教师话语及其对学习者输出的影响
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摘要
教师话语对任何课堂教学来说都是非常重要的，尤其是英语作为外语(EFL)的课堂教学。因为EFL课堂教学与其它课堂教学的最大不同点在于语言既是学习的目的，也是教学的媒介。在中国，英语教师话语不仅是教师执行教学计划的工具，同时还是学习者语言输入的一个重要来源。因此，它在组织课堂教学和学习者语言习得过程中起着至关重要的作用，直接影响着学习者的语言输出。长期以来，传统的以教师为中心的英语课堂教学方法、教学内容等一直备受英语教师的重视，然而，教师话语，尤其是它的质量及有效性却一直未给予应有的重视。这样，就导致了学习者的语言输出受到极大的影响。
在传统的以教师为中心的教学过程中，教师只注重讲解，常以考试为指挥棒，采用填鸭式的教学方法将语言知识全盘灌输给学生，而没有重视学习者对目标语的应用，从而忽视了学习者在教学过程中的反应和需求，扼制了学习者在教学过程中的主动性和创造性，致使学习者的语言输出能力得不到有效培养。这就说明，在外语课堂教学中教师缺乏语言学理论必要的常识，仅凭自身的英语水平和经验，尤其是缺乏对教师话语的认识，这是不能满足教学要求的。因此，对英语教师话语进行系统的研究会大大地有助于英语教学实践。目前，国外对教师话语的研究仅局限于对教师话语的各种现象进行分析、比较，而没有针对母语和外语的不同情况分开论述。而国内也只有少数文章对教师话语问题做了一些粗浅的探讨。
本文主要以克拉申（Krashen）的“可理解性语言输入”及隆（Long）的“交互假设”为理论基础论证了教师话语的定义、类型、本质、特点、作用及其对学习者输出的影响，探讨了在中国的语言环境下影响教师话语的因素，提出了解决这些问题的建议和方法。克拉申认为，对语言输
入的理解是语言习得最基本的途径，因此，语言教学最重要的手段就是使学习者尽可能多地接受可理解的输入。隆在肯定可理解的语言输入在语言习得中的重要性的同时，特别强调了意义协商对语言习得的促进作用。隆认为，“双向交际”比“单向交际”更有利于语言习得。因为，在“双向交际”中，当一方无法理解另一方时，会有机会告知对方，这将促进双方进行意义协商和交互调整，从而提高了语言输入的可理解性。隆的“交互假设”要先进于克拉申的“输入假设”，因为它强调了语言的运用。二者的区别还在于“输入假设”重视“粗调”(即：输入要稍高于学习者现有的语言水平)，而“交互假设”强调“精调”(即：输入要等同于学习者现有的语言水平)。事实上，只有二者相互结合，才能为语言输出创造有利条件。同时，高质量的输入还应具有简化和有趣等特点。
基于上述理论并结合国外在教师话语方面的研究成果，本文首先分析了教师话语的定义、类型、特点；比较了教师话语与几个相关概念，如：保姆式语言、外国式语言和中介语之间的异同；探讨了教师话语的本质及在英语课堂中的重要作用。
笼统来说，教师话语是指课堂中教师讲授所使用的语言。《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》把它定义为：“教师在教学过程中有时采用的一种语言。为了达到与学生交际的目的，教师往往把语言简化，使它带有许多外国话的特征或其它简化语言的特征。”在中国的语言环境下，教师话语既包括英语也包括汉语。
教师话语分为四类。即：课堂用语；讲授用语；师生交流用语和教师反馈用语。课堂用语是教师组织课堂教学各个环节的特定用语，往往具有固定的题目和句式；讲授用语是教师在讲授词汇、结构、语篇时所采用的语言；师生交流用语是课堂上师生之间进行各种交谈、问答和讨论时所采用的语言；教师反馈用语是教师在指导学生进行课堂操练时对学生的语用行为做出评价所采用的语言。本文重点分析了师生交流用语
和教师反馈用语，就教师提问、表扬、纠错等方面作了系统的阐述。教师话语常具有以下特点：（1）语速较慢（2）停顿频繁，时间较长（3）发音被夸大或简化（4）使用基础词汇（5）较少使用从句（6）祈使句与陈述句比疑问句用得多（7）教师经常自己重复。
根据对教师话语各方面的分析，本文就中国英语课堂教学中教师话语与学习者的输出提出了目前所存在的问题及其影响教师话语的因素；并提出了解决这些问题的建议和方法。
教学中存在的问题和影响教师话语的因素主要来自于学生、教师和社会三个方面。目前，中国英语教学中存在的问题和影响教师话语的因素主要包括：学生及教师都过分注重考试；教师过多使用母语；学生的语言能力及教师的英语水平低；教学方法陈旧；教师对教师话语的忽视及错误理解；教师话语量过多；封闭式问题过多；教师受教材限制；此外，教师本人性格、教育政策、文化背景、考试及评估体制等等都影响了教师话语的有效性。
为了提高教师话语的有效性，以促进有效的学习者输出，首先，无论是学生还是教师都应改变传统的学习和教学观念；重视教师话语；教师应提高自身的英语水平；教育机构应为教师提供在职学习的机会；改善考试及评估体制；认真选择教材；在课堂上教师要改变知识传授者的角色；教师在课堂中改进提问及反馈方式；适当采用汉语；减少教师话语量，增加学生话语量；教师
Teacher talk is very important to classroom teaching, especially EFL classroom teaching, because the sharp difference between EFL classroom teaching and other classroom teaching is that language is not only the objective of the course, but also the medium of teaching. In China, English teacher talk is not only the tool for teachers to carry out the teaching schedule, but also the major source of learners’ English language input. Therefore, it plays a critical role in the process of language teaching and learning. And it has a direct effect on learner output. The traditional teacher-centered methodology and teaching content have long been the focus of concern to the teachers, but teacher talk, especially the effectiveness of teacher talk, has not been stressed properly. This affects learner output seriously.
In the traditional teacher-centered approach, teachers only emphasize the pure class teaching and adopt examination as its dominant means to judge the teaching and learning results. Teachers try to put everything into learners’ minds and learners are seen as receptacles to be filled with knowledge, thus, learners’ ability to use the target language (i.e. English) is neglected and both their response and need are neglected, too. Therefore, learner output is not fully developed, which indicates that in foreign language classroom teaching, teachers who only depend on their English proficiency and experience, but lack the study and practice of linguistic theories, especially teacher talk, cannot meet the needs for teaching and learning. As a result, a systematic study on teacher talk will contribute to the practice of English teaching and learning. At present, the researches abroad on teacher talk have only dealt with the analysis or comparison of all kinds of phenomena about teacher talk, but have not considered the different environment of their mother language and second or foreign language. In China, only a few papers have been written on this subject.
The rationale for this thesis is Krashen’s theory of comprehensible input and Long’s interaction hypothesis. Krashen claims that understanding messages or receiving ‘comprehensible input’ is the most basic way to acq uire language. Therefore, the most important means of language teaching is to make learners receive ‘comprehensible input’ as much as possible. Long also stresses the importance of ‘comprehensible input’ in language
acquisition, but he emphasizes in particular that negotiation of meaning can promote language acquisition. Long claims that ‘two-way communication’ is more helpful to language acquisition than ‘one-way communication’, because in ‘two-way communication’, when one person cannot understand the other, he may have opportunities to tell it to the other person. This will encourage the two persons to negotiate and interact with each other. Thus comprehensibility of language input can be promoted. Long’s interaction hypothesis is more advanced than input hypothesis because it emphasizes the actual use of language. Another difference between them is that the input hypothesis emphasizes roughly-tuned input (namely, language at a level slightly above the learners’ abilities); while the interaction hypothesis attaches importance to finely-tuned input (namely, language selected very precisely to be at exactly the learners’ level). In fact, only the combination of the both can contribute to language acquisition. Furthermore, high quality input also should be simplified, interesting and/or relevant.
Based on the theories mentioned above and main findings in teacher talk, the analysis of the definition, categories and characteristics of teacher talk is presented. The comparison between teacher talk and some related concepts (caretaker talk, foreigner talk and interlanguage) is made. This thesis also explores the nature of teacher talk and puts much weight on the important role that teacher talk plays in English language classroom.
The kind of language used by the teacher for instruction in the classroom is known as
在传统的以教师为中心的教学过程中，教师只注重讲解，常以考试为指挥棒，采用填鸭式的教学方法将语言知识全盘灌输给学生，而没有重视学习者对目标语的应用，从而忽视了学习者在教学过程中的反应和需求，扼制了学习者在教学过程中的主动性和创造性，致使学习者的语言输出能力得不到有效培养。这就说明，在外语课堂教学中教师缺乏语言学理论必要的常识，仅凭自身的英语水平和经验，尤其是缺乏对教师话语的认识，这是不能满足教学要求的。因此，对英语教师话语进行系统的研究会大大地有助于英语教学实践。目前，国外对教师话语的研究仅局限于对教师话语的各种现象进行分析、比较，而没有针对母语和外语的不同情况分开论述。而国内也只有少数文章对教师话语问题做了一些粗浅的探讨。
本文主要以克拉申（Krashen）的“可理解性语言输入”及隆（Long）的“交互假设”为理论基础论证了教师话语的定义、类型、本质、特点、作用及其对学习者输出的影响，探讨了在中国的语言环境下影响教师话语的因素，提出了解决这些问题的建议和方法。克拉申认为，对语言输
入的理解是语言习得最基本的途径，因此，语言教学最重要的手段就是使学习者尽可能多地接受可理解的输入。隆在肯定可理解的语言输入在语言习得中的重要性的同时，特别强调了意义协商对语言习得的促进作用。隆认为，“双向交际”比“单向交际”更有利于语言习得。因为，在“双向交际”中，当一方无法理解另一方时，会有机会告知对方，这将促进双方进行意义协商和交互调整，从而提高了语言输入的可理解性。隆的“交互假设”要先进于克拉申的“输入假设”，因为它强调了语言的运用。二者的区别还在于“输入假设”重视“粗调”(即：输入要稍高于学习者现有的语言水平)，而“交互假设”强调“精调”(即：输入要等同于学习者现有的语言水平)。事实上，只有二者相互结合，才能为语言输出创造有利条件。同时，高质量的输入还应具有简化和有趣等特点。
基于上述理论并结合国外在教师话语方面的研究成果，本文首先分析了教师话语的定义、类型、特点；比较了教师话语与几个相关概念，如：保姆式语言、外国式语言和中介语之间的异同；探讨了教师话语的本质及在英语课堂中的重要作用。
笼统来说，教师话语是指课堂中教师讲授所使用的语言。《朗文语言教学及应用语言学辞典》把它定义为：“教师在教学过程中有时采用的一种语言。为了达到与学生交际的目的，教师往往把语言简化，使它带有许多外国话的特征或其它简化语言的特征。”在中国的语言环境下，教师话语既包括英语也包括汉语。
教师话语分为四类。即：课堂用语；讲授用语；师生交流用语和教师反馈用语。课堂用语是教师组织课堂教学各个环节的特定用语，往往具有固定的题目和句式；讲授用语是教师在讲授词汇、结构、语篇时所采用的语言；师生交流用语是课堂上师生之间进行各种交谈、问答和讨论时所采用的语言；教师反馈用语是教师在指导学生进行课堂操练时对学生的语用行为做出评价所采用的语言。本文重点分析了师生交流用语
和教师反馈用语，就教师提问、表扬、纠错等方面作了系统的阐述。教师话语常具有以下特点：（1）语速较慢（2）停顿频繁，时间较长（3）发音被夸大或简化（4）使用基础词汇（5）较少使用从句（6）祈使句与陈述句比疑问句用得多（7）教师经常自己重复。
根据对教师话语各方面的分析，本文就中国英语课堂教学中教师话语与学习者的输出提出了目前所存在的问题及其影响教师话语的因素；并提出了解决这些问题的建议和方法。
教学中存在的问题和影响教师话语的因素主要来自于学生、教师和社会三个方面。目前，中国英语教学中存在的问题和影响教师话语的因素主要包括：学生及教师都过分注重考试；教师过多使用母语；学生的语言能力及教师的英语水平低；教学方法陈旧；教师对教师话语的忽视及错误理解；教师话语量过多；封闭式问题过多；教师受教材限制；此外，教师本人性格、教育政策、文化背景、考试及评估体制等等都影响了教师话语的有效性。
为了提高教师话语的有效性，以促进有效的学习者输出，首先，无论是学生还是教师都应改变传统的学习和教学观念；重视教师话语；教师应提高自身的英语水平；教育机构应为教师提供在职学习的机会；改善考试及评估体制；认真选择教材；在课堂上教师要改变知识传授者的角色；教师在课堂中改进提问及反馈方式；适当采用汉语；减少教师话语量，增加学生话语量；教师
Teacher talk is very important to classroom teaching, especially EFL classroom teaching, because the sharp difference between EFL classroom teaching and other classroom teaching is that language is not only the objective of the course, but also the medium of teaching. In China, English teacher talk is not only the tool for teachers to carry out the teaching schedule, but also the major source of learners’ English language input. Therefore, it plays a critical role in the process of language teaching and learning. And it has a direct effect on learner output. The traditional teacher-centered methodology and teaching content have long been the focus of concern to the teachers, but teacher talk, especially the effectiveness of teacher talk, has not been stressed properly. This affects learner output seriously.
In the traditional teacher-centered approach, teachers only emphasize the pure class teaching and adopt examination as its dominant means to judge the teaching and learning results. Teachers try to put everything into learners’ minds and learners are seen as receptacles to be filled with knowledge, thus, learners’ ability to use the target language (i.e. English) is neglected and both their response and need are neglected, too. Therefore, learner output is not fully developed, which indicates that in foreign language classroom teaching, teachers who only depend on their English proficiency and experience, but lack the study and practice of linguistic theories, especially teacher talk, cannot meet the needs for teaching and learning. As a result, a systematic study on teacher talk will contribute to the practice of English teaching and learning. At present, the researches abroad on teacher talk have only dealt with the analysis or comparison of all kinds of phenomena about teacher talk, but have not considered the different environment of their mother language and second or foreign language. In China, only a few papers have been written on this subject.
The rationale for this thesis is Krashen’s theory of comprehensible input and Long’s interaction hypothesis. Krashen claims that understanding messages or receiving ‘comprehensible input’ is the most basic way to acq uire language. Therefore, the most important means of language teaching is to make learners receive ‘comprehensible input’ as much as possible. Long also stresses the importance of ‘comprehensible input’ in language
acquisition, but he emphasizes in particular that negotiation of meaning can promote language acquisition. Long claims that ‘two-way communication’ is more helpful to language acquisition than ‘one-way communication’, because in ‘two-way communication’, when one person cannot understand the other, he may have opportunities to tell it to the other person. This will encourage the two persons to negotiate and interact with each other. Thus comprehensibility of language input can be promoted. Long’s interaction hypothesis is more advanced than input hypothesis because it emphasizes the actual use of language. Another difference between them is that the input hypothesis emphasizes roughly-tuned input (namely, language at a level slightly above the learners’ abilities); while the interaction hypothesis attaches importance to finely-tuned input (namely, language selected very precisely to be at exactly the learners’ level). In fact, only the combination of the both can contribute to language acquisition. Furthermore, high quality input also should be simplified, interesting and/or relevant.
Based on the theories mentioned above and main findings in teacher talk, the analysis of the definition, categories and characteristics of teacher talk is presented. The comparison between teacher talk and some related concepts (caretaker talk, foreigner talk and interlanguage) is made. This thesis also explores the nature of teacher talk and puts much weight on the important role that teacher talk plays in English language classroom.
The kind of language used by the teacher for instruction in the classroom is known as
引文
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