中国城镇劳动力市场性别和户籍差异实证研究
|
摘要
改革开放以来,在中国城镇劳动力市场上形成多种群体差异,本文着重关注性别和户籍差异,其中性别差异不单指城镇职工内部的性别差异,还包括城市外来人员内部的性别差异。在人力资本稟赋给定的条件下,造成群体间差异的主要原因便是劳动力市场上不同群体受到差别对待引起的,在某种程度上可归结为劳动力市场歧视。劳动力市场歧视不仅严重损害了受歧视群体的权益,而且也弱化市场机制配置人力资源的作用,影响一国经济的健康运行和社会的和谐稳定。
目前国内学者对于上述两类群体差异的研究还不够全面,大多只关注群体间在工资这一个方面上的差异,忽视了群体间在就业、人力资本回报率、职业升迁和劳动参与等方面上的差异。而且研究的方法也比较陈旧,研究中大多采用传统Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法。
与以往的研究相比,本文的贡献主要体现在研究的内容更加全面和方法的新颖性。除了研究群体间在工资方面的差异外,还对就业、人力资本回报率等方面的差异进行了研究,主要包括五个问题:①城镇职工性别间工资差异,②城镇职工性别间就业差异,③城镇职工性别间人力资本回报率差异,④城市外来人员性别间工资差异和⑤城乡户籍工资差异及其人力资本作用等问题。在方法上,本文采用Brown分解方法研究了性别间工资差异问题,获得了比以往更加可靠的结论和更为丰富的信息;通过将传统Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法扩展至Logit模型,从而分析城镇职工性别间在就业水平上的差异。
本文采用2002、2003年城调队数据,2002年中国城镇住户调查数据,以及通过实地调查得到的2007年浙江省企业职工调查数据对上述五个问题展开了经验分析,主要的发现有:(1)不论是城镇职工还是城市外来人员性别间,均存在着较大程度的工资差异,女性在劳动力市场上相对处于不利的地位。采用Brown分解方法显示性别间工资差异主要来自于歧视等不可解释因素,其中职业内不可解释部分又占了绝大部分。通过对比两类性别差异,为回答市场化如何影响性别歧视提供了新的视角。(2)男性职工的就业率要高出女性6.53个百分点,通过回归分析发现:第一,总体上看,男性、年龄较小、高学历、身体健康、党员以及配偶处于就业状态的个体更容易就业;第二,从分性别的回归结果看,与家庭特征相关的变量对丈夫和妻子有着显著不同的影响;第三,采用扩展的Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法显示,性别间的就业率差异完全来自于劳动力市场结构因素(Labor Market Structual Issues),个体特征差异影响较小。(3)劳动力市场上存在对妇女歧视的同时,还存在女性的教育回报率高于男性的现象。对这一看似矛盾的现象,本文提出的假说是,教育程度的提高对女性来讲,除了与男性一样,具有增加生产力提高工资的作用外,还由于降低妇女在劳动力市场中受到的歧视程度增加工资。正是由于教育对妇女这一额外作用,使女性的教育回报率高于男性。本文采用2003年城调队数据验证了这一假说。(4)本文利用2007年浙江省企业职工调查数据所进行的关于人力资本对城乡户籍歧视影响的研究结果显示,工资差异的20%是由歧视造成的;城乡户籍歧视主要发生在高中组,其歧视程度要大大高于初中组。这一结果使那种认为教育程度的提高能够降低受歧视程度的假说在中国城乡户籍差异问题上得不到很好的验证。
Since reform and opening up, there appeared differences between many groups in Chinese urban labor market, this article focuses on differences in gender and huji, and the gender difference not only about urban workers but also includes floating population. Given the conditions of human capital, the main reason for differences between groups is that different groups was subjected to differential treatment. To some extent this effects can be attributed to labor market discrimination. Labor market discrimination not only seriously damaged the interests of groups which was discriminated against, but also weaken the market mechanism in the allocation of human resources and influenced the health of a country's economy as well as social harmony and stability.
At present, the researches with regard to difference between these two groups are not comprehensive enough, most of which merely concerned about the wage differentials by gender and huji, overlooking groups difference in terms of employment, rate of return to human capital, career promotion and labor force participation and so on. In addition, the research methods are somewhat outdated, most of the researches used the traditional Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method.
Compared with previous studies, the main contribution of this paper is embodied in the contents of the study more comprehensive and the novelty of the method. In addition to the study in the wage differentials between groups, the differentials in employment, the return to human capital also have been studied. In a word, this thesis studys five issues of the differences between gender and huji in-depth, which are the gender differences in wages, employment, human capital returns of urban workers, the gender differences in wage in floating population and the wage gap between urban and rural workers. On method, this paper uses Brown decomposition which takes into account occupational differences to study the gender wage differentials, obtaining more reliable conclusions and much richer information than before, and uses an extension of the Oaxaca - Blinder decomposition technique to the logit models to study the gender differentials in employment between urban workers.
Using 2002, 2003 Urban Household surveys (UHS) data, 2002 Chinese Household Income Project(CHIP) data and the latest enterprise employee data of Zhejiang, this paper implements the empirical analysis on the above five questions. The main findings of this paper are followings. (1) Regardless of urban workers or floating population, there exits large wage gap between gender, women at a relative disadvantage in the labor market. Using Brown decomposition, we find most part of the wage differential between gender is attributed to discrimination. (2) The employment rate of male workers is higher than female by 6.53 percentage points in urban workers. Through regression analysis we find these results. First, as a whole, being male, younger, better educated, healthy, communist party member, and spouse's employment increases the probability of being employed. Second, family-related background characteristics have different impact on female and male. Third, using an extension of the Oaxaca - Blinder decomposition technique to the logit models, the results show that labor market structural issues explain almost all of the observed gender gap in employment, and the effect of the gender gap in individual endowments is very small. (3) Most studies show that there exists significant discrimination against female workers in the Chinese urban labor market. However, studies also show that the returns to schooling are higher for women than for men. Regarding such contradictory evidence, this paper assumes that women's education can increase female wages not only by enhancing their productivity which works in the same way to men, but also by reducing the discrimination against women in the labor market. Such additional effect provided by the education to women makes female education returns higher than men. Using 2003 Chinese Urban Household surveys (UHS) data, we validate this hypothesis. (4) Using the latest enterprise employee data of Zhejiang to examine the impact of human capital on huji discrimination, we find that 80% of the total huji wage differentials can be interpreted by the differences of individual characteristics and 20% the effects of the discrimination, and the discrimination mainly occurred in the higher school worker group which is much higher than in the secondary worker group. This finding indicates the assumption that education can reduce the unexplained gap is not approved well in the question of Chinese huji wage differentials.
目前国内学者对于上述两类群体差异的研究还不够全面,大多只关注群体间在工资这一个方面上的差异,忽视了群体间在就业、人力资本回报率、职业升迁和劳动参与等方面上的差异。而且研究的方法也比较陈旧,研究中大多采用传统Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法。
与以往的研究相比,本文的贡献主要体现在研究的内容更加全面和方法的新颖性。除了研究群体间在工资方面的差异外,还对就业、人力资本回报率等方面的差异进行了研究,主要包括五个问题:①城镇职工性别间工资差异,②城镇职工性别间就业差异,③城镇职工性别间人力资本回报率差异,④城市外来人员性别间工资差异和⑤城乡户籍工资差异及其人力资本作用等问题。在方法上,本文采用Brown分解方法研究了性别间工资差异问题,获得了比以往更加可靠的结论和更为丰富的信息;通过将传统Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法扩展至Logit模型,从而分析城镇职工性别间在就业水平上的差异。
本文采用2002、2003年城调队数据,2002年中国城镇住户调查数据,以及通过实地调查得到的2007年浙江省企业职工调查数据对上述五个问题展开了经验分析,主要的发现有:(1)不论是城镇职工还是城市外来人员性别间,均存在着较大程度的工资差异,女性在劳动力市场上相对处于不利的地位。采用Brown分解方法显示性别间工资差异主要来自于歧视等不可解释因素,其中职业内不可解释部分又占了绝大部分。通过对比两类性别差异,为回答市场化如何影响性别歧视提供了新的视角。(2)男性职工的就业率要高出女性6.53个百分点,通过回归分析发现:第一,总体上看,男性、年龄较小、高学历、身体健康、党员以及配偶处于就业状态的个体更容易就业;第二,从分性别的回归结果看,与家庭特征相关的变量对丈夫和妻子有着显著不同的影响;第三,采用扩展的Oaxaca-Blinder分解方法显示,性别间的就业率差异完全来自于劳动力市场结构因素(Labor Market Structual Issues),个体特征差异影响较小。(3)劳动力市场上存在对妇女歧视的同时,还存在女性的教育回报率高于男性的现象。对这一看似矛盾的现象,本文提出的假说是,教育程度的提高对女性来讲,除了与男性一样,具有增加生产力提高工资的作用外,还由于降低妇女在劳动力市场中受到的歧视程度增加工资。正是由于教育对妇女这一额外作用,使女性的教育回报率高于男性。本文采用2003年城调队数据验证了这一假说。(4)本文利用2007年浙江省企业职工调查数据所进行的关于人力资本对城乡户籍歧视影响的研究结果显示,工资差异的20%是由歧视造成的;城乡户籍歧视主要发生在高中组,其歧视程度要大大高于初中组。这一结果使那种认为教育程度的提高能够降低受歧视程度的假说在中国城乡户籍差异问题上得不到很好的验证。
Since reform and opening up, there appeared differences between many groups in Chinese urban labor market, this article focuses on differences in gender and huji, and the gender difference not only about urban workers but also includes floating population. Given the conditions of human capital, the main reason for differences between groups is that different groups was subjected to differential treatment. To some extent this effects can be attributed to labor market discrimination. Labor market discrimination not only seriously damaged the interests of groups which was discriminated against, but also weaken the market mechanism in the allocation of human resources and influenced the health of a country's economy as well as social harmony and stability.
At present, the researches with regard to difference between these two groups are not comprehensive enough, most of which merely concerned about the wage differentials by gender and huji, overlooking groups difference in terms of employment, rate of return to human capital, career promotion and labor force participation and so on. In addition, the research methods are somewhat outdated, most of the researches used the traditional Oaxaca-Blinder decomposition method.
Compared with previous studies, the main contribution of this paper is embodied in the contents of the study more comprehensive and the novelty of the method. In addition to the study in the wage differentials between groups, the differentials in employment, the return to human capital also have been studied. In a word, this thesis studys five issues of the differences between gender and huji in-depth, which are the gender differences in wages, employment, human capital returns of urban workers, the gender differences in wage in floating population and the wage gap between urban and rural workers. On method, this paper uses Brown decomposition which takes into account occupational differences to study the gender wage differentials, obtaining more reliable conclusions and much richer information than before, and uses an extension of the Oaxaca - Blinder decomposition technique to the logit models to study the gender differentials in employment between urban workers.
Using 2002, 2003 Urban Household surveys (UHS) data, 2002 Chinese Household Income Project(CHIP) data and the latest enterprise employee data of Zhejiang, this paper implements the empirical analysis on the above five questions. The main findings of this paper are followings. (1) Regardless of urban workers or floating population, there exits large wage gap between gender, women at a relative disadvantage in the labor market. Using Brown decomposition, we find most part of the wage differential between gender is attributed to discrimination. (2) The employment rate of male workers is higher than female by 6.53 percentage points in urban workers. Through regression analysis we find these results. First, as a whole, being male, younger, better educated, healthy, communist party member, and spouse's employment increases the probability of being employed. Second, family-related background characteristics have different impact on female and male. Third, using an extension of the Oaxaca - Blinder decomposition technique to the logit models, the results show that labor market structural issues explain almost all of the observed gender gap in employment, and the effect of the gender gap in individual endowments is very small. (3) Most studies show that there exists significant discrimination against female workers in the Chinese urban labor market. However, studies also show that the returns to schooling are higher for women than for men. Regarding such contradictory evidence, this paper assumes that women's education can increase female wages not only by enhancing their productivity which works in the same way to men, but also by reducing the discrimination against women in the labor market. Such additional effect provided by the education to women makes female education returns higher than men. Using 2003 Chinese Urban Household surveys (UHS) data, we validate this hypothesis. (4) Using the latest enterprise employee data of Zhejiang to examine the impact of human capital on huji discrimination, we find that 80% of the total huji wage differentials can be interpreted by the differences of individual characteristics and 20% the effects of the discrimination, and the discrimination mainly occurred in the higher school worker group which is much higher than in the secondary worker group. This finding indicates the assumption that education can reduce the unexplained gap is not approved well in the question of Chinese huji wage differentials.
引文
[1]转引自《瞭望》2008.1.14。
[1]这里的利润最大化,已将雇主对黑人的厌恶用金钱衡量。
[2]参见Altonji et al(1999)。
[1]Aigner,D.J.& Cain,GG Statistical theories of discrimination in the labor market[J].Industrial and Labor Relations Review,1977,30(2):175-187.
[2]Akerlof,G.A.The economics of caste and of the rat race and other woeful tales[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1976,94(4):599-617.
[3]Alchian,A.A.& Kessel,R.Competition,monopoly and the pursuit of pecuniary gain[A].in:Aspects of labor economics,Conference Volume of the Universities-National Bureau Committee for Economic Research.Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press,1962,156-175.
[4]Altonji,J.G.& Blank,R.Race and Gender in the Labor Market[A].in:O. Ashenfelter and R.Layard,eds.,Handbook of labor economics,Vol.1(North-Holland,Amsterdam),1999,Vol.3C:3143-3260.
[5]Altonji,J.G.&Pierret,C.R..Employer Learning and the Signalling Value of education[A].in I.Ohashi and T.Tachibanaki,eds.,Internal labor markets,incentives and employment.London,U.K.:Macmillan,1998:159-195.
[6]Altonji,J.G,&Pierret,C.R.Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,2001,116(1):1007-47.
[7]Altonji,J.G..The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes[J].Journal of Human Resources,1995,30 (3):410-438.
[8]Altonji,J.G.Employer Learning,Statistical Discrimination and Occupational attainment[J],American Economic Review,2005,95(2):112-117.
[9]Antecol,H.& Bedard,K.The Racial Wage Gap[J].Journal of Human Resources,2004,39(2):564-583.
[10]Appleton,S.J.,Hoddinott&Krishnan,P.The gender wage gap in three African countries[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1999,47(2):289-312
[11]Arrow,K.The theory of discrimination[A].in:O.A.Ashenfelter and A.Rees,eds.,Discrimination in labor markets (Princeton University Press,Princeton,NJ),1973,pp.3-33.
[12]Arrow,K.What has economics to say about racial discrimination[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,1998,12 (2):91-100.
[13]Bauer,J.,Feng,W.,Riley,N.E.&Zhao.X.H.Gender inequalily in urban china[J].Modern China,1992,18(3):333-370.
[14]Becker,G The Economics of Discrimination[M].Univ.of Chicago Press,Chicago,1957.
[15]Becker,G The Economics of Discrimination[M].2nd edition (Univ.of Chicago Press,Chicago,IL),1971.
[16]Becker,G Human capital,effort and the sexual division of labo[J]r.Journal of Labor Economics,1985,3(1):33-58.
[17]Becker,G S.&Tomes,N.An Equilibrium Theory of the Distribution of Income and Intergenerational Mobility[J].Journal of Political Economy,1986,91:1-39
[18]Behrman,J.R.&Taubman,P.Do parents favor boys? [J].International Economic Review,1986,27(l):33-54
[19]Bergmann,B.R.The effect of incomes of discrimination in employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1971,79:294-313.
[20]Bergmann,B.R.Occupational segregation,wages and profits when employers discriminate by race or sex[J].Eastern Economic Journal,1974,1 (1)103-110.
[21]Bertrand,M.&Mullainathan,S.Are emily and greg more employable than lakisha and jamal?A field experiment on labor market discrimination[J].American Economic Review,2004,94(4):991-1013
[22]Betts,J.R.Does school quality matter? Evidence from the national longitudina survey of youth[J].The Review of Economics and Statistics,1995,77(2):231-250
[23]Bhagwati,Jagdish and Srinivasan,T.N.On Reanalyzing the Harris-Todaro Model:Policy Rankings in the Case of Sector-Specific Sticky Wages[J].American Economic Review,1974,64(3):502-508
[24]Bharati Basu.Rural-urban migration,urban unemployment and the structural transformation of a dual economy [J].The Journal of International Trade&Economic Development,2002,9(2):137-49
[25]Black,D.A.Discrimination in an equilibrium search model[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1995,13(2):309-334
[26]Blan,F.D.&Lawrence M.K.Race and gender pay differentials[A].in:David Lewin,Olivia S.Mitchell and Peter D.Sherer,eds.,Research frontiers in industrial relations and human resources (IndustrialRelations Research Association,Madison,WI),1992.
[27]Blau,F.D.&.Andrea H.B.Black-white earnings over the 1970s and 1980s:gender differences in trends[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1992,74 (2):276-286.
[28]Blau,F.D.&Lawrence M.K.Swimming upstream:trends in the gender wage differential in the 1980s[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1997,15 (1):1-42.
[29]Blinder,A.S.Wage Discrimination:Reduced Form and Structural estimates[J].Journal of Human Resources,1973,8(4):436-455.
[30]B(o|¨)heim,R.,Taylor,M.,Unemployment Duration and Exit States in Britain,CEPR Discussion Paper 2500,July 2000.
[31]Borjas,GJ.&Bronars,S.G Consumer discrimination and self-employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1989,97 (3):581-606.
[32]Brown,R.S.,Marilyn,M.& Barbara,S.Z.Incorparating Occupational Attainment in Studies of Male-female Earning Differential [J].Journal of Human Resources,1980,15(1):3-28.
[33]Brown,C.The federal attack on labor market discrimination:the mouse that roared?[J].Research in Labor Economics,1982,12(5):33-68.
[34]Brown,C.Black-White earnings ratios since the Civil Rights Act of 1964:the importance Brown,of labor market dropouts[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1984,99(3):31-44.
[35]Brown,C.& Corcoran,M.Sex based differences in school content and the male/female wage gap[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1997,15 (3):431-465.
[36]Cain,G.G.The challenge of sgmented labor market theories to orthodox theory:a survey[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1976,(14):1215-1257.
[37]Cain,G.G.The economic analysis of labor market discrimination[A]:a survey,in:O.Ashenfelter and R.Layard,eds.,Handbook of Labor Economics,Vol.1(North-Holland,Amsterdam),1986,pp.693-785.
[38]Card,D.& Krueger,A.B.School quality and black-white relative earnings:a direct assessment[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1992a,107(1):151-200.
[39]Card,D.&Krueger,A.B.Does school quality matter? Returns to education and the characteristics of public schools in the united states[J].Journal of Economics,1992b,100(1):1-40.
[40]Carneiro,P.&Heckman,J.J.Labor market discrimination and racial differences in premarket factors[J].Journal of law and economics,2005,48(l):1-39.
[41]Coleman,Mary T.,Movements in the Earnings-schooling Relationship,1940-88[J].Journal of Human Resources,1993,28(3):660-680.
[42]Cotton,J.On the Decomposition of Wage Differentials[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1988,70(2):235-243.
[43]Dex,S.,Gustafsson,S.,Smith,N.,Callan,T.Cross-national Comparisons of Labour Force Participation of Women Married to Unemployed Men[J].Oxford Economic Papers,1995,47(4):611-635.
[44]Donohue,J.J&Heckman,J.J.Continuous versus episodic change:the impact of affirmative action and civil rights policy on the economic status of blacks[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1992,13(1):1603-1643
[45]Dougherty.C,Why Are the Returns to Schooling Higher for Women than for Men?[J].Journal of Human Resources,2005,40(4):969-988.
[46]Eide,E.R.,Showalter,M.H.,Does Improving School Quality Reduce the Probability of Unemployment? [J].Contemporary Economic Policy,2005,23(4):578-584.
[47]England,P.The failure of human capital theory to explain occupational sex segregation[J].Journal of Human Resources,1982,17 (3):358-370.
[48]Even,W.E.,Macpherson,D.A.,Plant Size and the Decline of Unionism[J].Economics Letters 32,1990:393-398.
[49]Farber,H.&R.Gibbons.Learning and wage dynamics[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1996,111 (4):1007-1047.
[50]Fairlie,R.W.,The Absence of the African-American Owned Business:An Analysis of the Dynamics of Self-Employment[J].Journal of Labor Economics, 1999,17(1):80-108.
[51]Fairlie,R.W.,An Extension of the Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition Technique to Logit and Probit Models,Center Discussion Paper No.873,2003.
[52]Fugazza,M.Racial discriminationg:theories,facts and policy[J].International Labour Review,2003,142(4):507-541.
[53]Freeman,R.B.Change in the labor market for black Americans[J].Brookings Papers on Economic Activity,XX,1973,67-120.
[54]Georgellis,Y.&Wail,H.Gender differences in self-employment[J].Internaional Review of Applied Economics,2005,19(3):321-342.
[55]Gibbons,R.,Katz,L.F.,Lemieux,.T.L.&Parent,D.Comparative advantage,learning,and sectoral wage determination[J].Journal of Labor Economics,2005,23(4):681-723.
[56]Green,C.A.&Ferber,M.A.Do detailed work histories help to explain gender and race/ethnic wage differentials? [J].Review of Social Economy,2005,63(l):55-85.
[57]Grogger,J.Does school quality explain the recent black/white wage trend? [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1996,14(3):231-253.
[58]Gustafsson,B.&Li,S.Economic transformation and the gender earnings gap in urban China.Population Economics,2000,13(2):305-329.
[59]Harris,J.R.and Todaro,M.Migration,unemployment and development:a two-sector analysis[J].American Economic Review,1970,60(1):126-142.
[60]Heckman,J.J.&Payner,B.Determining the impact of Federal antidiscrimination policy on the economic status of blacks:a study of south carolina[J].American Economic Review,1989,79(1):138-177.
[61]Ioannides,Y.M.&Loury,L.D.Job information networks,neighborhood effects,and inequality[J].Journal of Economic Litearture,2004,42(4):1056-93.
[62]Johnson,GE.& Stafford,F.K.Alternative approaches to occupational exclusion,in:I.Persson and C.Jonung,eds.,Women's work and wages (Routledge,London).
[63]Persson and C.Jonung,eds.,Women's work and wages (Routledge,London),1998.
[64]Kanazawa,S.Is“discrimination”necessary to explain the sex gap in eamings?[J].Journal of Economic Psychology,2005,26(3):269-287.
[65]Katz,L.F.& Murphy,F.K.Changes in relative wages (1963-1987):supply and demand Factors[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1992,107 (1):35-78.
[66]Keane,M.R&Wolpin,K.I.Eliminatin race differences in school attainment and lobor market success[J].Journal of Labor Economics,2000,18(4):614-652.
[67]Kidd,M.Sex discrimination and Occupational Segregation in the Australian labour market[J].The Economic Record,1993,12(3):44-55.
[68]Kosonen,R,Moisio,P.,Comparing Long-term Unemployment,Secondary Labour Markets and Household Incomes,Luxembourg Income Study Working Paper Series,No:217,1999.
[69]Kupets,0.,Determinants of Unemployment Duration in Ukraine[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2006,34(2):228-247.
[70]Leung,D.The male/female earnings gap and female self-employment[J].The Journal of SocioEconomics,2006,35(3):759-779.
[71]Li,H.,Economic Transition and Returns to Education in China[J].Economics of Education Review,2003,22(3):317-328.
[72]Li,H.,Liu,P.W.,Zhang,J.,Ma,N.,Economic Returns to Communist Party Membership:Evidence From Urban Chinese Twins[J],Economic Journal,2007,117(3):1504-1520.
[73]Liu.P.W.,Meng.X.,Zhang.J.Sectoral gender wage differentials and discrimination in the transitional Chinese economy[J].Journal of Population Economics,2000,23(4):331-352.
[74]Lundberg,S.J.The enforcement of equal opportunity laws under imperfect information:affirmative action and alternatives[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1991,106 (1):309-326.
[75]Lundberg,S.J.& Startz,R.Private discrimination and social intervention in competive labor markets[J].American Economic Review,1983,73(2):340-347.
[76]Lundberg,S.J.& Startz,R.On the persistence of racila inequality [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1998,16 (2):292-324.
[77]Maurer-Fazio,Magaret,Earnings and Education in China's Transition to a Market Economy Survey Evidence from 1989 and 1992[J].China Economic Review,1999,10(1):17-40.
[78]Maxwell,N.The effect on black-white wage differences of differences in the quantity and quality of education[J].Industrial and Labor Relations Review,1994,47 (2):249-264.
[79]Meng,X.Occupational segregation and its impact on the wage differential among rural-urban migrant:A Chinese case study[J].Applied Economics,1998:741-752.
[80]Meng,X.Mele-female wage determination and gender wage discrimination in China's rural industrial sector[J].Labor Economics,1998:67-89.
[81]Meng,X.&Zhang,J.The two-tier labor market in urban china [J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2001,29(3):485-504.
[82]Mill,P.W.The wage effect of the occupational segregation of women in Britain[J].Economic Journal,1987,97(388):885-896.
[83]Mincer,J.(1974).Schooling,Experience and Earnings[M].New York:Columbia University Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research..
[84]Montgomery.M.& Powell.I.,“Does an Advanced Degree Reduce the Gender Wage Gap? Evidence from MBAs”[J].Industrial Relation,2003,142(3):396-418.
[85]Moro,A.The effect of statistical discrimination on black-white wage inequality:estimating a model with multiple equilibria[J].International Economic Review,2003,44(2):467-500.
[86]Moro,A.&Norman,P.A general equilibrium model of statistical discrimination[J].Journal of Economic Theory,2004,114:1-30.
[87]Mwabu,Germano and Schultz,T.Paul.Education Returns across Quantiles of the Wage Function:Alternative Explanations for the Returns to Education in South Africa[J].American Economic Review,1996,86(21):335-339.
[88]Neal,D.A.& Johnson,W.L.The role of premarket factors in black-white wage differences[J].Journal of Political Economy,1996,104 (5):869-895.
[89]Neumark,D.Employers' discriminatory behavior and estimation of wage discrimination[J].Journal of Human Resources,1987,23(3):279-295.
[90]Neumark,D.Sex discrimination in restaurant tilting:an audit study[J].The Quarterly Journal of Economics,1996,111 (3):915-942.
[91]Neumark,D.Wage differentials by race and sex:the roles of taste discrimination and labor market information [J].Industrial Relation,1999,38(3):414-445.
[92]NG,Y.C,Economic Development,Human Capital,and Gender Earnings Differentials in China[J].Economics of Education Review,2004,23(6):587-603.
[93]Nielsen,H.S.,Discrimination and Detailed Decomposition in a Logit Model, Economics Letters 1998,61(3):115-120.
[94]O'Neill,J.Tthe determinants and wage effects of occupational segregation[M].Working paper,urban institute,Washington,D.C.,1983a.
[95]O'Neill,J.The trend in sex differentials in wages[M].Paper presented at the conference on trends in women's work,education,and family building,urban institute,Washington,D.C.,1983b.
[96]O'Neill,J.Earnings differentials:empirical evidence and causes[A].In:G.schmid and R.weitzel,eds.,sex discrimination and equal opportunity.London:Gower Publishing Co.,1984:69-91.
[97]O'Neill,J.The role of human capital in earnings differences between black and white men[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,1990,4:25-45.
[98]O'Neill,J.& Polachek,D.S.Why the gender gap in wages narrowed in the 1980s[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1993,11 (1):205 228.
[99]Oaxaca,R.Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets[J].International Economic Review,1973,14(3):693-709.
[100]Oettinger,G.Statistical discrimination and the early career evolution of the black-white wage gap[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1996,14(1):52-78.
[101]Ollikainen,V.Gender Differences in Transitions from Unemployment Micro Evidence from Finland[J].Review of Labour Economics & Industrial Relations,2006,20(1):159-198.
[102]Pagan,J.A.,Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions in Rural Guatemala[J].Review of Development Economics,2002,6(3):428-441.
[103]Pagan,J.A.,S(?)nchez,S.M.,Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions:Evidence from Rural Mexico[J].Economic Development & Cultural Change,2000,48(3):619-637.
[104]Pagan,J.A.,Tijerina-Guajardo,J.A,Increasing Wage Dispersion and the Changes in Relative Employment and Wages in Mexico's Urban Informal Sector:1987-1993[J].Applied Economics,2000,32(3):335-347.
[105]Paglin,M& Rufolo,A.M.Heterogenous fiuman capital,occupational choice and malefemale earnings differences [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1990,8 (1):123-144.
[106]Phelps,E.S.The statistical theory of racism and sexism[J].American Economic Review,1972,62(4):659-661.
[107]Polachek,S.Occupational self selection:a human capital approach to sex differences in occupational structure[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1981,63(1):60-69.
[108]Rosenzweig,M.R.,&Schults,T.P.Market opportunities,genetic endowments,and intrafamily resource distribution:child survival in rural India[J].American Economic Review,1983,72(4):803-815.
[109]Sharif,M.Poverty and the forward-falling labour supply function:a microeconomic analysis[J].World Development,1991,19(3):1075-1093.
[110]Siebert,P.The Economics of Earning[M].Cambridge University Press.1993.
[111]Smith,J.P.& Welch,F.Closing the gap:forty years of economic progress for blacks[M].Santa Monica,CA:The Rand Corporation,1986.
[112]Smith,J.P.& Welch,F.Black economic progress after Myrdal[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1989,27(3):519-564.
[113]Spence,A.M.Job market signaling[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1973,87(3):355-374.
[114]Spence,A.M.Signaling in retrospect and the informational structure of markets[J].American Economic Review,2002,92(3):434-459.
[115]Stiglitz,J.E.Approach to the economics of discrimination[J].American Economic Review,1973,63(2):287-295.
[116]Sung,Y.W.,Zhang,J.& Chan,C.S.Gender wage differentials and occupational segregation in Hong Kong,1981-1996[J].Pacific Economic Review,2001,16(3):345-359.
[117]Ta(?)i,H.M.,(O|¨)zdemir,A.R.,Trends in Long-Term Unemployment and Determinants of Incidence of Long-Term Unemployment in Turkey[J].Journal of Economic & Social Research,2005,7(2):1-33.
[118]Teo,S.Occuational segregation and its effect on estimates of the gender wage differential:evidence from Brunei[J].Asian Economic Journal,2003,17(4):341-360.
[119]Trejo,S.T.Why do mexican americans earn low wages? [J].Journal of Political Economy,1997,150(6):1235-68.
[120]Todaro,M.A Model of labor Migration and urban unemployment in less developed Countries[J].American Economic Review,1969,59(1):138-48.
[121]Welch,F.Human capital theory:education,discrimination,and life cycles[J].American Economic Review,1975,65(2):63-73.
[122]White,H.C.Social Networks Can Resolve Actor Paradoxes in Economics and in Psychology [J].Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics,1995,151(4):58-74.
[123]Willian L.P.&Willis,R.J.Daughters,Education,and Family Budgets Taiwan Experiences[J].Journal of Human Resources,1993,28(4):863-98.
[124]Wolpin,K.The determinants of black-white differences in early employment careers:search,layoffs,quits and endogeneous wage growth[J].Journal of Political Economy,1992,100 (3):535-560.
[125]Zhang.J.,Zhao.Y.,Park.A.,and Song.X.,Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China,1988 to 2001[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2005,33(4):730-752.
[126]Zhang,J.,Han,J,Liu,J.and Zhao,J,Trends in the Gender Eearnings Differential in Urban China,1988-2004[J].Industrial & Labor Relations Review,2008,61(2):224-243.
[127]Zhao,Yaohui,Earnings Differentials Between State and Non-state Enterprises in Urban China[J].Pacific Economic Review.2002,17(1):181-197.
[128]Appleton,S.,Knight,J.,Song,J.,夏庆杰.城镇职工失业下岗持续时间的半参数计量经济学分析[J],中国劳动经济学,2007,3(3):3-24。
[129]阿瑟.刘易斯.二元经济论[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1989.
[130]白暴力.农民工工资收入偏低分析--现实、宏观效应与原因[J],经济经纬,2007,(4):75-78。
[131]陈良焜,鞠高升.教育明瑟收益率性别差异的实证分析[J],北京大学教育评论.2004(3):40-45。
[132]蔡定剑.中国就业歧视现状及反歧视对策[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007.
[133]蔡昉.二元劳动力市场条件下的就业体制转换[J].中国社会科学,1998(2):4-14。
[134]蔡昉.中国城市限制外地民工就业的政治经济学分析[J].中国人口科学,2000(4):1-10。
[135]蔡昉,杨涛.城乡收入差距的政治经济学[J].中国社会科学,2000(4):11-22。
[136]蔡昉,王美艳.女性劳动力供给特点与教育投资[J],江海学刊,2001(6):35-39。
[137]蔡昉,都阳,王美艳.户籍制度与劳动力市场保护[J].经济研究,2001(12):41-49。
[138]蔡昉.城乡收入差距与制度变革的临界点[J]冲国社会科学,2003(5):16-25。
[139]蔡昉,都阳,王美艳.劳动力流动的政治经济学[M]。上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,2004。
[140]常凯.劳动力市场与劳工保护[J].中国党政干部论坛,2004(11):28-30。
[141]都阳,朴之水.迁移与减贫--来自农户调查的经验证据[J].中国人口科学,2003(4):56-62。
[142]杜凤莲.中国城镇人口失业的决定因素及其后果[M]。内蒙古:内蒙古大学出版社,2007。
[143]杜育红,孙志军.中国欠发达地区的教育、收入与劳动力市场经历--基于 内蒙古赤峰市城镇地区的研究[J].管理世界,2003(9):68-75。
[144]丁赛,董晓媛,李实.经济转型下的中国城镇女性就业、收入及其对家庭收入不平等的影响[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(4):1319-1336。
[145]葛玉好.部门选择对工资性别差距的影响[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(2):607-628。
[146]李莉.农民工工资歧视与职业隔离[D].硕士学位论文,浙江大学,2008。
[147]李强.中国城市农民工劳动力市场研究[J].学海,2001(1):110-115。
[148]李实.中国经济转轨中劳动力流动模型[J].经济研究,1997(1):23-30。
[149]李实等.中国居民收入分配实证分析[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
[150]李实.罗楚亮.中国城乡居民收入差距的重新估计[J].北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,44(2):111-120。
[151]李实.邓曲恒.中国城镇失业率的重新估计[J],经济学动态,2004(4):44-47。
[152]李树茁,姜全保,刘慧君.性别歧视的人口后果--基于公共政策视角的模拟分析[J].公共管理学报,2006(2):90-98。
[153]李晓华.技能回报、经济转型与工资不平等的增长[D].博士学位论文,浙江大学,2007。
[154]林毅夫,蔡昉,李周.中国的奇迹:发展战略与经济改革(增订版)[M].上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,1999年版。
[155]林毅夫.发展战略与经济发展[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004。
[156]林毅夫.发展战略与经济改革[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004。
[157]陆益龙.户籍制度--控制与社会差别[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004。
[158]卢周来.当前我国劳动力市场中的歧视问题透视[J].经济体制改革,1998(3):48-53。
[159]莫荣,岳威.增加下岗职工就业机会研究[J],管理世界,2001(2):88-94。
[160]袁霓.城镇居民收入性别差异的实证分析[J],人口与经济.2005(1):48-52.
[161]聂洪辉.对农民工歧视的社会学分析[J].理论文萃,2006(3):4-8。
[162]宋月萍.职业流动中的性别差异:审视中国城市劳动力市场[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(2):629-654。
[163]孙晓琳,姚波,黄英维.二元户籍制度下的农村剩余劳动力流动模型[J].统计理论与方法,2003(11):23-25。
[164]王海光.当代中国户籍制度形成与沿革的宏观分析[J].中共党史研究,2003(4):22-29。
[165]王美艳.转轨时期的工资差异:工资歧视的计量分析[J].数量经济和技术经济研究,2003(5):94-98。
[166]王美艳.中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异[J].经济研究,2005a(12):35-43。
[167]王美艳.城市劳动力市场上的就业机会与工资差异[J].中国社会科学,2005b (5):36-46。
[168]魏众.健康对非农就业及其工资决定的影响[J].经济研究,2004(2):64-74页。
[169]尚影玲.歧视农民工的原因探析[J].西部论坛,2005(6):28-31。
[170]肖文韬,孙细明.托达罗人口流动行为模型的一个修正及其新解释[J].财经理论与实践,2003(1):23-27。
[171]谢桂华.转型期的城市劳动力市场-关于下岗与再就业的实证研究[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008。
[172]谢嗣胜.劳动力市场歧视研究:西方理论与中国问题[D].博士学位论文,浙江大学,2005。
[173]谢嗣胜,姚先国.我国城市就业人员性别工资歧视的估计[J].妇女研究论丛,2005(6):10-13。
[174]谢嗣胜,姚先国.农民工工资歧视的计量分析[J].中国农村经济,2006(4):49-55。
[175]杨云彦,陈金永,刘塔.外来劳动力对城市本地劳动力市场的影响[J].中国人口科学,2001(2):52-58。
[176]姚先国.人力资本与劳动者地位[J].学术月刊,2006(2):93-97。
[177]姚先国.中国劳动力市场演化与政府行为[J].公共管理学报,2007(3):13-21。
[178]姚先国,赖普清.中国劳资关系的城乡户籍差异[J].经济研究,2004(7): 82-90。
[179]姚先国,俞玲.农民工职业分层与人力资本约束[J].浙江大学学报,2006(5):16-21。
[180]姚先国,黄志岭,苏振华.家庭背景与教育回报率[J].中国劳动经济学,2007,3(6):19-29。
[181]姚先国,黄志岭.职业分割及其对性别工资差异的影响[J].重庆大学学报(社科版),2008a(2):53-58。
[182]姚先国,黄志岭.前市场因素对工资差异影响的研究进展及其启示[J].江南大学学报(社科版),2008b(4):67-71。
[183]姚先国,黄志岭.人力资本与户籍歧视[J].浙江大学学报(社科版),2008c (6):57-64。
[184]姚洋.自由、公正和制度变迁[M].郑州:河南人民出版社,2002。
[185]姚洋.土地、制度和农业发展[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004年。
[186]易中天.中国的男人和女人[M].上海:上海文艺出版社,2004。
[187]俞德鹏.城乡社会:从隔离走向开放--中国户籍制度与户籍法研究[M].济南:山东人民出版社,2002。
[188]袁志刚.失业经济学[M].上海:上海三联书店,1997。
[189]袁志刚.失业理论与中国失业问题[J].经济研究,1994(9):32-37。
[190]岳昌君.教育对个人收入差异的影响[J].经济学季刊.2004,3(10):135-149。
[191]张车伟.失业率定义的国际比较及中国城镇失业率[J].世界经济,2003(5):47-54。
[192]张丹丹.劳动参与及工资的性别差异[D].硕士学位论文,中国社会科学院研究生院,2003。
[193]张霞.城市劳动力市场二元分割与外来农业户籍劳动者社会保障权益缺失[J].中国社会科学院研究生院学报,2007(2):90-97。
[194]张展新.市场化转型中的城市女性失业:理论观点与实证发现[J].市场与人口分析,2004(1):1-9。
[195]张智勇.户籍制度、歧视与社会分层[J].生产力研究,2004(4):92-93。
[196]张智勇.户籍制度:农民工就业歧视形成之根源[J].农村经济,2005(4): 123-127。
[197]赵耀.中国劳动力市场雇佣歧视研究[D],博士学位论文,首都经济贸易大学,2006。
[198]曾湘泉.中国劳动问题研究[M].北京:中国劳动社会保障出版社,2006。
[199]郑功成.中国农民工问题与社会保护[M].北京:人民出版社,2007。
[200]钟甫宁,刘华.中国城镇教育回报率及其结构变动的实证研究[J].中国人口科学,2007(4):34-41。
[201]周群英,周文莲.就业性别歧视的文化机制分析[J].长江论坛,2006(3):66-77。
[202]周其仁.市场里的企业:一个人力资本与非人力资本的特别合约[J].经济研究,1996(6):71-79。
[203]周天勇.托达罗模型的缺陷及其相反的政策含义--中国剩余劳动力转移和就业容量扩张思路[J].经济研究,2001(3):75-82。
[204]周小亮.劳动力市场城乡歧视及其社会经济效应[J].当代财经,1994(9):11-15.
[1]这里的利润最大化,已将雇主对黑人的厌恶用金钱衡量。
[2]参见Altonji et al(1999)。
[1]Aigner,D.J.& Cain,GG Statistical theories of discrimination in the labor market[J].Industrial and Labor Relations Review,1977,30(2):175-187.
[2]Akerlof,G.A.The economics of caste and of the rat race and other woeful tales[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1976,94(4):599-617.
[3]Alchian,A.A.& Kessel,R.Competition,monopoly and the pursuit of pecuniary gain[A].in:Aspects of labor economics,Conference Volume of the Universities-National Bureau Committee for Economic Research.Princeton, N.J.:Princeton University Press,1962,156-175.
[4]Altonji,J.G.& Blank,R.Race and Gender in the Labor Market[A].in:O. Ashenfelter and R.Layard,eds.,Handbook of labor economics,Vol.1(North-Holland,Amsterdam),1999,Vol.3C:3143-3260.
[5]Altonji,J.G.&Pierret,C.R..Employer Learning and the Signalling Value of education[A].in I.Ohashi and T.Tachibanaki,eds.,Internal labor markets,incentives and employment.London,U.K.:Macmillan,1998:159-195.
[6]Altonji,J.G,&Pierret,C.R.Employer Learning and Statistical Discrimination[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,2001,116(1):1007-47.
[7]Altonji,J.G..The Effects of High School Curriculum on Education and Labor Market Outcomes[J].Journal of Human Resources,1995,30 (3):410-438.
[8]Altonji,J.G.Employer Learning,Statistical Discrimination and Occupational attainment[J],American Economic Review,2005,95(2):112-117.
[9]Antecol,H.& Bedard,K.The Racial Wage Gap[J].Journal of Human Resources,2004,39(2):564-583.
[10]Appleton,S.J.,Hoddinott&Krishnan,P.The gender wage gap in three African countries[J].Economic Development and Cultural Change,1999,47(2):289-312
[11]Arrow,K.The theory of discrimination[A].in:O.A.Ashenfelter and A.Rees,eds.,Discrimination in labor markets (Princeton University Press,Princeton,NJ),1973,pp.3-33.
[12]Arrow,K.What has economics to say about racial discrimination[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,1998,12 (2):91-100.
[13]Bauer,J.,Feng,W.,Riley,N.E.&Zhao.X.H.Gender inequalily in urban china[J].Modern China,1992,18(3):333-370.
[14]Becker,G The Economics of Discrimination[M].Univ.of Chicago Press,Chicago,1957.
[15]Becker,G The Economics of Discrimination[M].2nd edition (Univ.of Chicago Press,Chicago,IL),1971.
[16]Becker,G Human capital,effort and the sexual division of labo[J]r.Journal of Labor Economics,1985,3(1):33-58.
[17]Becker,G S.&Tomes,N.An Equilibrium Theory of the Distribution of Income and Intergenerational Mobility[J].Journal of Political Economy,1986,91:1-39
[18]Behrman,J.R.&Taubman,P.Do parents favor boys? [J].International Economic Review,1986,27(l):33-54
[19]Bergmann,B.R.The effect of incomes of discrimination in employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1971,79:294-313.
[20]Bergmann,B.R.Occupational segregation,wages and profits when employers discriminate by race or sex[J].Eastern Economic Journal,1974,1 (1)103-110.
[21]Bertrand,M.&Mullainathan,S.Are emily and greg more employable than lakisha and jamal?A field experiment on labor market discrimination[J].American Economic Review,2004,94(4):991-1013
[22]Betts,J.R.Does school quality matter? Evidence from the national longitudina survey of youth[J].The Review of Economics and Statistics,1995,77(2):231-250
[23]Bhagwati,Jagdish and Srinivasan,T.N.On Reanalyzing the Harris-Todaro Model:Policy Rankings in the Case of Sector-Specific Sticky Wages[J].American Economic Review,1974,64(3):502-508
[24]Bharati Basu.Rural-urban migration,urban unemployment and the structural transformation of a dual economy [J].The Journal of International Trade&Economic Development,2002,9(2):137-49
[25]Black,D.A.Discrimination in an equilibrium search model[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1995,13(2):309-334
[26]Blan,F.D.&Lawrence M.K.Race and gender pay differentials[A].in:David Lewin,Olivia S.Mitchell and Peter D.Sherer,eds.,Research frontiers in industrial relations and human resources (IndustrialRelations Research Association,Madison,WI),1992.
[27]Blau,F.D.&.Andrea H.B.Black-white earnings over the 1970s and 1980s:gender differences in trends[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1992,74 (2):276-286.
[28]Blau,F.D.&Lawrence M.K.Swimming upstream:trends in the gender wage differential in the 1980s[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1997,15 (1):1-42.
[29]Blinder,A.S.Wage Discrimination:Reduced Form and Structural estimates[J].Journal of Human Resources,1973,8(4):436-455.
[30]B(o|¨)heim,R.,Taylor,M.,Unemployment Duration and Exit States in Britain,CEPR Discussion Paper 2500,July 2000.
[31]Borjas,GJ.&Bronars,S.G Consumer discrimination and self-employment[J].Journal of Political Economy,1989,97 (3):581-606.
[32]Brown,R.S.,Marilyn,M.& Barbara,S.Z.Incorparating Occupational Attainment in Studies of Male-female Earning Differential [J].Journal of Human Resources,1980,15(1):3-28.
[33]Brown,C.The federal attack on labor market discrimination:the mouse that roared?[J].Research in Labor Economics,1982,12(5):33-68.
[34]Brown,C.Black-White earnings ratios since the Civil Rights Act of 1964:the importance Brown,of labor market dropouts[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1984,99(3):31-44.
[35]Brown,C.& Corcoran,M.Sex based differences in school content and the male/female wage gap[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1997,15 (3):431-465.
[36]Cain,G.G.The challenge of sgmented labor market theories to orthodox theory:a survey[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1976,(14):1215-1257.
[37]Cain,G.G.The economic analysis of labor market discrimination[A]:a survey,in:O.Ashenfelter and R.Layard,eds.,Handbook of Labor Economics,Vol.1(North-Holland,Amsterdam),1986,pp.693-785.
[38]Card,D.& Krueger,A.B.School quality and black-white relative earnings:a direct assessment[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1992a,107(1):151-200.
[39]Card,D.&Krueger,A.B.Does school quality matter? Returns to education and the characteristics of public schools in the united states[J].Journal of Economics,1992b,100(1):1-40.
[40]Carneiro,P.&Heckman,J.J.Labor market discrimination and racial differences in premarket factors[J].Journal of law and economics,2005,48(l):1-39.
[41]Coleman,Mary T.,Movements in the Earnings-schooling Relationship,1940-88[J].Journal of Human Resources,1993,28(3):660-680.
[42]Cotton,J.On the Decomposition of Wage Differentials[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1988,70(2):235-243.
[43]Dex,S.,Gustafsson,S.,Smith,N.,Callan,T.Cross-national Comparisons of Labour Force Participation of Women Married to Unemployed Men[J].Oxford Economic Papers,1995,47(4):611-635.
[44]Donohue,J.J&Heckman,J.J.Continuous versus episodic change:the impact of affirmative action and civil rights policy on the economic status of blacks[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1992,13(1):1603-1643
[45]Dougherty.C,Why Are the Returns to Schooling Higher for Women than for Men?[J].Journal of Human Resources,2005,40(4):969-988.
[46]Eide,E.R.,Showalter,M.H.,Does Improving School Quality Reduce the Probability of Unemployment? [J].Contemporary Economic Policy,2005,23(4):578-584.
[47]England,P.The failure of human capital theory to explain occupational sex segregation[J].Journal of Human Resources,1982,17 (3):358-370.
[48]Even,W.E.,Macpherson,D.A.,Plant Size and the Decline of Unionism[J].Economics Letters 32,1990:393-398.
[49]Farber,H.&R.Gibbons.Learning and wage dynamics[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1996,111 (4):1007-1047.
[50]Fairlie,R.W.,The Absence of the African-American Owned Business:An Analysis of the Dynamics of Self-Employment[J].Journal of Labor Economics, 1999,17(1):80-108.
[51]Fairlie,R.W.,An Extension of the Blinder-Oaxaca Decomposition Technique to Logit and Probit Models,Center Discussion Paper No.873,2003.
[52]Fugazza,M.Racial discriminationg:theories,facts and policy[J].International Labour Review,2003,142(4):507-541.
[53]Freeman,R.B.Change in the labor market for black Americans[J].Brookings Papers on Economic Activity,XX,1973,67-120.
[54]Georgellis,Y.&Wail,H.Gender differences in self-employment[J].Internaional Review of Applied Economics,2005,19(3):321-342.
[55]Gibbons,R.,Katz,L.F.,Lemieux,.T.L.&Parent,D.Comparative advantage,learning,and sectoral wage determination[J].Journal of Labor Economics,2005,23(4):681-723.
[56]Green,C.A.&Ferber,M.A.Do detailed work histories help to explain gender and race/ethnic wage differentials? [J].Review of Social Economy,2005,63(l):55-85.
[57]Grogger,J.Does school quality explain the recent black/white wage trend? [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1996,14(3):231-253.
[58]Gustafsson,B.&Li,S.Economic transformation and the gender earnings gap in urban China.Population Economics,2000,13(2):305-329.
[59]Harris,J.R.and Todaro,M.Migration,unemployment and development:a two-sector analysis[J].American Economic Review,1970,60(1):126-142.
[60]Heckman,J.J.&Payner,B.Determining the impact of Federal antidiscrimination policy on the economic status of blacks:a study of south carolina[J].American Economic Review,1989,79(1):138-177.
[61]Ioannides,Y.M.&Loury,L.D.Job information networks,neighborhood effects,and inequality[J].Journal of Economic Litearture,2004,42(4):1056-93.
[62]Johnson,GE.& Stafford,F.K.Alternative approaches to occupational exclusion,in:I.Persson and C.Jonung,eds.,Women's work and wages (Routledge,London).
[63]Persson and C.Jonung,eds.,Women's work and wages (Routledge,London),1998.
[64]Kanazawa,S.Is“discrimination”necessary to explain the sex gap in eamings?[J].Journal of Economic Psychology,2005,26(3):269-287.
[65]Katz,L.F.& Murphy,F.K.Changes in relative wages (1963-1987):supply and demand Factors[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1992,107 (1):35-78.
[66]Keane,M.R&Wolpin,K.I.Eliminatin race differences in school attainment and lobor market success[J].Journal of Labor Economics,2000,18(4):614-652.
[67]Kidd,M.Sex discrimination and Occupational Segregation in the Australian labour market[J].The Economic Record,1993,12(3):44-55.
[68]Kosonen,R,Moisio,P.,Comparing Long-term Unemployment,Secondary Labour Markets and Household Incomes,Luxembourg Income Study Working Paper Series,No:217,1999.
[69]Kupets,0.,Determinants of Unemployment Duration in Ukraine[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2006,34(2):228-247.
[70]Leung,D.The male/female earnings gap and female self-employment[J].The Journal of SocioEconomics,2006,35(3):759-779.
[71]Li,H.,Economic Transition and Returns to Education in China[J].Economics of Education Review,2003,22(3):317-328.
[72]Li,H.,Liu,P.W.,Zhang,J.,Ma,N.,Economic Returns to Communist Party Membership:Evidence From Urban Chinese Twins[J],Economic Journal,2007,117(3):1504-1520.
[73]Liu.P.W.,Meng.X.,Zhang.J.Sectoral gender wage differentials and discrimination in the transitional Chinese economy[J].Journal of Population Economics,2000,23(4):331-352.
[74]Lundberg,S.J.The enforcement of equal opportunity laws under imperfect information:affirmative action and alternatives[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1991,106 (1):309-326.
[75]Lundberg,S.J.& Startz,R.Private discrimination and social intervention in competive labor markets[J].American Economic Review,1983,73(2):340-347.
[76]Lundberg,S.J.& Startz,R.On the persistence of racila inequality [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1998,16 (2):292-324.
[77]Maurer-Fazio,Magaret,Earnings and Education in China's Transition to a Market Economy Survey Evidence from 1989 and 1992[J].China Economic Review,1999,10(1):17-40.
[78]Maxwell,N.The effect on black-white wage differences of differences in the quantity and quality of education[J].Industrial and Labor Relations Review,1994,47 (2):249-264.
[79]Meng,X.Occupational segregation and its impact on the wage differential among rural-urban migrant:A Chinese case study[J].Applied Economics,1998:741-752.
[80]Meng,X.Mele-female wage determination and gender wage discrimination in China's rural industrial sector[J].Labor Economics,1998:67-89.
[81]Meng,X.&Zhang,J.The two-tier labor market in urban china [J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2001,29(3):485-504.
[82]Mill,P.W.The wage effect of the occupational segregation of women in Britain[J].Economic Journal,1987,97(388):885-896.
[83]Mincer,J.(1974).Schooling,Experience and Earnings[M].New York:Columbia University Press for the National Bureau of Economic Research..
[84]Montgomery.M.& Powell.I.,“Does an Advanced Degree Reduce the Gender Wage Gap? Evidence from MBAs”[J].Industrial Relation,2003,142(3):396-418.
[85]Moro,A.The effect of statistical discrimination on black-white wage inequality:estimating a model with multiple equilibria[J].International Economic Review,2003,44(2):467-500.
[86]Moro,A.&Norman,P.A general equilibrium model of statistical discrimination[J].Journal of Economic Theory,2004,114:1-30.
[87]Mwabu,Germano and Schultz,T.Paul.Education Returns across Quantiles of the Wage Function:Alternative Explanations for the Returns to Education in South Africa[J].American Economic Review,1996,86(21):335-339.
[88]Neal,D.A.& Johnson,W.L.The role of premarket factors in black-white wage differences[J].Journal of Political Economy,1996,104 (5):869-895.
[89]Neumark,D.Employers' discriminatory behavior and estimation of wage discrimination[J].Journal of Human Resources,1987,23(3):279-295.
[90]Neumark,D.Sex discrimination in restaurant tilting:an audit study[J].The Quarterly Journal of Economics,1996,111 (3):915-942.
[91]Neumark,D.Wage differentials by race and sex:the roles of taste discrimination and labor market information [J].Industrial Relation,1999,38(3):414-445.
[92]NG,Y.C,Economic Development,Human Capital,and Gender Earnings Differentials in China[J].Economics of Education Review,2004,23(6):587-603.
[93]Nielsen,H.S.,Discrimination and Detailed Decomposition in a Logit Model, Economics Letters 1998,61(3):115-120.
[94]O'Neill,J.Tthe determinants and wage effects of occupational segregation[M].Working paper,urban institute,Washington,D.C.,1983a.
[95]O'Neill,J.The trend in sex differentials in wages[M].Paper presented at the conference on trends in women's work,education,and family building,urban institute,Washington,D.C.,1983b.
[96]O'Neill,J.Earnings differentials:empirical evidence and causes[A].In:G.schmid and R.weitzel,eds.,sex discrimination and equal opportunity.London:Gower Publishing Co.,1984:69-91.
[97]O'Neill,J.The role of human capital in earnings differences between black and white men[J].Journal of Economic Perspectives,1990,4:25-45.
[98]O'Neill,J.& Polachek,D.S.Why the gender gap in wages narrowed in the 1980s[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1993,11 (1):205 228.
[99]Oaxaca,R.Male-Female Wage Differentials in Urban Labor Markets[J].International Economic Review,1973,14(3):693-709.
[100]Oettinger,G.Statistical discrimination and the early career evolution of the black-white wage gap[J].Journal of Labor Economics,1996,14(1):52-78.
[101]Ollikainen,V.Gender Differences in Transitions from Unemployment Micro Evidence from Finland[J].Review of Labour Economics & Industrial Relations,2006,20(1):159-198.
[102]Pagan,J.A.,Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions in Rural Guatemala[J].Review of Development Economics,2002,6(3):428-441.
[103]Pagan,J.A.,S(?)nchez,S.M.,Gender Differences in Labor Market Decisions:Evidence from Rural Mexico[J].Economic Development & Cultural Change,2000,48(3):619-637.
[104]Pagan,J.A.,Tijerina-Guajardo,J.A,Increasing Wage Dispersion and the Changes in Relative Employment and Wages in Mexico's Urban Informal Sector:1987-1993[J].Applied Economics,2000,32(3):335-347.
[105]Paglin,M& Rufolo,A.M.Heterogenous fiuman capital,occupational choice and malefemale earnings differences [J].Journal of Labor Economics,1990,8 (1):123-144.
[106]Phelps,E.S.The statistical theory of racism and sexism[J].American Economic Review,1972,62(4):659-661.
[107]Polachek,S.Occupational self selection:a human capital approach to sex differences in occupational structure[J].Review of Economics and Statistics,1981,63(1):60-69.
[108]Rosenzweig,M.R.,&Schults,T.P.Market opportunities,genetic endowments,and intrafamily resource distribution:child survival in rural India[J].American Economic Review,1983,72(4):803-815.
[109]Sharif,M.Poverty and the forward-falling labour supply function:a microeconomic analysis[J].World Development,1991,19(3):1075-1093.
[110]Siebert,P.The Economics of Earning[M].Cambridge University Press.1993.
[111]Smith,J.P.& Welch,F.Closing the gap:forty years of economic progress for blacks[M].Santa Monica,CA:The Rand Corporation,1986.
[112]Smith,J.P.& Welch,F.Black economic progress after Myrdal[J].Journal of Economic Literature,1989,27(3):519-564.
[113]Spence,A.M.Job market signaling[J].Quarterly Journal of Economics,1973,87(3):355-374.
[114]Spence,A.M.Signaling in retrospect and the informational structure of markets[J].American Economic Review,2002,92(3):434-459.
[115]Stiglitz,J.E.Approach to the economics of discrimination[J].American Economic Review,1973,63(2):287-295.
[116]Sung,Y.W.,Zhang,J.& Chan,C.S.Gender wage differentials and occupational segregation in Hong Kong,1981-1996[J].Pacific Economic Review,2001,16(3):345-359.
[117]Ta(?)i,H.M.,(O|¨)zdemir,A.R.,Trends in Long-Term Unemployment and Determinants of Incidence of Long-Term Unemployment in Turkey[J].Journal of Economic & Social Research,2005,7(2):1-33.
[118]Teo,S.Occuational segregation and its effect on estimates of the gender wage differential:evidence from Brunei[J].Asian Economic Journal,2003,17(4):341-360.
[119]Trejo,S.T.Why do mexican americans earn low wages? [J].Journal of Political Economy,1997,150(6):1235-68.
[120]Todaro,M.A Model of labor Migration and urban unemployment in less developed Countries[J].American Economic Review,1969,59(1):138-48.
[121]Welch,F.Human capital theory:education,discrimination,and life cycles[J].American Economic Review,1975,65(2):63-73.
[122]White,H.C.Social Networks Can Resolve Actor Paradoxes in Economics and in Psychology [J].Journal of Institutional and Theoretical Economics,1995,151(4):58-74.
[123]Willian L.P.&Willis,R.J.Daughters,Education,and Family Budgets Taiwan Experiences[J].Journal of Human Resources,1993,28(4):863-98.
[124]Wolpin,K.The determinants of black-white differences in early employment careers:search,layoffs,quits and endogeneous wage growth[J].Journal of Political Economy,1992,100 (3):535-560.
[125]Zhang.J.,Zhao.Y.,Park.A.,and Song.X.,Economic Returns to Schooling in Urban China,1988 to 2001[J].Journal of Comparative Economics,2005,33(4):730-752.
[126]Zhang,J.,Han,J,Liu,J.and Zhao,J,Trends in the Gender Eearnings Differential in Urban China,1988-2004[J].Industrial & Labor Relations Review,2008,61(2):224-243.
[127]Zhao,Yaohui,Earnings Differentials Between State and Non-state Enterprises in Urban China[J].Pacific Economic Review.2002,17(1):181-197.
[128]Appleton,S.,Knight,J.,Song,J.,夏庆杰.城镇职工失业下岗持续时间的半参数计量经济学分析[J],中国劳动经济学,2007,3(3):3-24。
[129]阿瑟.刘易斯.二元经济论[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1989.
[130]白暴力.农民工工资收入偏低分析--现实、宏观效应与原因[J],经济经纬,2007,(4):75-78。
[131]陈良焜,鞠高升.教育明瑟收益率性别差异的实证分析[J],北京大学教育评论.2004(3):40-45。
[132]蔡定剑.中国就业歧视现状及反歧视对策[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2007.
[133]蔡昉.二元劳动力市场条件下的就业体制转换[J].中国社会科学,1998(2):4-14。
[134]蔡昉.中国城市限制外地民工就业的政治经济学分析[J].中国人口科学,2000(4):1-10。
[135]蔡昉,杨涛.城乡收入差距的政治经济学[J].中国社会科学,2000(4):11-22。
[136]蔡昉,王美艳.女性劳动力供给特点与教育投资[J],江海学刊,2001(6):35-39。
[137]蔡昉,都阳,王美艳.户籍制度与劳动力市场保护[J].经济研究,2001(12):41-49。
[138]蔡昉.城乡收入差距与制度变革的临界点[J]冲国社会科学,2003(5):16-25。
[139]蔡昉,都阳,王美艳.劳动力流动的政治经济学[M]。上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,2004。
[140]常凯.劳动力市场与劳工保护[J].中国党政干部论坛,2004(11):28-30。
[141]都阳,朴之水.迁移与减贫--来自农户调查的经验证据[J].中国人口科学,2003(4):56-62。
[142]杜凤莲.中国城镇人口失业的决定因素及其后果[M]。内蒙古:内蒙古大学出版社,2007。
[143]杜育红,孙志军.中国欠发达地区的教育、收入与劳动力市场经历--基于 内蒙古赤峰市城镇地区的研究[J].管理世界,2003(9):68-75。
[144]丁赛,董晓媛,李实.经济转型下的中国城镇女性就业、收入及其对家庭收入不平等的影响[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(4):1319-1336。
[145]葛玉好.部门选择对工资性别差距的影响[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(2):607-628。
[146]李莉.农民工工资歧视与职业隔离[D].硕士学位论文,浙江大学,2008。
[147]李强.中国城市农民工劳动力市场研究[J].学海,2001(1):110-115。
[148]李实.中国经济转轨中劳动力流动模型[J].经济研究,1997(1):23-30。
[149]李实等.中国居民收入分配实证分析[M].北京:社会科学文献出版社,2000。
[150]李实.罗楚亮.中国城乡居民收入差距的重新估计[J].北京大学学报(哲学社会科学版),2007,44(2):111-120。
[151]李实.邓曲恒.中国城镇失业率的重新估计[J],经济学动态,2004(4):44-47。
[152]李树茁,姜全保,刘慧君.性别歧视的人口后果--基于公共政策视角的模拟分析[J].公共管理学报,2006(2):90-98。
[153]李晓华.技能回报、经济转型与工资不平等的增长[D].博士学位论文,浙江大学,2007。
[154]林毅夫,蔡昉,李周.中国的奇迹:发展战略与经济改革(增订版)[M].上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,1999年版。
[155]林毅夫.发展战略与经济发展[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004。
[156]林毅夫.发展战略与经济改革[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004。
[157]陆益龙.户籍制度--控制与社会差别[M].北京:商务印书馆,2004。
[158]卢周来.当前我国劳动力市场中的歧视问题透视[J].经济体制改革,1998(3):48-53。
[159]莫荣,岳威.增加下岗职工就业机会研究[J],管理世界,2001(2):88-94。
[160]袁霓.城镇居民收入性别差异的实证分析[J],人口与经济.2005(1):48-52.
[161]聂洪辉.对农民工歧视的社会学分析[J].理论文萃,2006(3):4-8。
[162]宋月萍.职业流动中的性别差异:审视中国城市劳动力市场[J].经济学季刊,2007,6(2):629-654。
[163]孙晓琳,姚波,黄英维.二元户籍制度下的农村剩余劳动力流动模型[J].统计理论与方法,2003(11):23-25。
[164]王海光.当代中国户籍制度形成与沿革的宏观分析[J].中共党史研究,2003(4):22-29。
[165]王美艳.转轨时期的工资差异:工资歧视的计量分析[J].数量经济和技术经济研究,2003(5):94-98。
[166]王美艳.中国城市劳动力市场上的性别工资差异[J].经济研究,2005a(12):35-43。
[167]王美艳.城市劳动力市场上的就业机会与工资差异[J].中国社会科学,2005b (5):36-46。
[168]魏众.健康对非农就业及其工资决定的影响[J].经济研究,2004(2):64-74页。
[169]尚影玲.歧视农民工的原因探析[J].西部论坛,2005(6):28-31。
[170]肖文韬,孙细明.托达罗人口流动行为模型的一个修正及其新解释[J].财经理论与实践,2003(1):23-27。
[171]谢桂华.转型期的城市劳动力市场-关于下岗与再就业的实证研究[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2008。
[172]谢嗣胜.劳动力市场歧视研究:西方理论与中国问题[D].博士学位论文,浙江大学,2005。
[173]谢嗣胜,姚先国.我国城市就业人员性别工资歧视的估计[J].妇女研究论丛,2005(6):10-13。
[174]谢嗣胜,姚先国.农民工工资歧视的计量分析[J].中国农村经济,2006(4):49-55。
[175]杨云彦,陈金永,刘塔.外来劳动力对城市本地劳动力市场的影响[J].中国人口科学,2001(2):52-58。
[176]姚先国.人力资本与劳动者地位[J].学术月刊,2006(2):93-97。
[177]姚先国.中国劳动力市场演化与政府行为[J].公共管理学报,2007(3):13-21。
[178]姚先国,赖普清.中国劳资关系的城乡户籍差异[J].经济研究,2004(7): 82-90。
[179]姚先国,俞玲.农民工职业分层与人力资本约束[J].浙江大学学报,2006(5):16-21。
[180]姚先国,黄志岭,苏振华.家庭背景与教育回报率[J].中国劳动经济学,2007,3(6):19-29。
[181]姚先国,黄志岭.职业分割及其对性别工资差异的影响[J].重庆大学学报(社科版),2008a(2):53-58。
[182]姚先国,黄志岭.前市场因素对工资差异影响的研究进展及其启示[J].江南大学学报(社科版),2008b(4):67-71。
[183]姚先国,黄志岭.人力资本与户籍歧视[J].浙江大学学报(社科版),2008c (6):57-64。
[184]姚洋.自由、公正和制度变迁[M].郑州:河南人民出版社,2002。
[185]姚洋.土地、制度和农业发展[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2004年。
[186]易中天.中国的男人和女人[M].上海:上海文艺出版社,2004。
[187]俞德鹏.城乡社会:从隔离走向开放--中国户籍制度与户籍法研究[M].济南:山东人民出版社,2002。
[188]袁志刚.失业经济学[M].上海:上海三联书店,1997。
[189]袁志刚.失业理论与中国失业问题[J].经济研究,1994(9):32-37。
[190]岳昌君.教育对个人收入差异的影响[J].经济学季刊.2004,3(10):135-149。
[191]张车伟.失业率定义的国际比较及中国城镇失业率[J].世界经济,2003(5):47-54。
[192]张丹丹.劳动参与及工资的性别差异[D].硕士学位论文,中国社会科学院研究生院,2003。
[193]张霞.城市劳动力市场二元分割与外来农业户籍劳动者社会保障权益缺失[J].中国社会科学院研究生院学报,2007(2):90-97。
[194]张展新.市场化转型中的城市女性失业:理论观点与实证发现[J].市场与人口分析,2004(1):1-9。
[195]张智勇.户籍制度、歧视与社会分层[J].生产力研究,2004(4):92-93。
[196]张智勇.户籍制度:农民工就业歧视形成之根源[J].农村经济,2005(4): 123-127。
[197]赵耀.中国劳动力市场雇佣歧视研究[D],博士学位论文,首都经济贸易大学,2006。
[198]曾湘泉.中国劳动问题研究[M].北京:中国劳动社会保障出版社,2006。
[199]郑功成.中国农民工问题与社会保护[M].北京:人民出版社,2007。
[200]钟甫宁,刘华.中国城镇教育回报率及其结构变动的实证研究[J].中国人口科学,2007(4):34-41。
[201]周群英,周文莲.就业性别歧视的文化机制分析[J].长江论坛,2006(3):66-77。
[202]周其仁.市场里的企业:一个人力资本与非人力资本的特别合约[J].经济研究,1996(6):71-79。
[203]周天勇.托达罗模型的缺陷及其相反的政策含义--中国剩余劳动力转移和就业容量扩张思路[J].经济研究,2001(3):75-82。
[204]周小亮.劳动力市场城乡歧视及其社会经济效应[J].当代财经,1994(9):11-15.