特殊儿童家长的心理弹性研究
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摘要
个体在逆境中会不同程度地调动内外资源以求适应,在此过程中心理弹性发挥了作用。目前对于心理弹性的概念存有争议,但其促进个体在逆境中积极适应和良好发展的作用得到公认。
特殊儿童的功能受损对其家长来说是一个长期存在的持续压力,过去在消极心理学影响下,人们多关注于特殊儿童家长在压力之下所产生的消极心理,但实际上特殊儿童家长在适应压力的过程中展现出了许多积极心态,这是心理弹性的展现。笔者从积极心理学出发,关注特殊儿童家长的心理弹性,对特殊儿童家长适应养育压力的能力予以肯定。
本研究以智力障碍、自闭症、听力障碍、视力障碍四类特殊儿童家长为研究对象,在上海市各特殊学校及幼儿园随机抽样共214位被试,通过问卷调查和访谈等研究方法,探讨特殊儿童家长的心理弹性水平和特征,并深入分析特殊儿童家长心理压力、人格与心理弹性间的关系,在此基础上对特殊儿童家长心理弹性的危险因子和保护因子进行了讨论。
研究结果发现：(1)特殊儿童家长心理弹性处于中等偏上水平,在心理弹性六维度中,特殊儿童家长的问题解决技能水平最高,控制感稍显薄弱。(2)特殊儿童家长在问题解决技能、自信心、接纳度以及心理弹性整体上的表现随着收入水平增高而逐渐提高；在初中及以下、高中或中专、大专及以上三组学历水平的特殊儿童家长中,较高学历者的自信心得分高于较低学历者；智力障碍和自闭症儿童的家长在精神支持、乐观坚韧和接纳度上的表现低于听力障碍和视力障碍儿童的家长；特殊儿童父亲在控制感和自信心两方面的表现显著优于特殊儿童母亲。(3)特殊儿童家长越是感到缺乏成就感、经济负担重、终身照顾负担重,其心理弹性可能越弱；具有较高利他性、适应性和道德感的特殊儿童家长,其心理弹性可能较强。(4)特殊儿童家长心理弹性的危险因子突出表现在消极人格特征、养育负担和社会压力,而积极人格特征、家庭支持、社会支持是特殊儿童家长心理弹性的保护因子。
最后,本研究在特殊儿童家长心理弹性分析的基础上,对特殊儿童家长心理健康服务提出相关建议,为提高其心理健康水平提供参考。
In the face of adversity, individual will be to mobilize internal and external resources to adapt. Resilience plays a role in this process. At present, the concept of resilience is controversial. However, people recognize its role to promote individual for active adaptation and good development.
Because of special children's impaired function, their parents have to face a long-term sustained pressure. As the impact of past negative psychology, people pay more attention to the negative psychological factors of special children's parents. In fact, the parents show lots of positive qualities in process of adaptation, which is a manifestation of resilience. This thesis, from the perspective of positive psychology, concerns on the resilience of special children's parents and commends their ability to adapt to parenting stress.
This study investigates level and characteristics of resilience and explores relationship among stress, personality and resilience of special children's parents. On this basis, risk factors and protective factors of their resilience are discussed. Analysis relies on questionnaires and interviews to 214 parents whose children are mental retardation, autism, hearing impaired children or visually impaired children in special education schools or kindergartens in Shanghai. The results are in the following:
1) The resilience of special children's parents is in the medium level. In the six dimension scores of resilience, the parents' problem-solving skill is highest while their control feeling is lowest.
2) With the growing of income level, the special children's parents show a trend of increasing in the aspects of problem-solving skill, self-confidence, acceptance and resilience overall. Among primary education level and below, high school education level, college education level and above, the special children's parents with higher education level have higher self-confidence scores. Compared to parents of children with hearing impaired and visually impaired, parents of mental retardation and autism are likely to get lower level of spirit support, optimism & perseverance, and acceptance attitudes. Special children's fathers perform significantly better than the mothers in aspects of control feeling and confidence.
3) The parents with more lack of sense of achievements, economic burden, life-long care burden, are likely to be with lower resilience level. The parents with more special altruism, adaptability and sense of morality are likely to be with higher resilience level.
4) Risk factors of resilience of special children's parents prominently exist in negative personality characteristics, burdens of parenting and social pressures. While, positive personality characteristics, family support and social support are protective factors of special children's parents.
Finally, on the basis of analysis and discussion of resilience of special children's parents, several recommendations on mental health are given.
特殊儿童的功能受损对其家长来说是一个长期存在的持续压力,过去在消极心理学影响下,人们多关注于特殊儿童家长在压力之下所产生的消极心理,但实际上特殊儿童家长在适应压力的过程中展现出了许多积极心态,这是心理弹性的展现。笔者从积极心理学出发,关注特殊儿童家长的心理弹性,对特殊儿童家长适应养育压力的能力予以肯定。
本研究以智力障碍、自闭症、听力障碍、视力障碍四类特殊儿童家长为研究对象,在上海市各特殊学校及幼儿园随机抽样共214位被试,通过问卷调查和访谈等研究方法,探讨特殊儿童家长的心理弹性水平和特征,并深入分析特殊儿童家长心理压力、人格与心理弹性间的关系,在此基础上对特殊儿童家长心理弹性的危险因子和保护因子进行了讨论。
研究结果发现：(1)特殊儿童家长心理弹性处于中等偏上水平,在心理弹性六维度中,特殊儿童家长的问题解决技能水平最高,控制感稍显薄弱。(2)特殊儿童家长在问题解决技能、自信心、接纳度以及心理弹性整体上的表现随着收入水平增高而逐渐提高；在初中及以下、高中或中专、大专及以上三组学历水平的特殊儿童家长中,较高学历者的自信心得分高于较低学历者；智力障碍和自闭症儿童的家长在精神支持、乐观坚韧和接纳度上的表现低于听力障碍和视力障碍儿童的家长；特殊儿童父亲在控制感和自信心两方面的表现显著优于特殊儿童母亲。(3)特殊儿童家长越是感到缺乏成就感、经济负担重、终身照顾负担重,其心理弹性可能越弱；具有较高利他性、适应性和道德感的特殊儿童家长,其心理弹性可能较强。(4)特殊儿童家长心理弹性的危险因子突出表现在消极人格特征、养育负担和社会压力,而积极人格特征、家庭支持、社会支持是特殊儿童家长心理弹性的保护因子。
最后,本研究在特殊儿童家长心理弹性分析的基础上,对特殊儿童家长心理健康服务提出相关建议,为提高其心理健康水平提供参考。
In the face of adversity, individual will be to mobilize internal and external resources to adapt. Resilience plays a role in this process. At present, the concept of resilience is controversial. However, people recognize its role to promote individual for active adaptation and good development.
Because of special children's impaired function, their parents have to face a long-term sustained pressure. As the impact of past negative psychology, people pay more attention to the negative psychological factors of special children's parents. In fact, the parents show lots of positive qualities in process of adaptation, which is a manifestation of resilience. This thesis, from the perspective of positive psychology, concerns on the resilience of special children's parents and commends their ability to adapt to parenting stress.
This study investigates level and characteristics of resilience and explores relationship among stress, personality and resilience of special children's parents. On this basis, risk factors and protective factors of their resilience are discussed. Analysis relies on questionnaires and interviews to 214 parents whose children are mental retardation, autism, hearing impaired children or visually impaired children in special education schools or kindergartens in Shanghai. The results are in the following:
1) The resilience of special children's parents is in the medium level. In the six dimension scores of resilience, the parents' problem-solving skill is highest while their control feeling is lowest.
2) With the growing of income level, the special children's parents show a trend of increasing in the aspects of problem-solving skill, self-confidence, acceptance and resilience overall. Among primary education level and below, high school education level, college education level and above, the special children's parents with higher education level have higher self-confidence scores. Compared to parents of children with hearing impaired and visually impaired, parents of mental retardation and autism are likely to get lower level of spirit support, optimism & perseverance, and acceptance attitudes. Special children's fathers perform significantly better than the mothers in aspects of control feeling and confidence.
3) The parents with more lack of sense of achievements, economic burden, life-long care burden, are likely to be with lower resilience level. The parents with more special altruism, adaptability and sense of morality are likely to be with higher resilience level.
4) Risk factors of resilience of special children's parents prominently exist in negative personality characteristics, burdens of parenting and social pressures. While, positive personality characteristics, family support and social support are protective factors of special children's parents.
Finally, on the basis of analysis and discussion of resilience of special children's parents, several recommendations on mental health are given.
引文
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[1]Amanda J.Lamond, Colin A.Depp,et al.Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of Psychiatric Research,2009,43:148-154
[2]Brooks,R.B..Children at risk:Fostering resilience and home. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1994,64:545-553
[3]Chanson D.Noether, Vivian Brown, et al. Promoting resiliency in children of mothers with co-occurring disorders and histories of trauma:Impact of a skills-based intervention program on child outcome. Journal of Community Psychology,2007,35(7):823-843
[4]Claire Black. Adolescent mothers:resilience, family health work and health-promoting practices. Journal of Advanced Nursing,2004,48(4):351-360
[5]Conners,N.A.,Bradley,R.H.,Mansell,L.W.,Lui,J.Y.,Roberts,T.J.,Burgdorf,K.,et al..Children of mothers with serious substance abuse problems:An accumulation of risks. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse,2002,29:743-758
[6]Danice L.Brown.African American resiliency:Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology,2008,34:32-48
[7]Dawe,S.,Harnett,P.,Staiger,P.,&Dadds,M.R.. Parent training skills and methadone maintenance: Clinical opportunities and challenges. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,2000,60:1-11
[8]Dyer,J.G,&McGuinness,T.M.. Resilience:Analysis of the concept. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing,1996,10(5):276-282
[9]Eva C.Klohnen, Elizabeth A.Vandewater. Negotiating the middle years:Ego-resiliency and successful midlife adjustment in women. Psychology and Aging,1996,11(3):431-442
[10]Finkelstein,N.,Rechberger,E.,et al.Building resilience in children of mothers who have co-occurring disorders and histories of violence:Intervention model and implementation issues. Journal of Behavioral Health Services Research,2005,32:141-154
[11]Friborg O.,Barlaug D,Martinussen M,Rosenvinge JH,Hjemdal O.Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res,2005,14:29-42
[12]Friborg,O.,Hjemdal,O.,Rosenvinge,J.H.,&Martinussen,M. A new rating scale for adult resilience:What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research,2003,12:65-76
[13]Garmezy,N..Resilience in children's adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments.Pediatric Annals,1991,20:459-466
[14]GA.King, L.Zwaigenbaum. A qualitative investigation of changes in the belief systems of families of children with autism or Down syndrome. Child:Care, Health & Development,2006, 32(3):353-369
[15]Jack Block,Adam M.Kremen. IQ and ego-resiliency:Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,70(2):349-361
[16]Jenny Gardner,Tony Harmon. Exploring resilience from a parent's perspective:A qualitative study of six resilient mothers of children with an intellectual disability. Australian Social Work, 2002,55(1):60-68
[17]Kathryn M.Connor, Jonathan R.T.Davidson. Development of a new resilience scale:the Connor-Davidson resilience scale(CD-RISC).Depression and Anxiety,2003,18:76-82
[18]Luthar,S.S..Vulnerability and resilience:A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development,1991,62:600-616
[19]Martin Pinquart. Moderating effects of dispositional resilience on associations between hassles and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,2009,30:53-60
[20]Masten A S. Ordinary magic:Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist,2001,56:227-238
[21]M.Bayat. Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2007,51(9):702-714
[22]Megan L.Notter, Katherine A.MacTavish, Devora Shamah. Pathways toward resilience among women in rural trailer parks.The National Council on Family Relations,2008,57:613-624
[23]Mona Mehta,Ellen Whyte, et al..Depressive symptoms in late life:Associations with apathy, resilience and disability vary between young-old and old-old. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry,2008,23:238-243
[24]Newman,R.. APA's resilience initiative. Professional Psychology:Research and Practice,2005,36(3):227-C229
[25]Nidtaya Takviriyanun. Development and testing of the Resilience Factors Scale for Thai adolescents. Nursing and Health Sciences,2008,10:203-208
[26]Norman A.Constantine, Bonnie Benard, Marycruz Diaz.Measuring protective factors and resilience traits in youth:The Healthy Kids Resilience Assessment. Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society for Prevention Research. New Orleans,LA,1999
[27]Odin Hjemdal, Oddgeir Friborg,et al.Resilience predicting psychiatric symptoms a prospective study of protective factors and their role in adjustment to stressful life events. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy,2006,13:194-201
[28]Odin Hjemdal,Friborg,O.,Stiles,T.C.,Martinussen,M.,&Rosenvinge,J.H. A new rating scale for adolescent resilience:Grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,2006,39:84-96
[29]Odin Hjemdal,Tore Aune, et al.Resilience as a predictor of depressive symptoms:A correlational study with young adolescents. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry,2007,12:91-103
[30]Osofsky,J.D..The impact of violence on children.The Future of Children,1999,9:33-49
[31]Richardson,G.E.,Neiger,B.,Jensen,S.,&Kumpfer,K..The resiliency model. Health Education, 1990,21:33-39
[32]Rutter M. Resilience in the face of adversity:protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorders.Br J Psych,1985,147:598-611
[33]Rutter,M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1987,57:316-331
[34]Sen T, Abdulsalam CA, Pal S, et al. Effect of amitriptyline on gastric ulceration. Fundam Clin Pharmacol,2002,16(4):311-31
[35]T.J.Lloyd,R.Hastings. Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2009,7:1-12
[36]Vaughn G.Sinclair,Kenneth A.Wallston.The development and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale. Assessment,2004,11:94-105
[37]Wagnild,G.M.,&Young,H.M.Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale.Journal of Nursing Measurement,1993,1:165-178
[38]Wagnild,G.M.Resilience and successful aging among low and high income older adults.Journal of Gerontological Nursing,2003,29(12):42-49
[39]Werner,E.E..Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 1995,4:81-85
[40]Yu,X.,&Zhang,J. Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC)with Chinese people. Social Behavior and Personality:An International Journal,2007,35(1):19-30
[41]Zimmerman,M.A.,&Arunkumar,R.. Resiliency research:Implications for schools and policy. Social Policy Report:Society for Research in Child Development,1994,8(4):1-17
[42]American Psychology Association Help Center:The road to resilience:What is resilience? http://www.apahelpcenter.org/featuredtopics/feature.php?id=6&ch=2
[43]Gail M. Wagnild. http://www.resiliencescale.com/en/rstest/rstest_en.html. Site contents.2009
[44]Teresa D.La Fromboise, Dan R. Hoyt, et al.. Family, community, and school influences on resilience among American Indian adolescents in the Upper Midweat. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sociologyfacpub/26.2006
[45]D.赫尔雷格尔,J.W.斯洛克姆,R.W.伍德曼著.组织行为学.俞文钊,丁彪等译.上海：华东师范大学出版社,2001.63-97
[46]陈瑜.孤独症患儿家长复原力及相关因素研究(D).南京师范大学,2007
[47]范燕宁.抗逆力在青少年成长过程中的两面性特点——以北京市未成年人社区矫正服刑者的情况为例.中国青年研究,2006,11,10-13
[48]黄晶晶,刘艳虹.特殊儿童家庭社会支持情况调查报告.中国特殊教育,2006,4：3-9
[49]李英.家庭关系与健康.中国社会医学杂志,2009,2：106-108
[50]刘宣文,周贤.复原力研究与学校心理辅导.教育发展研究,2004,2：87-89
[51]卢静,邢伟荣.特殊儿童心理弹性的研究：现状及启示.社会心理科学,2008,5：57-64
[52]路西.让逆商AQ克服逆境.北京：中国盲文出版社,2002.11-18
[53]马伟娜,桑标,洪灵敏.心理弹性及其作用机制的研究述评.华东师范大学学报教育科学版,2008,16(1)：89-95
[54]席居哲.基于社会认知的儿童心理弹性研究(D).华东师范大学,2006
[55]席居哲,桑标,左志宏.心理弹性(resilience)研究的回顾与展望.心理科学,2008,31(4)：995-998
[56]徐慊,郑日昌.国外复原力研究进展.中国心理卫生杂志,2007,21(6)：424-427
[57]燕国材.非智力因素与学习.上海：上海教育出版社,2006.14-19
[58]阳毅,欧阳娜.国外关于复原力的研究综述.中国临床心理学杂志,2006,14(5)：539-541
[59]于肖楠,张建新.韧性(resilience)在压力下复原和成长的心理机制.心理科学进展,2005,13(5)：658-665
[60]于肖楠,张建新.自我韧性量表与Connor-Davidson韧性量表的应用比较.心理科学,2007,30(5)：1169-1171
[61]张宁生,荣卉.残疾儿童的父母如何调适心路历程.心理科学,1997,20：398-399
[62]张宁生,荣卉.《残疾儿童父母心理压力问卷》的编制.中国特殊教育,1999,1：25-30
[63]曾军.广东地区企业员工心理弹性结构维度及相关研究(D).暨南大学,2007
[64]周碧岚.离异女性复原力的建构研究.中华女子学院学报,2004,2：31-34
[65]周璐璐.同性恋者的心理弹性研究(D).华东师范大学,2008
[66]http://www.china.com.cn/economic/txt/2008-04/14/content_14950692.htm.2008-04-14
2范燕宁.抗逆力在青少年成长过程中的两面性特点——以北京市未成年人社区矫正服刑者的情况为例.中国青年研究,2006,11,10-13
3路西.让逆商AQ克服逆境.北京：中国盲文出版社,2002.11-18
4马伟娜,桑标,洪灵敏.心理弹性及其作用机制的研究述评.华东师范大学学报教育科学版,2008,16(1)：89-95
5席居哲,桑标,左志宏.心理弹性(resilience)研究的回顾与展望.心理科学,2008,31(4)：995-998
6 Masten A S. Ordinary magic:Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist,2001,56:227-238
1 American Psychology Association Help Center:The road to resilience:What is resilience? http://www.apahelpcenter.org/featuredtopics/feature.php?id=6&ch=2
2 Richardson,G.E.,Neiger,B.,Jensen,S.,&Kumpfer,K..The resiliency model. Health Education,1990,21:33-39
3 Garmezy,N..Resilience in children's adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments.Pediatric Annals,1991,20:459-466
4 Werner,E.E..Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 1995,4:81-85
5 Dyer,J.G,&McGuinness,T.M..Resilience:Analysis of the concept. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing,1996,10(5):276-282
6 Wagnild,G.M.Resilience and successful aging among low and high income older adults. Journal of Gerontological Nursing,2003,29(12):42-49
7 Newman,R.. APA's resilience initiative. Professional Psychology:Research and Practice,2005,36(3):227-229
8 Zimmerman,M.A.,&Arunkumar,R..Resiliency research:Implications for schools and policy. Social Policy Report:Society for Research in Child Development,1994,8(4):1-17
9陈瑜.孤独症患儿家长复原力及相关因素研究(D).南京师范大学,2007
10曾军.广东地区企业员工心理弹性结构维度及相关研究(D).暨南大学,2007
1 Rutter M. Resilience in the face of adversity:Protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorders.Br J Psych,1985,147:598-611
2 Kathryn M.Connor, Jonathan R.T.Davidson. Development of a new resilience scale:the Connor-Davidson resilience scale(CD-RISC).Depression and Anxiety,2003,18:76-82
3 Friborg,O.,Hjemdal,O.,Rosenvinge,J.H.,&Martinussen,M. Anew rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research,2003,12:65-76
1 Vaughn G.Sinclair,Kenneth A.Wallston.The development and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale. Assessment,2004,11:94-105
Martin Pinquart. Moderating effects of dispositional resilience on associations between hassles and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,2009,30:53-60
3 Wagnild,GM.,&Young,H.M.Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale.Journal of Nursing Measurement,1993,1:165-178
4刘宣文,周贤.复原力研究与学校心理辅导.教育发展研究,2004,2：87-89
5 Luthar,S.S..Vulnerability and resilience:A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 1991.62:600-616
6 Jack Block,Adam M.Kremen. IQ and ego-resiliency:Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,70(2):349-361
1 Rutter,M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1987,57:316-331
1 Rutter,M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1987,57:316-331
1 Jack Block,Adam M.Kremen. IQ and ego-resiliency:Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,70(2):349-361
2于肖楠,张建新.自我韧性量表与Connor-Davidson韧性量表的应用比较.心理科学,2007,30(5)：1169-1171
3曾军.广东地区企业员工心理弹性结构维度及相关研究(D).暨南大学,2007
4 Claire Black. Adolescent mothers:resilience, family health work and health-promoting practices. Journal of Advanced Nursing,2004,48(4):351-360
5 Martin Pinquart.Moderating effects of dispositional resilience on associations between hassles and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,2009,30:53-60
6 Gail M. Wagnild. http://www.resiliencescale.com/en/rstest/rstest_en.html. Site contents.2009
1 Danice L.Brown.African American resiliency:Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology,2008,34:32-48
2 Kathryn M.Connor, Jonathan R.T.Davidson.Development of a new resilence scale:The Conor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC).Depression and Anxiety,2003,18:76-82
3 Amanda J.Lamond, Colin A.Depp,et al.Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of Psychiatric Research,2009,43:148-154
4 Yu,X.,&Zhang,J. Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC)with Chinese people. Social Behavior and Personality:An International Journal,2007,35(1):19-30
5 Friborg,O.,Hjemdal,O.,Rosenvinge,J.H.,&Martinussen,M. A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research,2003,12:65-76
6 Friborg O,Barlaug D,Martinussen M,Rosenvinge JH,Hjemdal O.Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res,2005,14:29-42
Odin Hjemdal, Oddgeir Friborg,et al.Resilience predicting psychiatric symptoms a prospective study of protective factors and their role in adjustment to stressful life events. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy,2006,13:194-201
1 Nidtaya Takviriyanun. Development and testing of the Resilience Factors Scale for Thai adolescents. Nursing and Health Sciences,2008,10:203-208
2 Vaughn G.Sinclair,Kenneth A.Wallston.The development and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale. Assessment,2004,11:94-105
3 Hjemdal,O.,Friborg,O.,Stiles,T.C.,Martinussen,M.,&Rosenvinge,J.H.A new rating scale for adolescent resilience:Grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,2006,39:84-96
4 Odin Hjemdal,Tore Aune, et al.Resilience as a predictor of depressive symptoms:A correlational study with young adolescents. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry,2007,12:91-103
1 Brooks,R.B..Children at risk:Fostering resilience and home. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1994,64:545-553
2 Osofsky,J.D..The impact of violence on children.The Future of Children,1999,9:33-49
3 Conners,N.A.,Bradley,R.H.,Mansell,L.W.,Lui,J.Y.,Roberts,T.J.,Burgdorf,K.,et al.Children of mothers with serious substance abuse problems:An accumulation of risks. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse,2002,29:743-758
4 Dawe,S.,Harnett,P.,Staiger,P.,&Dadds,M.R..Parent training skills and methadone maintenance: Clinical opportunities and challenges. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,2000,60:1-11
5 Chanson D.Noether, Vivian Brown, et al. Promoting resiliency in children of mothers with co-occurring disorders and histories of trauma:Impact of a skills-based intervention program on child outcome. Journal of Community Psychology,2007,35(7):823-843
6 Finkelstein,N.,Rechberger,E.,et al.Building resilience in children of mothers who have co-occurring disorders and histories of violence:Intervention model and implementation issues. Journal of Behavioral Health Services Research,2005,32:141-154
7 Luthar,S.S..Vulnerability and resilience:A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development, 1991.62:600-616
Norman A.Constantine, Bonnie Benard, Marycruz Diaz.Measuring protective factors and resilience traits in youth:The Healthy Kids Resilience Assessment. Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society for Prevention Research. New Orleans,LA,1999
9 Claire Black. Adolescent mothers:resilience, family health work and health-promoting practices. Journal of Advanced Nursing,2004,48(4):351-360
10 Teresa D.LaFromboise, Dan R.Hoyt,et al.. Family, community, and school influences on resilience among American Indian adolescents in the Upper Midweat. http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/sociologyfacpub/26.2006
1席居哲.基于社会认知的儿童心理弹性研究(D).华东师范大学,2006
2卢静,邢伟荣.特殊儿童心理弹性的研究：现状及启示.社会心理科学,2008,5：57-64
1 Eva C.Klohnen, Elizabeth A.Vandewater. Negotiating the middle years:Ego-resiliency and successful midlife adjustment in women. Psychology and Aging,1996,11(3):431-442
2 Megan L.Notter, Katherine A.MacTavish, Devora Shamah. Pathways toward resilience among women in rural trailer parks. The National Council on Family Relations,2008,57:613-624
3 Amanda J.Lamond, Colin A.Depp,et al.Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of Psychiatric Research,2009,43:148-154
4 Mona Mehta,Ellen Whyte, et al.Depressive symptoms in late life:Associations with apathy, resilience and disability vary between young-old and old-old. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry,2008,23:238-243
1于肖楠,张建新.自我韧性量表与Connor-Davidson韧性量表的应用比较.心理科学,2007,30(5)：1169-1171
2周碧岚.离异女性复原力的建构研究.中华女子学院学报,2004,2：31-34
3曾军.广东地区企业员工心理弹性结构维度及相关研究(D).暨南大学,2007
4周璐璐.同性恋者的心理弹性研究(D).华东师范大学,2008
5 Jenny Gardner,Tony Harmon. Exploring resilience from a parent's perspective:A qualitative study of six resilient mothers of children with an intellectual disability. Australian Social Work, 2002,55(1):60-68
6 M.Bayat. Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2007,51(9):702-714
1陈瑜.孤独症患儿家长复原力及相关因素研究(D).南京师范大学,2007
2 T.J.Lloyd,R.Hastings. Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2009,7:1-12
3 G.A.King, L.Zwaigenbaum. A qualitative investigation of changes in the belief systems of families of children with autism or Down syndrome. Child:Care,Health&Development,2006,32(3):353-369
4 Sen T, Abdulsalam CA, Pal S, et al. Effect of amitriptyline on gastric ulceration. Fundam Clin Pharmacol,2002,16(4):311-31
1张宁生,荣卉.残疾儿童的父母如何调适心路历程.心理科学,1997,20：398-399
1 Friborg,O.,Hiemdal,O.,Rosenvinge,J.H.,&Martinussen,M. A new rating scale for adult resilience: What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research,2003,12:65-76
1中国网.http://www.china.com.cn/economic/txt/2008-04/14/content_14950692.htm.2008-04-14
2燕国材.非智力因素与学习.上海：上海教育出版社,2006.14-19
1于肖楠,张建新.韧性(resilience)在压力下复原和成长的心理机制.心理科学进展,2005,13(5)：658-665
1黄晶晶,刘艳虹.特殊儿童家庭社会支持情况调查报告.中国特殊教育,2006,4：3-9
[1]Amanda J.Lamond, Colin A.Depp,et al.Measurement and predictors of resilience among community-dwelling older women. Journal of Psychiatric Research,2009,43:148-154
[2]Brooks,R.B..Children at risk:Fostering resilience and home. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1994,64:545-553
[3]Chanson D.Noether, Vivian Brown, et al. Promoting resiliency in children of mothers with co-occurring disorders and histories of trauma:Impact of a skills-based intervention program on child outcome. Journal of Community Psychology,2007,35(7):823-843
[4]Claire Black. Adolescent mothers:resilience, family health work and health-promoting practices. Journal of Advanced Nursing,2004,48(4):351-360
[5]Conners,N.A.,Bradley,R.H.,Mansell,L.W.,Lui,J.Y.,Roberts,T.J.,Burgdorf,K.,et al..Children of mothers with serious substance abuse problems:An accumulation of risks. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse,2002,29:743-758
[6]Danice L.Brown.African American resiliency:Examining racial socialization and social support as protective factors. Journal of Black Psychology,2008,34:32-48
[7]Dawe,S.,Harnett,P.,Staiger,P.,&Dadds,M.R.. Parent training skills and methadone maintenance: Clinical opportunities and challenges. Drug and Alcohol Dependence,2000,60:1-11
[8]Dyer,J.G,&McGuinness,T.M.. Resilience:Analysis of the concept. Archives of Psychiatric Nursing,1996,10(5):276-282
[9]Eva C.Klohnen, Elizabeth A.Vandewater. Negotiating the middle years:Ego-resiliency and successful midlife adjustment in women. Psychology and Aging,1996,11(3):431-442
[10]Finkelstein,N.,Rechberger,E.,et al.Building resilience in children of mothers who have co-occurring disorders and histories of violence:Intervention model and implementation issues. Journal of Behavioral Health Services Research,2005,32:141-154
[11]Friborg O.,Barlaug D,Martinussen M,Rosenvinge JH,Hjemdal O.Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. Int J Methods Psychiatr Res,2005,14:29-42
[12]Friborg,O.,Hjemdal,O.,Rosenvinge,J.H.,&Martinussen,M. A new rating scale for adult resilience:What are the central protective resources behind healthy adjustment? International Journal of Methods in Psychiatric Research,2003,12:65-76
[13]Garmezy,N..Resilience in children's adaptation to negative life events and stressed environments.Pediatric Annals,1991,20:459-466
[14]GA.King, L.Zwaigenbaum. A qualitative investigation of changes in the belief systems of families of children with autism or Down syndrome. Child:Care, Health & Development,2006, 32(3):353-369
[15]Jack Block,Adam M.Kremen. IQ and ego-resiliency:Conceptual and empirical connections and separateness. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,1996,70(2):349-361
[16]Jenny Gardner,Tony Harmon. Exploring resilience from a parent's perspective:A qualitative study of six resilient mothers of children with an intellectual disability. Australian Social Work, 2002,55(1):60-68
[17]Kathryn M.Connor, Jonathan R.T.Davidson. Development of a new resilience scale:the Connor-Davidson resilience scale(CD-RISC).Depression and Anxiety,2003,18:76-82
[18]Luthar,S.S..Vulnerability and resilience:A study of high-risk adolescents. Child Development,1991,62:600-616
[19]Martin Pinquart. Moderating effects of dispositional resilience on associations between hassles and psychological distress. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology,2009,30:53-60
[20]Masten A S. Ordinary magic:Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist,2001,56:227-238
[21]M.Bayat. Evidence of resilience in families of children with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2007,51(9):702-714
[22]Megan L.Notter, Katherine A.MacTavish, Devora Shamah. Pathways toward resilience among women in rural trailer parks.The National Council on Family Relations,2008,57:613-624
[23]Mona Mehta,Ellen Whyte, et al..Depressive symptoms in late life:Associations with apathy, resilience and disability vary between young-old and old-old. International Journal of Geriatric Psychiatry,2008,23:238-243
[24]Newman,R.. APA's resilience initiative. Professional Psychology:Research and Practice,2005,36(3):227-C229
[25]Nidtaya Takviriyanun. Development and testing of the Resilience Factors Scale for Thai adolescents. Nursing and Health Sciences,2008,10:203-208
[26]Norman A.Constantine, Bonnie Benard, Marycruz Diaz.Measuring protective factors and resilience traits in youth:The Healthy Kids Resilience Assessment. Seventh Annual Meeting of the Society for Prevention Research. New Orleans,LA,1999
[27]Odin Hjemdal, Oddgeir Friborg,et al.Resilience predicting psychiatric symptoms a prospective study of protective factors and their role in adjustment to stressful life events. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy,2006,13:194-201
[28]Odin Hjemdal,Friborg,O.,Stiles,T.C.,Martinussen,M.,&Rosenvinge,J.H. A new rating scale for adolescent resilience:Grasping the central protective resources behind healthy development. Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development,2006,39:84-96
[29]Odin Hjemdal,Tore Aune, et al.Resilience as a predictor of depressive symptoms:A correlational study with young adolescents. Clin Child Psychol Psychiatry,2007,12:91-103
[30]Osofsky,J.D..The impact of violence on children.The Future of Children,1999,9:33-49
[31]Richardson,G.E.,Neiger,B.,Jensen,S.,&Kumpfer,K..The resiliency model. Health Education, 1990,21:33-39
[32]Rutter M. Resilience in the face of adversity:protective factors and resistance to psychiatric disorders.Br J Psych,1985,147:598-611
[33]Rutter,M. Psychosocial resilience and protective mechanisms. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,1987,57:316-331
[34]Sen T, Abdulsalam CA, Pal S, et al. Effect of amitriptyline on gastric ulceration. Fundam Clin Pharmacol,2002,16(4):311-31
[35]T.J.Lloyd,R.Hastings. Hope as a psychological resilience factor in mothers and fathers of children with intellectual disabilities. Journal of Intellectual Disability Research,2009,7:1-12
[36]Vaughn G.Sinclair,Kenneth A.Wallston.The development and psychometric evaluation of the Brief Resilient Coping Scale. Assessment,2004,11:94-105
[37]Wagnild,G.M.,&Young,H.M.Development and psychometric evaluation of the Resilience Scale.Journal of Nursing Measurement,1993,1:165-178
[38]Wagnild,G.M.Resilience and successful aging among low and high income older adults.Journal of Gerontological Nursing,2003,29(12):42-49
[39]Werner,E.E..Resilience in development. Current Directions in Psychological Sciences, 1995,4:81-85
[40]Yu,X.,&Zhang,J. Factor analysis and psychometric evaluation of the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC)with Chinese people. Social Behavior and Personality:An International Journal,2007,35(1):19-30
[41]Zimmerman,M.A.,&Arunkumar,R.. Resiliency research:Implications for schools and policy. Social Policy Report:Society for Research in Child Development,1994,8(4):1-17
[42]American Psychology Association Help Center:The road to resilience:What is resilience? http://www.apahelpcenter.org/featuredtopics/feature.php?id=6&ch=2
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