共同注意过程中存在意图推断机制
摘要
注视方向不仅能表明他人关注的焦点,还能用以推断他人的操作意图和行为趋势。当人们观察到他人正在注视某个方向时,会自动追随他人视线,将注意投向同一位置。这种共同注意现象已引发了大量研究。研究者基于现有实验证据,普遍认为该现象具有反射性,能自动引发观察者固定的行为反应。然而人的注视并非总是具有目的指向性,一味地追随他人视线,会产生无效的注意转移,降低认知效率。笔者认为,对注意是否总是追随他人注视而进行反射性转移,即共同注意是否受不同意图推断影响的问题的探索,有助于揭示人们加工他人行为意图的机制,进一步加深对社会知觉及社会交往的理解,同时也能为人工智能研究提供科学依据和理论指导。
本研究采用经典的线索化范式,以注视线索效应量(出现在注视方向同侧与对侧的目标客体加工时间之差)为指标,通过三个实验,设置额外线索指示注视者的意图,探讨了共同注意是否受不同意图推断的影响。
实验一整合头部方向与注视线索信息,结果未发现不同注视转移意图对共同注意产生影响。实验二仅操纵注视方向刺激,结果发现,一旦观察者利用背景线索推断出他人的眼动并非由发现新兴趣点所致,就会自动放弃对他人视线的追随。实验三仅保留实验二的图片物理特征,阻止被试形成相应的意图线索,结果证明注视线索效应的削弱并非由不同背景图片的物理特征差异所致。本研究的结果支持注意并非总是追随他人视线而进行反射性转移的假设,即意图推断是共同注意过程中的固有机制。
The direction of a person's gaze indicates what object is of current focus. Observers can infer another's intent, even the subsequent action, based on his/her gaze direction. People are so sensitive to gaze direction that when they observe someone looking in a particular direction, their attention will be shifted to the same location in space voluntarily. This joint attention phenomenon has lead to numerous studies. Base on existed evidence, researchers generally agree that joint attention is reflexive, and it triggers observer's cognitive reactions automatically. However, gaze is not always goal-oriented; and chasing the gaze cue blindly will lead to invalid attention shift, thus reduce the cognitive efficiency. There are several benefits to explore whether attention shifts with other's gaze reflexively, namely whether different intention inferences affect the joint attention:first, it will help to show mechanisms of intention process; second, it will deepen the understanding of social cognition and interpersonal communication, third, it can provide scientific foundations and theoretical directions to artificial intelligence.
This study is aimed to explore whether attention always shifts reflexively with observed gaze cue. We adopt the classical gaze cue paradigm, and use the gaze cue effect value to measure RT differences between processes of the object appeared at the gazed position and the object appeared at the opposite position. We also use extra clues to indicate intentions of the gazers in all the three experiments.
Experiment 1 combined the head orientation and gaze cue, but failed to find any difference caused by different intentions of attention shift. Experiment 2 used gaze cue only, and the results showed that joint attention is not reflexive. Once the observer infers from the context that the eye movement is not caused by the shift of interesting points, then he/she will never chase the gaze cue again. Experiment 3 preserved the same physical characteristic of experiment 2, but prevented subjects from forming the corresponding intentions. The results showed that the effect can't be attributed to physical characteristic differences between different backgrounds. In sum, this study supports the following hypothesis:attention is not shifted with the observed gaze cue reflexively. We then conclude that intention inference is the intrinsic mechanism of joint attention.
本研究采用经典的线索化范式,以注视线索效应量(出现在注视方向同侧与对侧的目标客体加工时间之差)为指标,通过三个实验,设置额外线索指示注视者的意图,探讨了共同注意是否受不同意图推断的影响。
实验一整合头部方向与注视线索信息,结果未发现不同注视转移意图对共同注意产生影响。实验二仅操纵注视方向刺激,结果发现,一旦观察者利用背景线索推断出他人的眼动并非由发现新兴趣点所致,就会自动放弃对他人视线的追随。实验三仅保留实验二的图片物理特征,阻止被试形成相应的意图线索,结果证明注视线索效应的削弱并非由不同背景图片的物理特征差异所致。本研究的结果支持注意并非总是追随他人视线而进行反射性转移的假设,即意图推断是共同注意过程中的固有机制。
The direction of a person's gaze indicates what object is of current focus. Observers can infer another's intent, even the subsequent action, based on his/her gaze direction. People are so sensitive to gaze direction that when they observe someone looking in a particular direction, their attention will be shifted to the same location in space voluntarily. This joint attention phenomenon has lead to numerous studies. Base on existed evidence, researchers generally agree that joint attention is reflexive, and it triggers observer's cognitive reactions automatically. However, gaze is not always goal-oriented; and chasing the gaze cue blindly will lead to invalid attention shift, thus reduce the cognitive efficiency. There are several benefits to explore whether attention shifts with other's gaze reflexively, namely whether different intention inferences affect the joint attention:first, it will help to show mechanisms of intention process; second, it will deepen the understanding of social cognition and interpersonal communication, third, it can provide scientific foundations and theoretical directions to artificial intelligence.
This study is aimed to explore whether attention always shifts reflexively with observed gaze cue. We adopt the classical gaze cue paradigm, and use the gaze cue effect value to measure RT differences between processes of the object appeared at the gazed position and the object appeared at the opposite position. We also use extra clues to indicate intentions of the gazers in all the three experiments.
Experiment 1 combined the head orientation and gaze cue, but failed to find any difference caused by different intentions of attention shift. Experiment 2 used gaze cue only, and the results showed that joint attention is not reflexive. Once the observer infers from the context that the eye movement is not caused by the shift of interesting points, then he/she will never chase the gaze cue again. Experiment 3 preserved the same physical characteristic of experiment 2, but prevented subjects from forming the corresponding intentions. The results showed that the effect can't be attributed to physical characteristic differences between different backgrounds. In sum, this study supports the following hypothesis:attention is not shifted with the observed gaze cue reflexively. We then conclude that intention inference is the intrinsic mechanism of joint attention.
引文
Akiyama, T., Kato, M., Muramatsu, T.,& Saito, F. (2006). Gaze but not arrows:A dissociative impairment after right superior temporal gyrus damage. Neuropsychologia,7.
Anstis, S. M., Mayhew, J. W.,& Morley, T. (1969). The Perception of Where a Face or Television "Portrait" is Looking. The American Jouranal of Psychology,82, 17.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1994). How to build a baby that can read minds:cognitive mechanisms in mindreading. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition,13,40.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness:an essay on autism and theory of mind:MIT Press.
Batki, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Connellan, J.,& Ahluwalia, J. (2000). Is there an innate gaze module? Evidence from human neonates. Infant Behavior & Development,23,7.
Bayliss, A. P., Pellegrino, G. d.,& Tipper, S. P. (2004). Orienting of attention via observed eye gaze is head-centred. Cognition,94,10.
Bentin, S., Sagiv, N., Mecklinger, A., Friederici, A.,& Cramon, Y. D. v. (2002). Priming Visual Face-Processing Mechanisms:Electrophysiological Evidence. Psychological Science,13,4.
Brandt, S. A.,& Stark, L. W. (1997). Spontaneous Eye Movements During Visual Imagery Reflect the Content of the Visual Scene. Journal of Cognitive Neruoscience,9,12.
Butterworth, G,& Jarrett, N. (1991). What minds have in common is space:spatial mechansims serving joint visual attention in infancy. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,18.
Calder, A. J., Lawrence, A. D., Keane, J.,& Scott, S. K. (2002). Reading the mind from eye gaze. Neuropsychologia,40,10.
Campbell, R., Heywood, C. A., Cowey, A., Regard, M.,& Landis, T. (1990). Sensitivity to eye gaze in prosopagnosic patients and monkeys with superior temporal sulcus ablation. Neuropsychologia,28(11),20.
Conty, L., Tijus, C., Hugueville, L., Coelho, E.,& George, N. (2006). Searching for asymmetries in the detection of gaze, contact versus averted gaze under different head views:a behavioural study. Spatial Vision,19,18.
Dolan, R. J., Fink, G R., Rolls, E., Booth, M., Holmes, A., Frackowiak, R. S. J., et al. (1997). How the brain leans to see objects and faces in an impoverished context. Nature,389,4.
Driver, J., Davis, G, Ricciardelli, P., Kidd, P., Maxwell, E.,& Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). Gaze perception triggers visuospatial orienting by adults in a reflexive manner. Visual Cognition,6,32.
Farroni, T., Csibra, G, Simion, F.,& Johnson, M. H. (2002). Eye contact detection in
humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science,99,4.
Friesen, C. K.,& Kingstone, A. (1998). The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze. Psychonomic Bulletin& Review,5,6.
Friesen, C. K., Ristic, J.,& Kingstone, A. (2004). Attentional Effects of Counterpredictive Gaze and Arrow Cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30.
Frischen, A., Bayliss, A. P.,& Tipper, S. P. (2007). Gaze Cueing of Attention:Visual Attention, Social Cognition, and Individual Differences. Psychological Bulletin,133,31.
Hood, B. M., Willen, J. D.,& Driver, J. (1998). Adult's eye triggers shifts of visual attention in human infants. Psychological Science,9,4.
Itier, R. J., Villate, C.,& Ryan, J. D. (2007). Eyes always attract attention but gaze orienting is task-dependent:Evidence from eye movement monitoring. Neuropsychologia,45,10.
Jenkins, R., Beaver, J. D.,& Calder, A. J. (2006). I thought you were looking at me. Psychological Science,17,8.
Kampe, K. K. W., Frith, C. D.,& Frith, U. (2003). "Hey John":Signals conveying communicative intention toward the self activate brain regions associated with "mentalizing," Regardless of Modality. The Journal of Neuroscience,23,6.
Kobayashi,& Kohshima. (1997). Unique morphology of the human eye. Nature,387, 2.
Laeng, B.,& Teodorescu, D.-S. (2002). Eye scanpaths during visual imagery reenact those of perception of the same visual scene. Cognitive Science,26,25.
Langton, S. R. H. (2009). Gaze Perception:Is Seeing Influenced by Believing? Current Biology,19,3.
Langton, S. R. H.,& Bruce, V. (1999). Reflexive social orienting. Visual Cognition,6, 27.
Langton, S. R. H.,& Bruce, V. (2000). You must see the point:Antuomatic processing of cues to the direction of social attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,26(2),11.
Langton, S. R. H., Watt, R. J.,& Bruce, V. (2000). Do the eyes have it? Cues to the direction of social attention. Trends in Cognitive Science,4,10.
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Terstegge, j., Akers, R., Coleman, M., et al. (2003). Interpreting gaze in Turner syndrome:impaired sensitivity to intention and emotion, but preservation of social cueing. Neuropsychologia, 41,12.
Maurer, D. (1985). Infants'perception of facedness. Social Perception in infants.
Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., Tomonaga, M., Tanaka, M.,& Matsuzawa, T. (2003). Preference for human direct gaze in infant chimpanzees. Cognition,89,12.
Nuku, P.,& Bekkering, H. (2008). Joint attention:Inferring what others perceive (and don't perceive). Consciousness and Cognition,17,11.
Pelphrey, K. A., Singerman, J. D., Allison, T.,& McCarthy, G. (2003). Brain activation evoked by perception of gaze shifts:the influence of context. Neuropsychologia,41,15.
Perrett, D. I.,& Emery, N. J. (1994). Understanding the intentions of others from visual signals:Neurophysiological evidence. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition,13(5),12.
Perrett, D. I., Hielanen, J. K., Oram, M. W., Benson, P. J.,& Rolls, E. T. (1992). Organization and functions of cells responseive to faces in the temporal cortex. Philosophical Transactions:Biological Sciences,335,9.
Perrett, D. I., Smith, P. A. J., Potter, D. D., Mistlin, A. J., Head, A. S., Milner, A. D., et al. (1985). Visual cells in the temporal cortex sensitive to face view and gaze direction. Proceedings of the royal society of London,223,25.
Pierno, A. C., Mari, M., Glover, S., Georgiou, I.,& Castiello, U. (2006). Failure to read motor intentions from gaze in children with autism. Neuropsychologia, 44,6.
Posner, M. I. (1978). Chronometric explorations of mind. NJ.
Ristic, J.,& Kingstone, A. (2005). Taking control of reflexive social attention. Cognition,94,11.
Sato, W., Okada, T.,& Toichi, M. (2007). Attentional shift by gaze is triggered without awareness. Exp Brain Res,183.
Teufel, C., Alexis, D. M., Todd, H., Lawrance-Owen, A. J., Clayton, N. S.,& Davis, G. (2009). Social Cognition Modulates the Sensory Coding of Observed Gaze Direction. Current Biology,19, 4.
Tomasello, M., Hare, B.,& Agnetta, B. (1999). Chimpanzees, pan troglodytes, follow gaze direction geometrically. Animal Behaviour,58,9.
Watt, R. J. (1999). What your eyes tell my eyes, and how your eyebrows try to stop them. Paper presented at the Tenth International Conference on Perception and Action.
Anstis, S. M., Mayhew, J. W.,& Morley, T. (1969). The Perception of Where a Face or Television "Portrait" is Looking. The American Jouranal of Psychology,82, 17.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1994). How to build a baby that can read minds:cognitive mechanisms in mindreading. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition,13,40.
Baron-Cohen, S. (1995). Mindblindness:an essay on autism and theory of mind:MIT Press.
Batki, A., Baron-Cohen, S., Wheelwright, S., Connellan, J.,& Ahluwalia, J. (2000). Is there an innate gaze module? Evidence from human neonates. Infant Behavior & Development,23,7.
Bayliss, A. P., Pellegrino, G. d.,& Tipper, S. P. (2004). Orienting of attention via observed eye gaze is head-centred. Cognition,94,10.
Bentin, S., Sagiv, N., Mecklinger, A., Friederici, A.,& Cramon, Y. D. v. (2002). Priming Visual Face-Processing Mechanisms:Electrophysiological Evidence. Psychological Science,13,4.
Brandt, S. A.,& Stark, L. W. (1997). Spontaneous Eye Movements During Visual Imagery Reflect the Content of the Visual Scene. Journal of Cognitive Neruoscience,9,12.
Butterworth, G,& Jarrett, N. (1991). What minds have in common is space:spatial mechansims serving joint visual attention in infancy. British Journal of Developmental Psychology,18.
Calder, A. J., Lawrence, A. D., Keane, J.,& Scott, S. K. (2002). Reading the mind from eye gaze. Neuropsychologia,40,10.
Campbell, R., Heywood, C. A., Cowey, A., Regard, M.,& Landis, T. (1990). Sensitivity to eye gaze in prosopagnosic patients and monkeys with superior temporal sulcus ablation. Neuropsychologia,28(11),20.
Conty, L., Tijus, C., Hugueville, L., Coelho, E.,& George, N. (2006). Searching for asymmetries in the detection of gaze, contact versus averted gaze under different head views:a behavioural study. Spatial Vision,19,18.
Dolan, R. J., Fink, G R., Rolls, E., Booth, M., Holmes, A., Frackowiak, R. S. J., et al. (1997). How the brain leans to see objects and faces in an impoverished context. Nature,389,4.
Driver, J., Davis, G, Ricciardelli, P., Kidd, P., Maxwell, E.,& Baron-Cohen, S. (1999). Gaze perception triggers visuospatial orienting by adults in a reflexive manner. Visual Cognition,6,32.
Farroni, T., Csibra, G, Simion, F.,& Johnson, M. H. (2002). Eye contact detection in
humans from birth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science,99,4.
Friesen, C. K.,& Kingstone, A. (1998). The eyes have it! Reflexive orienting is triggered by nonpredictive gaze. Psychonomic Bulletin& Review,5,6.
Friesen, C. K., Ristic, J.,& Kingstone, A. (2004). Attentional Effects of Counterpredictive Gaze and Arrow Cues. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 30.
Frischen, A., Bayliss, A. P.,& Tipper, S. P. (2007). Gaze Cueing of Attention:Visual Attention, Social Cognition, and Individual Differences. Psychological Bulletin,133,31.
Hood, B. M., Willen, J. D.,& Driver, J. (1998). Adult's eye triggers shifts of visual attention in human infants. Psychological Science,9,4.
Itier, R. J., Villate, C.,& Ryan, J. D. (2007). Eyes always attract attention but gaze orienting is task-dependent:Evidence from eye movement monitoring. Neuropsychologia,45,10.
Jenkins, R., Beaver, J. D.,& Calder, A. J. (2006). I thought you were looking at me. Psychological Science,17,8.
Kampe, K. K. W., Frith, C. D.,& Frith, U. (2003). "Hey John":Signals conveying communicative intention toward the self activate brain regions associated with "mentalizing," Regardless of Modality. The Journal of Neuroscience,23,6.
Kobayashi,& Kohshima. (1997). Unique morphology of the human eye. Nature,387, 2.
Laeng, B.,& Teodorescu, D.-S. (2002). Eye scanpaths during visual imagery reenact those of perception of the same visual scene. Cognitive Science,26,25.
Langton, S. R. H. (2009). Gaze Perception:Is Seeing Influenced by Believing? Current Biology,19,3.
Langton, S. R. H.,& Bruce, V. (1999). Reflexive social orienting. Visual Cognition,6, 27.
Langton, S. R. H.,& Bruce, V. (2000). You must see the point:Antuomatic processing of cues to the direction of social attention. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,26(2),11.
Langton, S. R. H., Watt, R. J.,& Bruce, V. (2000). Do the eyes have it? Cues to the direction of social attention. Trends in Cognitive Science,4,10.
Lawrence, K., Campbell, R., Swettenham, J., Terstegge, j., Akers, R., Coleman, M., et al. (2003). Interpreting gaze in Turner syndrome:impaired sensitivity to intention and emotion, but preservation of social cueing. Neuropsychologia, 41,12.
Maurer, D. (1985). Infants'perception of facedness. Social Perception in infants.
Myowa-Yamakoshi, M., Tomonaga, M., Tanaka, M.,& Matsuzawa, T. (2003). Preference for human direct gaze in infant chimpanzees. Cognition,89,12.
Nuku, P.,& Bekkering, H. (2008). Joint attention:Inferring what others perceive (and don't perceive). Consciousness and Cognition,17,11.
Pelphrey, K. A., Singerman, J. D., Allison, T.,& McCarthy, G. (2003). Brain activation evoked by perception of gaze shifts:the influence of context. Neuropsychologia,41,15.
Perrett, D. I.,& Emery, N. J. (1994). Understanding the intentions of others from visual signals:Neurophysiological evidence. Cahiers de Psychologie Cognitive/Current Psychology of Cognition,13(5),12.
Perrett, D. I., Hielanen, J. K., Oram, M. W., Benson, P. J.,& Rolls, E. T. (1992). Organization and functions of cells responseive to faces in the temporal cortex. Philosophical Transactions:Biological Sciences,335,9.
Perrett, D. I., Smith, P. A. J., Potter, D. D., Mistlin, A. J., Head, A. S., Milner, A. D., et al. (1985). Visual cells in the temporal cortex sensitive to face view and gaze direction. Proceedings of the royal society of London,223,25.
Pierno, A. C., Mari, M., Glover, S., Georgiou, I.,& Castiello, U. (2006). Failure to read motor intentions from gaze in children with autism. Neuropsychologia, 44,6.
Posner, M. I. (1978). Chronometric explorations of mind. NJ.
Ristic, J.,& Kingstone, A. (2005). Taking control of reflexive social attention. Cognition,94,11.
Sato, W., Okada, T.,& Toichi, M. (2007). Attentional shift by gaze is triggered without awareness. Exp Brain Res,183.
Teufel, C., Alexis, D. M., Todd, H., Lawrance-Owen, A. J., Clayton, N. S.,& Davis, G. (2009). Social Cognition Modulates the Sensory Coding of Observed Gaze Direction. Current Biology,19, 4.
Tomasello, M., Hare, B.,& Agnetta, B. (1999). Chimpanzees, pan troglodytes, follow gaze direction geometrically. Animal Behaviour,58,9.
Watt, R. J. (1999). What your eyes tell my eyes, and how your eyebrows try to stop them. Paper presented at the Tenth International Conference on Perception and Action.