基于试验和有限元仿真的儿童乘员正面和侧面碰撞安全研究
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摘要
儿童乘员安全是汽车碰撞安全领域的重要研究课题之一。国际上关于儿童乘员安全的研究早在上世纪60年代就开始了;美国和欧洲等国分别于70和80年代相继建立了儿童乘员安全法规。随着我国家用汽车保有量的逐年增加,儿童乘员安全问题越来越突出。儿童乘员约束系统(Child Restraint System,CRS)是防止交通事故中儿童乘员伤亡的乘车保护装置,开展这方面的研究工作具有重大的社会意义,尤其在我国实现现有的计划生育政策情况下。
本文应用Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人有限元模型和3岁儿童人体有限元模型建立了四种典型的前向式CRS(着衣型、护板型、普通的5点式背带型和ISOFIX CRS)的正面碰撞台车试验的有限元仿真模型。将Hybrid III假人有限元模型仿真的乘员动态响应与试验对照,以校验有限元模型。对比分析了试验和仿真中这四种典型CRS约束下的乘员伤害值及儿童人体有限元模型的应力分布以比较这四种CRS的正面碰撞安全性的优劣。对使用三点式安全带固定的护板型和普通的5点式背带型CRS的安全带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形及普通的5点式背带型CRS和ISOFIX CRS的背带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形进行了有限元仿真分析。结果表明,ISOFIX CRS的正面碰撞安全性最好。
ISOFIX CRS是一种国际通用型CRS,实现了与车体简单、牢固和标准化的连接。因此本研究着重对ISOFIX CRS的正面碰撞安全性进行了分析。考虑到对使用前向式CRS的4岁以下儿童乘员,颈部保护非常重要,因此着重对颈部响应进行了深入分析。儿童人体有限元模型的上颈部受力是基于头部的运动力学方程式计算求得的。假人模型与儿童人体有限元模型在仿真中的体幹姿态及下颌与胸部的接触方式有较大差异。假人和儿童人体有限元模型的下颌与胸部的不同的接触力及头部惯性力使得两模型的上颈部受力不同。假人模型的上颈部所受剪力和拉力均较大,而儿童人体有限元模型的上颈部剪力较小,拉力较大。
为减小ISOFIX CRS约束下的儿童乘员头部、颈部和胸部受力,考虑给ISOFIX CRS的顶部拉带加限力计。用有限元模型仿真分析了ISOFIX CRS正确使用情形和CRS背带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形下顶部拉带限力计的效果。结果表明限力计有效地降低了头部和胸部加速度及上颈部受力。通过计算假人和儿童人体有限元模型的缓冲能量密度和约束能量密度,及约束能量密度中被CRS背带吸收的能量密度和耗散到CRS安装系统的能量密度,得到了能量密度和效率与胸部加速度之间的关系。结果表明,胸部加速度并不完全由缓冲能量效率决定,而是由被CRS背带吸收的能量效率决定。被CRS背带吸收的能量效率越高,胸部加速度越高。
由于关于儿童乘员的侧面碰撞台车试验在国际上还没有统一方案,本研究对侧面碰撞实车试验进行了分析。比较了三种类型CRS(前向式、后向式和婴儿床式CRS)约束下的Q3s 3岁侧面碰撞儿童假人和CRABI 6个月婴儿假人的侧面碰撞实车试验结果,为侧面碰撞台车试验方法的确立提供依据。除前向式CRS中的Q3s假人的胸部压缩量(23.3 mm)略高出指标值(23 mm)外,其余伤害值都低于相应的伤害指标值。虽然在前向式和后向式CRS的试验中,车门腰线通过CRS侧护板间接撞击了假人头部,但头部加速度还是很低。其原因是由于CRS侧护板吸收了撞击能量,且假人头部始终处于CRS侧护板内部。建立了简单的前向式CRS的侧面碰撞有限元模型。将Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人和3岁儿童人体有限元模型的仿真结果与试验结果对比,头部、胸部和髋部的合成加速度峰值大小很接近。
本研究以试验和有限元仿真为主要研究手段,对儿童乘员在不同类型CRS约束下的正面和侧面碰撞过程中的乘员动态响应和伤害值进行了深入分析和研究。应用Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人有限元模型和3岁儿童人体有限元模型建立了四种典型的前向式CRS的正面碰撞台车试验的有限元仿真模型。提出了在ISOFIX CRS的顶部拉带加限力计以减轻头颈部和胸部的受力。运用缓冲及约束能量效率理论提出了能量效率与胸部加速度之间的关系。通过对比分析Hybrid III假人和儿童人体有限元模型的动态响应,发现两者在仿真中的体幹姿态及下颌与胸部的接触方式有较大差异。对侧面碰撞实车试验中3种类型CRS约束下的乘员动态响应及伤害值进行了对比分析,同时建立了侧面碰撞有限元模型,为侧面碰撞儿童乘员安全研究工作的开展奠定了基础。希望本研究能为我国儿童乘员安全研究工作的开展和儿童乘员安全法规的建立和实施提供参考。
Child occupant safety is one of the important research subject in the field of vehicle crash safety. Child occupant safety research started from 1960s in the world. The US and European countries established regulations for child occupants in 1970s and 1980s. With the number of vehicles increasing every year in China, child occupant safety problem becomes more and more important. As child restraint system (CRS) is shown to be effective on child occupant protection in vehicle crash, the research work in this field has an important social significance, regarding that the policy of one-child in one-family performed in China.
In this research, by using a Hybrid III 3YO dummy FE model and a child human FE model, FE simulation of frontal sled tests for four typical types of CRSs (wearable type, impact-shield type, 5-point harness conventional type, ISOFIX CRS) were conducted. Results of the dummy’s kinematics and accelerations in the tests and FE simulations were correlated. A 3-year-old child human FE model was also used in this research. Injury criteria (the head forward excursion, HIC 15, chest 3 ms acceleration and chest deflection) were compared between the four types of CRSs. Stress distribution was analyzed for the child human FE model. Misuse case of seatbelt having 100 mm slack for the impact-shield type and 5-point harness conventional type CRS were analyzed by FE simulation. And misuse case of harness having 100 mm slack for the 5-point harness conventional type and ISOFIX CRS was also analyzed by FE simulations. Results showed that the frontal safety performance of ISOFIX CRS was the best.
ISOFIX CRS implements a simple, rigid and standardized connection with vehicle. In this research the child occupant protection in ISOFIX CRS were analyzed in detail. Regarding that it is very important of the neck protection of a child under 4 years old and restrained by a forward-facing CRS, the upper neck response were analyzed in detail. The upper neck force and moment were calculated based on the motion of the head. The torso pose and the contact behavior of the chin and chest were different between the dummy and child human FE model. Different contact behavior caused different contact force. And the upper neck force was affected by the contact force and the head inertial force. For the Hybrid III dummy model, the upper neck shear and tension force were large while for the child human FE model the upper neck shear force was small and the tension force was large.
A top-tether force limiter was proposed to reduce the loadings to the head, neck and chest of the child positioned in the ISOFIX CRS. For evaluating the effectiveness of the top-tether force limiter, FE simulations for two conditions, CRS in proper use and CRS harness having slack, were performed. Results showed that the head and chest accelerations and upper neck force and moment were reduced. Ridedown and restraint energy density and the restraint energy density related with the CRS harness and CRS installation system were calculated and analyzed of the relation with the chest acceleration. It was concluded that the chest acceleration was not dependent on the ridedown energy efficiency but dependent on the energy efficiency absorbed by the CRS harness (i.e., the chest acceleration will increase when the energy efficiency absorbed by the CRS harness increases).
As there is not an international standard for side impact sled test, in this research full car side impact tests were analyzed. Results of three full car side impact tests of Q3s and CRABI 6MO dummies restrained by three types of CRSs (forward-facing, rear-facing and car-bed type) were analyzed and compared. Except the chest deflection (23.3 mm) of the Q3s restrained by a forward-facing CRS exceeding slightly the threshold (23 mm), all injury criteria were lower than thresholds. Although the door beltline impact the dummy’s head through the CRS side shell indirectly, the HIC 15 was very low. This was because the CRS side shell absorbed lots of impact energy, and the dummy’s head was contained in the CRS shell all along. A simple FE model of side impact was established by using the Hybrid III dummy and child human FE model. The head, chest and pelvis resultant acceleration peaks were comparable between the test and simulations.
In this research, based on tests and FE simulations, the behavior, reponses and injury parameters of the child occupant restrained by differet types of CRSs were analyzed. By using a Hybrid III 3YO dummy FE model and a child human FE model, FE simulation of frontal sled tests for four typical types of CRSs were conducted. A top-tether force limiter was proposed to reduce the loads to the child head, neck and chest. By applying the theory of ridedown and restraint energy efficiencies, the relation of the energy efficiencies anad the chest acceleration was proposed. It was found that the torso pose and the contact behavior of the chin and chest were different between the dummy and child human FE model. Results of three full car side impact tests of Q3s and CRABI 6MO dummies restrained by three types of CRSs were analyzed and compared. A simple FE model of side impact was established by using the Hybrid III dummy and child human FE model. Hope that this research can be a good reference for the child occupant safety research work and the establishment and execution of the child occupant safety regulation in our country.
本文应用Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人有限元模型和3岁儿童人体有限元模型建立了四种典型的前向式CRS(着衣型、护板型、普通的5点式背带型和ISOFIX CRS)的正面碰撞台车试验的有限元仿真模型。将Hybrid III假人有限元模型仿真的乘员动态响应与试验对照,以校验有限元模型。对比分析了试验和仿真中这四种典型CRS约束下的乘员伤害值及儿童人体有限元模型的应力分布以比较这四种CRS的正面碰撞安全性的优劣。对使用三点式安全带固定的护板型和普通的5点式背带型CRS的安全带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形及普通的5点式背带型CRS和ISOFIX CRS的背带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形进行了有限元仿真分析。结果表明,ISOFIX CRS的正面碰撞安全性最好。
ISOFIX CRS是一种国际通用型CRS,实现了与车体简单、牢固和标准化的连接。因此本研究着重对ISOFIX CRS的正面碰撞安全性进行了分析。考虑到对使用前向式CRS的4岁以下儿童乘员,颈部保护非常重要,因此着重对颈部响应进行了深入分析。儿童人体有限元模型的上颈部受力是基于头部的运动力学方程式计算求得的。假人模型与儿童人体有限元模型在仿真中的体幹姿态及下颌与胸部的接触方式有较大差异。假人和儿童人体有限元模型的下颌与胸部的不同的接触力及头部惯性力使得两模型的上颈部受力不同。假人模型的上颈部所受剪力和拉力均较大,而儿童人体有限元模型的上颈部剪力较小,拉力较大。
为减小ISOFIX CRS约束下的儿童乘员头部、颈部和胸部受力,考虑给ISOFIX CRS的顶部拉带加限力计。用有限元模型仿真分析了ISOFIX CRS正确使用情形和CRS背带有100 mm松弛的误使用情形下顶部拉带限力计的效果。结果表明限力计有效地降低了头部和胸部加速度及上颈部受力。通过计算假人和儿童人体有限元模型的缓冲能量密度和约束能量密度,及约束能量密度中被CRS背带吸收的能量密度和耗散到CRS安装系统的能量密度,得到了能量密度和效率与胸部加速度之间的关系。结果表明,胸部加速度并不完全由缓冲能量效率决定,而是由被CRS背带吸收的能量效率决定。被CRS背带吸收的能量效率越高,胸部加速度越高。
由于关于儿童乘员的侧面碰撞台车试验在国际上还没有统一方案,本研究对侧面碰撞实车试验进行了分析。比较了三种类型CRS(前向式、后向式和婴儿床式CRS)约束下的Q3s 3岁侧面碰撞儿童假人和CRABI 6个月婴儿假人的侧面碰撞实车试验结果,为侧面碰撞台车试验方法的确立提供依据。除前向式CRS中的Q3s假人的胸部压缩量(23.3 mm)略高出指标值(23 mm)外,其余伤害值都低于相应的伤害指标值。虽然在前向式和后向式CRS的试验中,车门腰线通过CRS侧护板间接撞击了假人头部,但头部加速度还是很低。其原因是由于CRS侧护板吸收了撞击能量,且假人头部始终处于CRS侧护板内部。建立了简单的前向式CRS的侧面碰撞有限元模型。将Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人和3岁儿童人体有限元模型的仿真结果与试验结果对比,头部、胸部和髋部的合成加速度峰值大小很接近。
本研究以试验和有限元仿真为主要研究手段,对儿童乘员在不同类型CRS约束下的正面和侧面碰撞过程中的乘员动态响应和伤害值进行了深入分析和研究。应用Hybrid III 3岁儿童假人有限元模型和3岁儿童人体有限元模型建立了四种典型的前向式CRS的正面碰撞台车试验的有限元仿真模型。提出了在ISOFIX CRS的顶部拉带加限力计以减轻头颈部和胸部的受力。运用缓冲及约束能量效率理论提出了能量效率与胸部加速度之间的关系。通过对比分析Hybrid III假人和儿童人体有限元模型的动态响应,发现两者在仿真中的体幹姿态及下颌与胸部的接触方式有较大差异。对侧面碰撞实车试验中3种类型CRS约束下的乘员动态响应及伤害值进行了对比分析,同时建立了侧面碰撞有限元模型,为侧面碰撞儿童乘员安全研究工作的开展奠定了基础。希望本研究能为我国儿童乘员安全研究工作的开展和儿童乘员安全法规的建立和实施提供参考。
Child occupant safety is one of the important research subject in the field of vehicle crash safety. Child occupant safety research started from 1960s in the world. The US and European countries established regulations for child occupants in 1970s and 1980s. With the number of vehicles increasing every year in China, child occupant safety problem becomes more and more important. As child restraint system (CRS) is shown to be effective on child occupant protection in vehicle crash, the research work in this field has an important social significance, regarding that the policy of one-child in one-family performed in China.
In this research, by using a Hybrid III 3YO dummy FE model and a child human FE model, FE simulation of frontal sled tests for four typical types of CRSs (wearable type, impact-shield type, 5-point harness conventional type, ISOFIX CRS) were conducted. Results of the dummy’s kinematics and accelerations in the tests and FE simulations were correlated. A 3-year-old child human FE model was also used in this research. Injury criteria (the head forward excursion, HIC 15, chest 3 ms acceleration and chest deflection) were compared between the four types of CRSs. Stress distribution was analyzed for the child human FE model. Misuse case of seatbelt having 100 mm slack for the impact-shield type and 5-point harness conventional type CRS were analyzed by FE simulation. And misuse case of harness having 100 mm slack for the 5-point harness conventional type and ISOFIX CRS was also analyzed by FE simulations. Results showed that the frontal safety performance of ISOFIX CRS was the best.
ISOFIX CRS implements a simple, rigid and standardized connection with vehicle. In this research the child occupant protection in ISOFIX CRS were analyzed in detail. Regarding that it is very important of the neck protection of a child under 4 years old and restrained by a forward-facing CRS, the upper neck response were analyzed in detail. The upper neck force and moment were calculated based on the motion of the head. The torso pose and the contact behavior of the chin and chest were different between the dummy and child human FE model. Different contact behavior caused different contact force. And the upper neck force was affected by the contact force and the head inertial force. For the Hybrid III dummy model, the upper neck shear and tension force were large while for the child human FE model the upper neck shear force was small and the tension force was large.
A top-tether force limiter was proposed to reduce the loadings to the head, neck and chest of the child positioned in the ISOFIX CRS. For evaluating the effectiveness of the top-tether force limiter, FE simulations for two conditions, CRS in proper use and CRS harness having slack, were performed. Results showed that the head and chest accelerations and upper neck force and moment were reduced. Ridedown and restraint energy density and the restraint energy density related with the CRS harness and CRS installation system were calculated and analyzed of the relation with the chest acceleration. It was concluded that the chest acceleration was not dependent on the ridedown energy efficiency but dependent on the energy efficiency absorbed by the CRS harness (i.e., the chest acceleration will increase when the energy efficiency absorbed by the CRS harness increases).
As there is not an international standard for side impact sled test, in this research full car side impact tests were analyzed. Results of three full car side impact tests of Q3s and CRABI 6MO dummies restrained by three types of CRSs (forward-facing, rear-facing and car-bed type) were analyzed and compared. Except the chest deflection (23.3 mm) of the Q3s restrained by a forward-facing CRS exceeding slightly the threshold (23 mm), all injury criteria were lower than thresholds. Although the door beltline impact the dummy’s head through the CRS side shell indirectly, the HIC 15 was very low. This was because the CRS side shell absorbed lots of impact energy, and the dummy’s head was contained in the CRS shell all along. A simple FE model of side impact was established by using the Hybrid III dummy and child human FE model. The head, chest and pelvis resultant acceleration peaks were comparable between the test and simulations.
In this research, based on tests and FE simulations, the behavior, reponses and injury parameters of the child occupant restrained by differet types of CRSs were analyzed. By using a Hybrid III 3YO dummy FE model and a child human FE model, FE simulation of frontal sled tests for four typical types of CRSs were conducted. A top-tether force limiter was proposed to reduce the loads to the child head, neck and chest. By applying the theory of ridedown and restraint energy efficiencies, the relation of the energy efficiencies anad the chest acceleration was proposed. It was found that the torso pose and the contact behavior of the chin and chest were different between the dummy and child human FE model. Results of three full car side impact tests of Q3s and CRABI 6MO dummies restrained by three types of CRSs were analyzed and compared. A simple FE model of side impact was established by using the Hybrid III dummy and child human FE model. Hope that this research can be a good reference for the child occupant safety research work and the establishment and execution of the child occupant safety regulation in our country.
引文
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[86] Hu J., Mizuno K., Tanaka E., et al.. Occupant Responses in Child Restraint Systems in Side Impact Tests. Int. J. Vehilce Safety, 2008, 3(1): 14-31
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[35] Lowne R., Roy P., Paton I.. A Comparison of the Performance of Dedicated Child Restraint Attachment Systems (ISOFIX). Society of Automotive Engineers, 1997, 973302: 71-78
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[39] Burdi A., Huelke D., Snyder R., et al. Infants and Children in the Adult World of Automobile Safety Design: Pediatric and Anatomical Considerations for Design of Child Restraints. J.Biomechanics, 1969, 2(3): 267-280
[40] Klinich K., Saul R., Autuste G., et al.. Techniques for Developing Child Dummy Protection Reference Values.www-nrd.nhtsa.dot.gov/pdf/nrd-51/kid.pdf. 1996-10
[41] Sinclair D., Dangerfield P..人的成长与发展.山口规容子,早川浩.第一版.日本: Medical Science International株式会社,2001,85-96
[42] Pintar F., Mayer R., Yoganandan N., et al. Child Neck Strength Characteristics Using an Animal Model. Society of Automotive Engineers, 2000, 2000-01-SC06
[43] Kent R., Stacey S., Forman J., et al. Assessment of Injury Criteria for Predicting Pediatric Abdominal Injury Risk from Seatbelt Loading. Proceedings of JSAE Annual Congress, 2006, 50(6): 9-12
[44] Rieger H., Brug H.E.. Fractures of the Pelvis in Children. Clinical Orthopedics and Related Research, 1997, 336: 226-239
[45] Currey J.. Bones. Princeton University Press: Princeton and Oxford, 2002, 138-145
[46] McPherson G. K., Kriewall T. J.. The Elastic Modulus of Fetal Cranial Bone: A First Step Toward an Understanding of the Biomechanics Fetal Head Molding. Journal of Biomechanics, 1978, 13(1): 9-16
[47] Irwin A., Mertz H. J.. Biomechanical bases for the CRABI and Hybrid III child dummies. Society of Automotive Engineers, 1997, 973317: 261-272
[48] Yamada H.. Strength of Biological Materials, U.S.A.: Waverly Press, 1970, 99-105
[49] Melvin J.W., Injury Assessment Reference Values for the CRABI 6-month Infant Dummy in a Rear-Facing Infant Restraint with Airbag Deployment. Society of Automotive Engineers, 1995, 950872
[50] Wismans, Janssen, Beusenberg, et al. Injury Biomechanics. Third printing. The Netherlands: Eindhoven University of Technology and TNO Crash-Safety Centre, 2000
[51] Dejeammes M. et al. Exploration of biomechanical data towards a better evaluation of tolerance for children involved in automotive accidents, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1984, 840530
[52] Kallieris D., Barz J., Schmidt G., et al. Comparison between Child Cadavers and Child Dummy by Using Child Restrant Systems in Simulated Collisions, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1976, 760815
[53] Mertz H.J., Irwin A. L., Melvin J.W., et al. Size, Weight and Biomechanical Impact Response Requirements for Adults Size Small Female and Large Male Dummies, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1989, 890756: 133-144
[54] Eppinger R., Sun E., Bandak F., et al. Development of Improved Injury Criteria for the Assessment of Advanced Automotive Restraint Systems– II, NHTSA, 1999
[55] Prasad P., Daniel R. P.. A Biomechanical Analysis of Head, Neck, and Torso Injuries to Child Surrogates Due to Sudden Torso Acceleration, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1984, 841656: 25-40
[56] FTSS: White Paper, Pendulum response corridors for 3 year-old child side impact dummies (2001)
[57] Chamouard F., Tarrière C., Baudrit P., Protection of children on board vehicles influence of pelvis design and thigh and abdomen stiffness on the submarining risk for dummies installed on a booster, ESV 1996, 96-S7-O-03
[58] Ratingen M.R., Twisk D., Schrooten M., et al. Biomechanically Based Design and Performance Targets for a 3-Year Old Child Crash Dummy for Frontal and Side Impact, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1997, 973316: 243-260
[59] Carlson M., Burleigh M., Barnes A., et al. Q3s 3 Year Old Side Impact Dummy Development, In: 20th International Technical Conference on Enhanced Safety of Vehicles, Paper number 07-205, 2007
[60] Crandall J.R., Matthews B., Bass C.R, et al. Viscoelastic Characterization of Hybrid III Three-Year-Old and Q3 Dummy Necks, Child Occupant Protection in Motor Vehicle Crashes, UK: the Cromwell Press, 1999, 113-129
[61]黄世霖,张金换,王晓冬.汽车碰撞与安全.北京:清华大学出版社,1999,53-80
[62] SAE J211/1 Instrumentation for Impact Test. Part 1. Electronic Instrumentation. Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 2003.
[63] Livermore Software Technology Corporation (LSTC). LSDYNA Keyword User’s Manual (Version 971).株式会社日本总研solutions(译).日本,2007
[64]胡佳,钟志华,水野幸治.儿童座椅正确使用和误使用的有限元仿真分析.汽车工程(已有接受函,将于2009年第1期刊登)
[65] Mizuno K., Iwata K., Deguchi T., et al. Development of a Three-Year-Old Child FE Model. Traffic Injury Prevention, 2005, 6(4): 361-371
[66] Mizuno K., Namikiri T., Analysis of Child Responses in CRS using Child Human FE Model. In: 20th International Technical Conference on the Enhanced Safety of Vehicles (ESV), 07-0145: 1-9
[67] Mizuno K., Iwata K., Namikiri T., et al. Comparison of Human FE Model and Crash Dummy Response in Various Child Restraint Systems. In: ICRASHConference, Greece, 2006
[68] Scherz R.. Epidemiology of Childhood Motor Vehicle Related Accidents, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1979, 791013: 291-305
[69] Fuchs S., Barthel M., Flannery A., et al. Cervical Spine Fractures Sustained by Young Children in Forward-Facing Car Seats. PEDIATRICS, 1989, 84(2): 348-354
[70] Sochor M., Faust D., Garton H., et al. Simulation of Occipitoatlantoaxial Injury Utilizing a MADYMO Model, Society of Automotive Engineers, 2004, 2004-01-0326
[71] Nuckley D., Ching R.. Developmental Biomechanics of the Cervical Spine: Tension and Compression. Journal of Biomechanics, www.JBiomech.com. 2005-10
[72] Kokoska E., Keller M., Rallo M., et al.. Characteristics of Pediatric Cervical Spine Injuries. Journal of Pediatric Surgery, 2001, 36(1): 100-105
[73] Hoy G., Cole W.. The paediatric cervical seat belt syndrome. Injury, 1993, 24(5): 297-299
[74] Keller J., Mosdal C.. Traumatic Odontoid Epiphysiolysis in An Infant Fixed in A Child’s Car Seat. Injury, 1990, 21(3): 191-192
[75] Mertz H. J., Patrick L., Strength and Response of the Human Neck, Society of Automotive Engineers, 1971, 710855: 1-26
[76] Mertz H. J., Horsch J., Horn G., et al. Hybrid III Sternal Deflection Associated with Thoracic Injury Severities of Occupants Restrained with Force-Limiting Shoulder Belts. Society of Automotive Engineers, 1991, 910812: 105-119
[77] Van Rooij L., Sherwood C., Crandall J., et al. The Effects of Vehicle Seat Belt Parameters on the Injury Risk for Children in Booster Seats. Society of Automotive Engineers, 2003, 2003-01-0500: 1-13
[78] Kapoor T., Altenhof W., Tot M., et al. Load Limiting Behavior in CRS Tether Anchors as a Method to Mitigate Head and Neck Injuries Sustained by Children in Frontal Crash. Traffic Injury Prevention, 2008, 9: 243-255
[79] Hu J., Sasaki Y., Yamamoto S., et al. FE Analysis of three-year-old child occupant protection seated in ISOFIX CRS. In: Japan Mechanical Academy Annual conference of 2008, Yogohama, Japan, Aug. 2008.
[80] Hu J, Mizuno K.. The Effectiveness of a Top-Tether Force Limiter in Improving ISOFIX CRS Performance. In: International Journal of Crashworthiness Conference (poster session), Kyoto, Japan, July 2008
[81] Mertz H. J., Irwin A. L.. Biomechanical and Scaling Bases for Frontal and Side Impact Injury Assessment Reference Values. Stapp Car Crash Journal, 2003-22-0009, 47: 155-188
[82] Huang M.. Vehicle Crash Mechanics, the United States of America: CRC Press, 2002, 1-83
[83] Van Arsdell W.. The Evolution of FMVSS 213: Child Restraint Systems. Society of Automotive Engineers, 2005, 2005-01-1840: 1-14
[84] National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), Department of Transportation. Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standards; Child Restraint Systems, 49 CFR Part 571, June 24, 2003.
[85] Weber K.. Comparison of Car-Bed and Rear Facing Infant Restraint Systems. In 12th International Technical Conference on Experimental Safety Vehicles, 1990
[86] Hu J., Mizuno K., Tanaka E., et al.. Occupant Responses in Child Restraint Systems in Side Impact Tests. Int. J. Vehilce Safety, 2008, 3(1): 14-31