on the combined efforts of everyone. Therefore, it is absolutelyimperative that the religion of loving-kindness be promulgated.
Chapter Two next examines Hardy’s concept of purity, the second dimension of themature new religion, in Tess of the d’Urbervilles. The introduction of this chapterconducts a brief examination of the development of Hardy’s philosophical ideasinfluenced by Schopenhauer and Von Hartmann and the increasing popular tendency tocriticize prevalent moral and social ideas. This examination provides a foundation for thefollowing two sections of the chapter. The first section probes into Hardy’s view that theVictorian concept of a fallen woman is erroneous and ridiculous in that it attachesimportance to external performance rather than motivation. This ethical assessment basedon actions, coming from the Old Testament, is entrenched in the minds of all people,including the heroine, a victim and her husband, an enlightened young man. Theunderlying cause of the suffering and death of the heroine is nothing else but the ethicalassessment. The second section focuses on Hardy’s defense of Tess’s purity in terms ofChrist’s ethical assessment based on motives. Controlled by the Immanent Will, theheroine’s loss of virginity and her temporary sexual relationship with the rapist can notspeak volumes for her impurity because she acts inadvertently. The heroine’s purity isunquestionable in that on coming to her senses she chooses to leave her rapist and seducerin spite of his attempts to use his wealth to insure her loyalty. Being a pure woman, shealways acts voluntarily for the benefit of others at the sacrifice of her own interests. In asense it is her purity that brings about her tragedy. It can be concluded that the novelsuggests that in the world governed by the Immanent Will Jesus’ concept of purity canguide people to proper ethical assessments.
Chapter Three is devoted to the investigation of Hardy’s criticism in Jude the Obscure of the Victorian institution of marriage for its immorality made crystal clear by Jesus’teaching on love and purity. The social and literary concern for the marriage problem isbriefly analyzed at the beginning of the chapter to justify his criticism of the Victorianinstitution of marriage.Section One probes into the attack, through the examination of twobad marriages, on the Victorian institution of marriage in the name of loving-kindness.Through the analysis of the reasons for the sufferings of two major characters trapped intheir respective marriages, it is discovered that in a world controlled by the Immanent Willthere ineluctably exist ill-matched marriages. The Victorian institution of marriage is inopposition to Jesus’ commandment of loving others in that it does not grant people theright to divorce on grounds of mental suffering. Section Two examines Hardy’s criticism ofthe Victorian institution of marriage in the name of purity. Through the scrutiny of twocharacters’ motives for their violation of the matrimonial codes, the motives of one of themfor remarriage, and their different trajectories, the immorality of the institution is clearlyexposed because it brings misery to those who flout the marriage law out of altruisticmotives and benefits to those who comply with it out of egoistic motives. To conclude, byusing loving-kindness and purity as a touchstone, Hardy bitterly criticizes the Victorianinstitution of marriage and expresses his hope that the marriage laws should be modified.
The dissertation concludes with a short summary of its main contents, followed by ashort account of the social and intellectual backgrounds which contribute to the formationof Hardy’s new religion. Hardy’s major novels clearly show the trajectory of the gradualdevelopment of his conception of a new religion, which reveals his constant preoccupationwith human misery and suffering.It should be noted that the religion of loving-kindnessand purity is an ethical system of belief without a metaphysical basis. Hardy’s firmconviction that the ethics of loving-kindness and purity should be promulgated by a newChurch consists in his view that it can evoke feelings indispensible for changing man’smoral nature. One may disagree with Hardy on the function of a new Church but can notunderestimate the immense significance of the moral values of loving-kindness and puritycommunicated in his novels.
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阿尔文·施密特：《基督教对文明的影响》,汪晓丹、赵巍译。北京：北京大学出版社，2004。
陈刚：《西方精神史》（上卷）。南京：江苏人民出版社，2000。
邓雪：“从哈代主要长篇小说中的人物描写看哈代的宗教思想”（硕士论文）。东北师范大学，2008。
高凤云：“托马斯·哈代对基督教的理性反叛与情感依恋”（硕士论文）。东北师范大学，2006。
何桂娟：“论托马斯·哈代长篇小说中的基督教精神”（硕士论文）。西南交通大学，2005。
焦晓燕：“哈代小说与基督教文化”（硕士论文）。南京师范大学，2007。
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马弦：“论托马斯·哈代的宗教思想”，《外国文学评论》2003（4）：115-122。
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吴笛：《哈代新论》。杭州：浙江大学出版社，2009。
谢灿琛：“从《德伯家的苔丝》看哈代对基督教的批判与继承”，《天津外国语学院学报》2005（5）：64-68。
颜学军：《哈代诗歌研究》。北京：人民文学出版社，2006。
育桂：“试论哈代的宗教观及其创作的深层意义”，《北华大学学报》1989（4）：62-64。
张建刚：“哈代是一个虔诚的基督教徒吗”，《铜仁学院学报》2009（6）：34-36。
张中载：《托马斯·哈代—思想和创作》。北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1987。
赵林：《西方宗教文化》。武汉：长江文艺出版社，1997。