中国女性非正规就业研究
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摘要
非正规就业一直是近年来国际范围内关注的话题，有资料显示，在发展中国家中，有半数以上的非农劳动者从事非正规就业，在中国经济转型和结构调整的过程中，非正规就业也得到了快速发展，非正规就业被称为吸纳就业的“海绵”，成为中国经济发展中解决就业问题的重要途径。
在非正规就业兴起与发展过程中，女性就业非正规化的趋势较为明显，女性更多地集中在低质量的、非正规的就业领域。非正规就业者的收入一般低于正规就业者的收入，然而非正规就业中的工资性别差异通常要大于正规就业中的工资性别差异，由此在劳动力市场中女性非正规就业者处于收入的最低端。女性非正规就业者不仅在经济收入方面处于不利地位，而且通常缺乏劳动稳定性和社会保护，没有必要的社会福利和医疗保障。女性更多地集中在非正规就业，不仅会成为女性自我发展的制约性约束，也意味着女性在劳动力市场中的边缘化，从而降低女性非正规就业者向上流动的可能性。女性更多从事非正规就业不仅仅是一种劳动力现象，还与妇女问题、贫困问题、公共福利等密切相关，由此对女性非正规就业的研究不可或缺。
自从非正规就业在我国产生和发展以来，针对非正规就业的研究层出不穷，然而作为非正规就业中的一大群体，女性的非正规就业研究却一直未得到足够的重视，而从性别差异视角的探讨就更为缺乏。女性非正规就业的发展趋势如何？其就业现状特征如何？为什么女性更有可能成为非正规就业者？非正规就业中的收入性别差异究竟有多大？女性非正规就业者的社会保障程度较低是由哪些因素决定的？这些问题都值得我们深入探讨，从而形成对女性非正规就业较为完善的研究体系。
本文运用计量经济学方法，借助经济学相关理论知识，从性别差异角度对女性非正规就业进行研究。本文利用宏观、微观统计数据以说明女性非正规就业的发展过程与现状，并对中国存在女性就业非正规化的趋势与程度作出判断。在此基础上对女性非正规就业选择影响因素进行实证分析。由于收入较低和社会保障程度低是非正规就业的两大重要特征，本文将利用微观计量经济学的方法从收入、社会保障两个方面分析女性非正规就业者收入决定和社会保障参与的影响因素，并分析男女两性存在的差异。
通过以上研究，本文得出以下结论：
无论是基于宏观统计数据还是微观住户数据，都表明中国女性劳动者存在显著的就业非正规化趋势。个人特征、家庭特征、户籍因素会对女性是否从事非正规就业产生影响。但即使在控制个人特征、家庭特征、地区等一系列因素后，女性劳动者从事非正规就业的概率仍旧比男性高。这表明女性非正规就业的选择还受到其他因素的影响，这些因素可能包括性别歧视等。
即使在非正规就业内部，女性就业者也处于不利地位。非正规就业内部存在职业、行业的性别隔离，形成所谓的“女性行业”、“女性职业”，而具体的行业职业又影响着收入水平。
非正规就业中存在较为明显的收入性别差异，并且这种收入性别差异有扩大的趋势。另一方面非正规就业中的收入性别差异不能完全由男女性个人特征、家庭特征、工作特征、地区特征中的差异所解释，这表明在非正规就业中存在男女同工不同酬的现象。
在社会保障层面，女性非正规就业者的整体水平比较低，其中制度性因素，如是否拥有工作地户籍是影响女性非正规就业者参加养老和医疗保险的最重要因素。但一些非制度性因素，如年龄、收入、职业、非正规就业类型等也影响着女性非正规就业者是否参加社会保险。女性非正规就业者拥有社会保险的可能性要比男性低，但这种性别差异更多是由其个人特征、收入、行业、职业和非正规就业类型的性别隔离所造成的。
Informal employment has been the international research topic recent years. Thedata shows, in developing countries, there are more than half of the nonfarm workersengaged in the informal employment. Also informal employment has been developedrapidly during the process of China's economic transition and structural adjustment.Informal employment is known as a "sponge" to absort employment and become theimportant way to solve the problem of employment during China's economicdevelopment.
Women are overrepresented in the informal employment which is also to be seen aslow quality of employement. Informal employed workers usually earn less thanformal employed workers, however the gender wage gap in the informal employmentis much higher than that in the formal employment, so informal employed womenworkers earn least in the labor market. Informal employed women workers not onlytake disadvantage in terms of economic income, but also have little or no security ofemployment and lock of social protection and social welfare. The fact that women areoverrepresented in the informal employment will become the constraints for femaleself development, and also means the marginalization of women in the labor market,thus reduces the possibility of upward mobility for women. Women overrepresentedin the informal employment is not only a phenomenon in labor force market, but alsocorrelated with women's issues, poverty, and public welfare. So the study of informalemployment in women is indispensable.
There are onsiderable research on informal employement since the emergence anddevelopment of informal employment in China, but studies about female informalemployment have not been due attention though informal employed women are alarge group of informal employment, and discussion from the perspective of genderdifferences are lacking. What is the development trend of informal employment forwomen? What are women’s characteristics in informal employment? Why women aremore likely to be informal employed workers? How to measure the gender wage gapin informal employment? Why informal employed women workers have lowcoverage of social protection systems? All these questions are worthy for our in-depthdiscussion, so we can form the relatively perfect system for the study of femaleinformal employment.
From the perspective of gender differences, this paper investigate female informalemployment by econometric method and economics related theory. Based on macroand micro statistics, this paer first shows the developing process and present situationfor female informal employment in China. Then, on the basis of the empirical analysis,this paper tries to explore the factors affecting the women's informal employmentchoice. Low income and low degree of social security are two important features ofinformal employment, so this paper will use micro econometric methods to explor thedeterminant of income, social security participation. Last, this paper analyses thegender differences in informal employment.
The main conclusions are as follows:
Women are over-represented in informal types of employment compared to their male counterparts in China based on both macro and micro data. Personalcharacteristics, family characteristics and household factors can affect whetherwomen engage in informal employment, but if a series of factors are controled, suchas personal characteristics, family characteristics, area etc, the probability of womenworkers engaged in informal employment is still higher than that of male. Thisindicates that women's informal employment choice is also influenced by otherfactors, and these factors may include gender discrimination, etc.
Women workers are at a disadvantage even within the informal employment. Theoccupational gender segregation exists in the informal employment which formed theso-called "women industry "," women career". The gender segregation will haveinfluence on the income level for women workers.
The wage differentials between mlae and female in informal employment areobvious and the gender wage gap is widering. On the other hand, the gender wagedisparity can't be completely explained by the gender differences in personalcharacteristics, family characteristics, job characteristics and regional characteristics,which indicates that the phenomenon of unequal pay for men and women exists in theinformal employment.
The coverage of social security for informal employed women workers is verylow. The institutional factors, such as whether having the urban household registrationis the most important factor if female workers want to participate in social pensionand medical insurance. However, some non-insstitutional factors, such as age, income,occupation, type of informal employment also have influence on women'sparticipation in social insurance. Informal employed women workers have lowpossibility of social security than men, but the gender difference in social security isusually explained by personal characteristics, income level, profession, gendersegregation.
在非正规就业兴起与发展过程中，女性就业非正规化的趋势较为明显，女性更多地集中在低质量的、非正规的就业领域。非正规就业者的收入一般低于正规就业者的收入，然而非正规就业中的工资性别差异通常要大于正规就业中的工资性别差异，由此在劳动力市场中女性非正规就业者处于收入的最低端。女性非正规就业者不仅在经济收入方面处于不利地位，而且通常缺乏劳动稳定性和社会保护，没有必要的社会福利和医疗保障。女性更多地集中在非正规就业，不仅会成为女性自我发展的制约性约束，也意味着女性在劳动力市场中的边缘化，从而降低女性非正规就业者向上流动的可能性。女性更多从事非正规就业不仅仅是一种劳动力现象，还与妇女问题、贫困问题、公共福利等密切相关，由此对女性非正规就业的研究不可或缺。
自从非正规就业在我国产生和发展以来，针对非正规就业的研究层出不穷，然而作为非正规就业中的一大群体，女性的非正规就业研究却一直未得到足够的重视，而从性别差异视角的探讨就更为缺乏。女性非正规就业的发展趋势如何？其就业现状特征如何？为什么女性更有可能成为非正规就业者？非正规就业中的收入性别差异究竟有多大？女性非正规就业者的社会保障程度较低是由哪些因素决定的？这些问题都值得我们深入探讨，从而形成对女性非正规就业较为完善的研究体系。
本文运用计量经济学方法，借助经济学相关理论知识，从性别差异角度对女性非正规就业进行研究。本文利用宏观、微观统计数据以说明女性非正规就业的发展过程与现状，并对中国存在女性就业非正规化的趋势与程度作出判断。在此基础上对女性非正规就业选择影响因素进行实证分析。由于收入较低和社会保障程度低是非正规就业的两大重要特征，本文将利用微观计量经济学的方法从收入、社会保障两个方面分析女性非正规就业者收入决定和社会保障参与的影响因素，并分析男女两性存在的差异。
通过以上研究，本文得出以下结论：
无论是基于宏观统计数据还是微观住户数据，都表明中国女性劳动者存在显著的就业非正规化趋势。个人特征、家庭特征、户籍因素会对女性是否从事非正规就业产生影响。但即使在控制个人特征、家庭特征、地区等一系列因素后，女性劳动者从事非正规就业的概率仍旧比男性高。这表明女性非正规就业的选择还受到其他因素的影响，这些因素可能包括性别歧视等。
即使在非正规就业内部，女性就业者也处于不利地位。非正规就业内部存在职业、行业的性别隔离，形成所谓的“女性行业”、“女性职业”，而具体的行业职业又影响着收入水平。
非正规就业中存在较为明显的收入性别差异，并且这种收入性别差异有扩大的趋势。另一方面非正规就业中的收入性别差异不能完全由男女性个人特征、家庭特征、工作特征、地区特征中的差异所解释，这表明在非正规就业中存在男女同工不同酬的现象。
在社会保障层面，女性非正规就业者的整体水平比较低，其中制度性因素，如是否拥有工作地户籍是影响女性非正规就业者参加养老和医疗保险的最重要因素。但一些非制度性因素，如年龄、收入、职业、非正规就业类型等也影响着女性非正规就业者是否参加社会保险。女性非正规就业者拥有社会保险的可能性要比男性低，但这种性别差异更多是由其个人特征、收入、行业、职业和非正规就业类型的性别隔离所造成的。
Informal employment has been the international research topic recent years. Thedata shows, in developing countries, there are more than half of the nonfarm workersengaged in the informal employment. Also informal employment has been developedrapidly during the process of China's economic transition and structural adjustment.Informal employment is known as a "sponge" to absort employment and become theimportant way to solve the problem of employment during China's economicdevelopment.
Women are overrepresented in the informal employment which is also to be seen aslow quality of employement. Informal employed workers usually earn less thanformal employed workers, however the gender wage gap in the informal employmentis much higher than that in the formal employment, so informal employed womenworkers earn least in the labor market. Informal employed women workers not onlytake disadvantage in terms of economic income, but also have little or no security ofemployment and lock of social protection and social welfare. The fact that women areoverrepresented in the informal employment will become the constraints for femaleself development, and also means the marginalization of women in the labor market,thus reduces the possibility of upward mobility for women. Women overrepresentedin the informal employment is not only a phenomenon in labor force market, but alsocorrelated with women's issues, poverty, and public welfare. So the study of informalemployment in women is indispensable.
There are onsiderable research on informal employement since the emergence anddevelopment of informal employment in China, but studies about female informalemployment have not been due attention though informal employed women are alarge group of informal employment, and discussion from the perspective of genderdifferences are lacking. What is the development trend of informal employment forwomen? What are women’s characteristics in informal employment? Why women aremore likely to be informal employed workers? How to measure the gender wage gapin informal employment? Why informal employed women workers have lowcoverage of social protection systems? All these questions are worthy for our in-depthdiscussion, so we can form the relatively perfect system for the study of femaleinformal employment.
From the perspective of gender differences, this paper investigate female informalemployment by econometric method and economics related theory. Based on macroand micro statistics, this paer first shows the developing process and present situationfor female informal employment in China. Then, on the basis of the empirical analysis,this paper tries to explore the factors affecting the women's informal employmentchoice. Low income and low degree of social security are two important features ofinformal employment, so this paper will use micro econometric methods to explor thedeterminant of income, social security participation. Last, this paper analyses thegender differences in informal employment.
The main conclusions are as follows:
Women are over-represented in informal types of employment compared to their male counterparts in China based on both macro and micro data. Personalcharacteristics, family characteristics and household factors can affect whetherwomen engage in informal employment, but if a series of factors are controled, suchas personal characteristics, family characteristics, area etc, the probability of womenworkers engaged in informal employment is still higher than that of male. Thisindicates that women's informal employment choice is also influenced by otherfactors, and these factors may include gender discrimination, etc.
Women workers are at a disadvantage even within the informal employment. Theoccupational gender segregation exists in the informal employment which formed theso-called "women industry "," women career". The gender segregation will haveinfluence on the income level for women workers.
The wage differentials between mlae and female in informal employment areobvious and the gender wage gap is widering. On the other hand, the gender wagedisparity can't be completely explained by the gender differences in personalcharacteristics, family characteristics, job characteristics and regional characteristics,which indicates that the phenomenon of unequal pay for men and women exists in theinformal employment.
The coverage of social security for informal employed women workers is verylow. The institutional factors, such as whether having the urban household registrationis the most important factor if female workers want to participate in social pensionand medical insurance. However, some non-insstitutional factors, such as age, income,occupation, type of informal employment also have influence on women'sparticipation in social insurance. Informal employed women workers have lowpossibility of social security than men, but the gender difference in social security isusually explained by personal characteristics, income level, profession, gendersegregation.
引文
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78任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：39
81任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：39
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103姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
104Song, Yueping and Xiao-Yuan Dong. Gender and Occupational Mobility in Urban China during theEconomic Transition. Unpublished manuscript,2009.
105Carr, Marilyn and Chen, Martha. Globalization, Social Exclusion and Work with Special Reference toInformal Employment and Gender. Policy Integration Department. Working Paper No.20(Geneva:International Labour Office),2004
106ILO and WTO. Globalization and informal jobs in developing countries. A joint study of the InternationalLabour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization,2009
107金一虹．女性非正规就业：现状与对策．河海大学学报（哲学社会科学版），2006（3）:6-10
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110任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：114
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112Carr, Marilyn and Chen, Martha. Globalization and the Informal Economy: How Global Trade and InvestmentImpact on the Working Poor, Working Paper on the Informal Economy. Working No.1INTEGRATION(Geneva: International Labour Office),2002
113任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：114
114高文书．进城农民工就业状况及收入影响因素分析—以北京、石家庄、沈阳、无锡和东莞为例．中国农业经济，2006（1）：28-34
115国际劳工局著．国家劳工与信息研究所译．劳动力市场主要指标体系1999年．中国劳动社会保障出版社，2001:183～187
116此处引用谭琳、李军锋．我国非正规就业的性别特征．人口研究．2003(5)：11-18
117此处引用任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：110
118不同的统计口径流动人口规模数据有所不同。根据2010年第六次全国人口普查，截止到普查时，流动人口规模为2.6亿人，占总人口的20%。
119任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：110
120吴要武，蔡昉．中国城镇非正规就业：规模与特征．中国劳动经济学，2006(4)：67-84
121姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
122谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
124谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
125谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
126服务人员包括厨师、服务员、看门人、售货员、洗衣工、保育员等。
127姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
128燕晓飞．非正规就业劳动者的社会保障问题与对策研究．湖北社会科学，2009（8）：42-45
129王红芳．城市化进程中女性人力资源面临的挑战及对策．价格月刊．2006(3):33-34
130CHNS数据中关于医疗保险的划分在2009年前后有所不同。2009年之前包括商业保险、公费医疗、劳保医疗、合作医疗、统筹医疗等。2009年之后医疗保险包括商业保险、公费医疗、城镇职工基本医疗保险、城镇居民基本医疗保险、农村新型合作医疗等。由于医疗保险的划分在时间上不具有一致性，只要调查者拥有其中一项医疗保险，此处就认为其拥有医疗保险。
131数据来源：国家人口计生委流动人口服务管理司.中国流动人口发展报告2012,中国人口出版社，2012年7月
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158文献中对歧视的具体含义存在分歧，本文所指的歧视是一种广义的歧视，性别工资差异中所有不可解释的部分都被视为歧视。
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64谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
65金一虹．女性非正规就业：现状与对策．河海大学学报（哲学社会科学版），2006（3）:6-10
66谢妍翰、薛德升．女性非正规就业研究述评．人文地理，2009（6）：16－23
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85国际劳工组织．亚洲的体面劳动：对2001-2005年结果的报告．局长报告．韩国釜山，2006：8-9
86姚宇．中国城镇非正规就业.复旦大学博士论文，2005
95蔡昉．中国人口与劳动问题报告—城乡就业．问题与对策．北京：社会科学文献出版社，2002
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97任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：115
98Dong, Xiao-yuan, Jiangchun Yang, Fenglian Du, and Sai Ding. Women’s Employment and Public-SectorRestructuring: The Case of Urban China. In Grace O. Lee and Malcolm Warner. eds. Unemployment inChina: Economy, Human Resources and Labour Markets, London and New York: Routledge,2006,87-109
99孟宪范．改革大潮中的中国女性．北京：中国社会文献出版社，1995
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101Dong, Xiao-yuan, Jiangchun Yang, Fenglian Du, and Sai Ding. Women’s Employment and Public-SectorRestructuring: The Case of Urban China. In Grace O. Lee and Malcolm Warner. eds. Unemployment in China:Economy, Human Resources and Labour Markets, London and New York: Routledge,2006,87-109
102Fenglian Du, Xiao-yuan Dong. Why do women have longer durations of unemployment than men inpostrestructuring urban China?. Cambridge Journal of Economics,2009,33:233–252
103姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
104Song, Yueping and Xiao-Yuan Dong. Gender and Occupational Mobility in Urban China during theEconomic Transition. Unpublished manuscript,2009.
105Carr, Marilyn and Chen, Martha. Globalization, Social Exclusion and Work with Special Reference toInformal Employment and Gender. Policy Integration Department. Working Paper No.20(Geneva:International Labour Office),2004
106ILO and WTO. Globalization and informal jobs in developing countries. A joint study of the InternationalLabour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization,2009
107金一虹．女性非正规就业：现状与对策．河海大学学报（哲学社会科学版），2006（3）:6-10
108蔡昉．中国人口与劳动问题报告—城乡就业．问题与对策．北京：社会科学文献出版社，2002
109Sylvia Chant and Carolyn Pedwell．Women, gender and the informal economy:An assessment of ILO researchand suggested ways forward．Discussion paper，London School of Economics.2008
110任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：114
111ILO. Women and Men in the Informal Economy: A Statistical Picture. Geneva: International Labor Office,2002
112Carr, Marilyn and Chen, Martha. Globalization and the Informal Economy: How Global Trade and InvestmentImpact on the Working Poor, Working Paper on the Informal Economy. Working No.1INTEGRATION(Geneva: International Labour Office),2002
113任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：114
114高文书．进城农民工就业状况及收入影响因素分析—以北京、石家庄、沈阳、无锡和东莞为例．中国农业经济，2006（1）：28-34
115国际劳工局著．国家劳工与信息研究所译．劳动力市场主要指标体系1999年．中国劳动社会保障出版社，2001:183～187
116此处引用谭琳、李军锋．我国非正规就业的性别特征．人口研究．2003(5)：11-18
117此处引用任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：110
118不同的统计口径流动人口规模数据有所不同。根据2010年第六次全国人口普查，截止到普查时，流动人口规模为2.6亿人，占总人口的20%。
119任远、彭希哲主编．2006中国非正规就业发展报告：劳动力市场的再观察．重庆：重庆出版社，2007：110
120吴要武，蔡昉．中国城镇非正规就业：规模与特征．中国劳动经济学，2006(4)：67-84
121姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
122谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
124谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
125谭琳，李军峰．我国非正规就业的性别特征分析．人口研究，2003（5）：11-18
126服务人员包括厨师、服务员、看门人、售货员、洗衣工、保育员等。
127姚宇．中国非正规就业规模与现状研究.中国劳动经济学，2006（2）：85-109
128燕晓飞．非正规就业劳动者的社会保障问题与对策研究．湖北社会科学，2009（8）：42-45
129王红芳．城市化进程中女性人力资源面临的挑战及对策．价格月刊．2006(3):33-34
130CHNS数据中关于医疗保险的划分在2009年前后有所不同。2009年之前包括商业保险、公费医疗、劳保医疗、合作医疗、统筹医疗等。2009年之后医疗保险包括商业保险、公费医疗、城镇职工基本医疗保险、城镇居民基本医疗保险、农村新型合作医疗等。由于医疗保险的划分在时间上不具有一致性，只要调查者拥有其中一项医疗保险，此处就认为其拥有医疗保险。
131数据来源：国家人口计生委流动人口服务管理司.中国流动人口发展报告2012,中国人口出版社，2012年7月
136ILO and WTO. Globalization and informal jobs in developing countries. A joint study of the InternationalLabour Office and the Secretariat of the World Trade Organization,2009.
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141Mincer, J..Investment in Human Capital and Personal Income Distribution. Journal of Political
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148Oaxaca,Ronald. Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets. International Economic Review,1973, Vol.14(3):693-709
150东梅，人力资本与性别工资差异：二元样本自选择偏误的纠正，载于张莉琴、杜凤莲、董晓媛主编，社会性别与经济发展:经验研究方法，中国社会科学出版社，2012：98-102
151刘晓昀，性别工资差异分析：平均工资差异分解，载于张莉琴、杜凤莲、董晓媛主编，社会性别与经济发展:经验研究方法，中国社会科学出版社，2012：123-129
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153杨河清、王守志.劳动经济学.中国人民大学出版社，2006：348-356
154刘晓昀，性别工资差异分析：平均工资差异分解，载于张莉琴、杜凤莲、董晓媛主编，社会性别与经济发展:经验研究方法，中国社会科学出版社，2012：123-129
155Oaxaca,Ronald. Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets. International Economic Review,1973, Vol.14(3):693-709
156Cotton, J. On the Decomposition of Wage Differentials.The Review of Economics and Statistics.1988,Vol.7(2):236-43
157Neumark.D.. Employers’ Discriminatory Behavior and the Estimation of Wage Discrimination. Journal ofHuman Resources,1988,Vol.23.279-295
158文献中对歧视的具体含义存在分歧，本文所指的歧视是一种广义的歧视，性别工资差异中所有不可解释的部分都被视为歧视。
159Dong X. and Zhang L..Economic Transition and Gender Differentials in Wages and Productivity: Evidencefrom Chinese Manufacturing Enterprises. Journal of Development Economics,2009,88(1):144-156
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162王美艳．中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异．经济研究，2005(12):35-43
163葛玉好．部门选择对工资性别差异的影响．经济学（季刊），2007(1):607-628
165王东进．完善劳动社会保障制度，促进灵活就业健康发展．中国劳动，2003（11）：8-13
166何平、华迎放等．非正规就业群体社会保障问题研究．北京：中国劳动社会保障出版社，2008:5
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