美国中小学公民学课程标准研究
摘要
学校是公民教育的重要场所和主要途径,承载着传播主流价值观念、培养合格公民的任务。公民教育课程是学校公民教育的核心载体,为青少年学生提供连贯、系统的专业指导和帮助,是传播公民知识和培养公民技能的直接、有效渠道。美国中小学公民教育主要通过社会科课程实现,它依托公民学、历史、地理和经济四大核心学科,整合人文社会科学领域知识,是一套跨学科的综合学习体系。其中,公民学课程在帮助公民认同美国宪政民主的基本价值观和原则,知性和负责任地参与政治生活中发挥着重要作用,在社会科中居于重要地位。
美国公民学课程标准是界定公民学课程性质、课程目标、课程内容和课程教学的指导性规定,描述了对不同年级的学生在公民学领域应该获得成绩、行为和个人发展的规定,体现了美国主流社会对理想公民的期求与希翼,是研究美国学校公民教育基本特征和价值取向的重要依据。以公民学课程标准这一相对稳定、规范的文本为观测视角,既能有效规避由于教育分权制度和多样化的课程教学实践等因素给研究带来的不确定性,加深对公民学这一美国中小学教育体系中核心课程的认识,还有助于从本质上把握课程所传播的主流意识形态,揭示公民教育目标的合法性根源,深化对公民教育实践活动规律的认识。
本文以辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义为指导,采用历史分析法、语篇分析法、理论思辨法、诠释学方法、观察体验法和比较分析法,以公民学课程在美国公民教育课程历史中的嬗变为基础,以史为脉络,阐述公民学课程标准出现的历史必然性和存在的重要性,追溯公民学课程标准的法律依据和理论渊源；其次,对国家和联邦州两个层面公民学课程标准的内容体系进行解构对比,分析其统一性与差异性,试图归纳美国政治体系和政治权力所倡导的政治思想和政治价值,即主流社会对“理想公民”的期望；再次,通过对课程标准运用过程中各因素的分析,论证公民学课程标准对课程教学和教学质量评估产生了怎样的影响。最后,批判地思考该研究对我国思想政治教育课程实践的启示和借鉴价值。
基于这一思路,文章共分为七章,具体内容概括如下。
第一章为绪论部分。首先,阐述了美国公民学课程标准研究这一选题的缘由、选题目标和研究意义；其次,根据研究需要,对美国公民教育课程发展史、公民教育基础理论、公民教育课程结构、公民教育课程实践和公民教育课程标准五个方面的国内外研究现状进行梳理,总结现有研究进展、特点与不足；再次,对社会科、公民学、课程标准、政治文化与政治社会化五个重要的概念进行界定；在此基础上,确定本文的研究思路、研究方法和创新点。
第二章梳理了美国中小学公民学课程的历史沿革,经由公民学课程发展的历史与公民学课程地位的变化两条线索展开。第一条线索以时间为顺序,选取对公民学课程发展最具影响的四个时间节点,叙述了公民学课程从兴起、遭遇困境到蜕变发展的嬗变过程。在20世纪初中等教育改革以前,公民学很少以课程形态存在,大多以“公民科”、“公民政府”等学习模块呈现。1916年《中等教育中的社会科》报告打破这一局面,正式将公民学确定为中小学的正式课程。而后两次世界大战使公民学课程的发展屡遭波折,20世纪中叶新社会科运动的失败更使该课程及其价值备受质疑。20世纪80年代,《国家处于危险之中》这一报告对国家教育进行了全面反思,引发了教育基础化运动,美国政府强势干预学校教育,公民学课程开始了全新蜕变,公民学课程标准出现。21世纪初,《不让一个孩子掉队法案》为学校课程发展带来了新的机遇,奠定了现有公民学课程的立法基础。第二条线索立足于公民学课程的历史发展,分析了公民学课程从仅仅作为附属于历史课程的公民教育模块,发展为社会科体系中一门独立课程,再从社会科体系中一门非核心课程,发展为核心课程这一变化过程及其原因。不同历史背景下公民学课程核心内容和历史地位的变化,既凸显了公民学课程是政治文化传承的方式,又体现了该课程以主流政治意识需要为出发点培养公民的性质。
第三章梳理了美国《公民学与政府国家标准》的产生及法律与理论基础。在实施教育分权的美国,州政府拥有中小学教育管辖权,国家层面公民学课程标准的出现源于国家对教育的干预,它是国家社会经济发展需要与基础教育领域课程改革的必然结果,得到了国家政策和社会性教育机构的大力支持。由于不同时期对美国宪法的不同理解,美国中小学课程的管理权经历了州政府全权管理到国家干预的过渡。法律依据部分从美国宪法及其修正案、教育法令法规和判例法二个方面解析了现有公民学课程国家标准形成的法律依据。美国拥有丰富的公民教育思想理论,为了理解课程标准的教育目标和核心内容,理论基础部分分析了对现有公民学课程内容产生较大影响的欧洲占典哲学思想、公民资格理论和政治社会化理论,这些思想理论根植于特定的政治土壤中。在建国初期,美国公民教育基本上延续欧洲传统,之后逐步与美国教育实际相结合,教育理论借鉴与本土化发展并重。对课程标准颁布背景、法律和理论基础的梳理,有利于了解公民学课程标准和公民学教育目标的合法性、合规律性与合目的性根源。
第四章解析了美国公民学课程国家标准的核心内容。在介绍课程标准的主体架构和公民知识、公民技能、公民品性三大基本构成内容的基础上,本章以antconc语料库软件为工具,采用类别检索、上下文关键词分类和批判性话语分析三种方法,对课程标准文本进行解析。解析范围涉及表达公民知识要求的名词、与公民技能相关的动词和与标准制定者意图相关的情态动词。通过数据处理和话语分析,公民学课程国家标准的核心内容可以概括为四部分：与政府和国家相关的知识,与宪法和宪政相关的知识,与公民相关的知识,与价值观、原则、信仰和品性相关的知识。最后,文章从体系设计、结构布局、内容框架和意识形态四个方面总结了课程标准的特色。通过对课程标准核心内容的梳理,能更清晰地认识美国政治体系和政治权力对青少年公民教育的要求,有助于辨析核心内容的内在要求和话语中隐藏的意识形态倾向。
第五章分析了美国各州公民学课程标准。公民学课程国家标准不仅对课程学习内容提出了指导性框架,也为联邦各州课程标准的制定提供了依据。本章在宏观上介绍了联邦50个州和哥伦比亚特区课程标准的主要内容、呈现形式和特征等基本状况；微观上选取了纽约州“社会科学习标准”之公民学、公民资格与公民政府,加利福尼亚州“历史——社会科学框架”之公民学两份课程标准为案例,具体剖析了州课程标准的核心内容,概括了公民学课程标准在内容上的差异性与一致性。通过国家和联邦州之间课程标准的对比,不同州之间课程标准的对比,发现公民学课程标准是以《国家标准》的内容框架为指导,以州课程标准的具体规定为依据,兼顾地方特色而形成的。虽然课程标准的形式多样、数量庞大,但其实质上具有内在统一性,统一于美国主流社会所倡导的政治思想和政治价值。
第六章分析了公民学课程标准的应用,涉及《国家标准》、联邦州标准、教科书、学科测评框架、学校教师和公民教育机构。公民学课程标准是教育部门研发、制定、采纳或认可,用于指导一定范围内公民学课程教学的公开发行文件,它明确了课程的教学目标和框架,为学生学习成绩比较和课程评估提供依据。课程标准功能的发挥需要依靠教科书、学业测评框架等载体的辅助作用,通过学校教师、公民教育机构等主体的努力来实现。教科书是具体化和鲜活的课程标准,将课程框架解构为易懂的学习单元；课程评价体系可以反映学生的学习成果,是课程教学的反馈指标；教师是课程标准的“代言人”,是课程标准与学生之间的沟通桥梁；公民教育机构作为社会性资源,在课程标准的研发与修改、教师培训、学生互动等方面具有不可忽视的作用。
第七章美国公民学课程标准对我国学校思想政治教育的启示。本章基于我国基础教育阶段思想政治教育相关课程标准的基本情况,思考美国公民学课程标准研究对我国的启示和借鉴作用,认为只有立足于我国社会政治经济发展实际,遵循客观发展规律和国家需求,构建小学-初中-高中连贯的公民知识-公民技能-公民品性三位一体的课程体系,加强社会性公民教育资源培育,完善思想政治课程的评价体系,吸引社会各界广泛关注和参与,才能实现公民教育课程功能的最优化,这也是我国中小学公民教育课程改革应该努力的方向。
School is an important venue and way for civic education, which shoulders the task to spread mainstream values and cultivate qualified citizens. Civic education curriculum is the core carrier of civic education in schools, which offers coherent and systematic specialized guidance to adolescent students, thus it's a direct and effective channel to spread civic knowledge and cultivate civic skills. Primary and secondary civic education in America is mainly realized through social studies, which relies on four core disciplines-civics, history, geography and economy, integrating humanistic and social science knowledge, thus it's a set of inter-disciplinary and comprehensive learning system. Civics plays an important role to help citizens to identify basic value and principle of constitutional democracy in America as well as participate in political life responsibly, so it's very important in social studies.
Civics curriculum standards in America is an instructive stipulation to define curriculum nature, objective, content and teaching of civics, which describes stipulations about students' performance, behavior and personal development ought to be obtained at different grades in civics field, as well as reflects expectation and hope of mainstream society to ideal citizens. Thus the currirulum is an important basis to study essential features and value orientation of civic education in American schools. As a relatively stable and normative text, the research of civics curriculum standards can effectively avoid uncertainty caused by education decentralization system and diversified course teaching, deepen the understanding of civics, one of the core curricula in American primary and secondary education, essentially master mainstream ideology spread by course, reveal legality source of civic education objective and enhance understanding about activity routines of civic education.
Firstly, guided by dialectical materialism and historical materialism, the thesis adopts the methods of historical analysis, discourse analysis, theoretical analysis, hermeneutics, observation experience and comparative analysis to elaborate the historical inevitability and importance of civics curriculum standards, which sets evolution of civics in the history of American civic education curriculum as basis and history as context. Secondly, the thesis makes deconstruction and comparison between national and federal contents of civics curriculum standards, analyzes the uniformity and difference, and concludes political thought and value advocated by political system and power, namely the expectation of "ideal citizen" by mainstream society. Thirdly, through analysis about various factors during application process of curriculum standards, the thesis argues the influence of civics curriculum standards on course teaching and teaching quality assessment. Fourthly, the thesis critically reflects on enlightenment and reference of this research for ideological and political education course practice in China.
Based on this thought, the thesis is divided into seven chapters and the specific contents are concluded as follows.
Chapter one is introduction. Firstly, the reason, objective and significance of research on American civics curriculum standards are elaborated. Secondly, based on research demands, research status at home and abroad is reviewed, mainly from the curriculum development, basic theory, curriculum structure, curriculum practice and curriculum standards of civic education. And then the current research progress, features and shortcomings are concluded. Thirdly, the concepts of social studies, civics, curriculum standards, political culture and political socialization are defined, then the research thought, research method and innovation point of the thesis are confirmed based on that.
Chapter two reviews historical development of civics in American primary and secondary school, which is developed from two clues, namely history and status change of civics course. By setting time as order, the first clue selects four most influencing time nodes of civics course development and narrates evolution process of civics curriculum from rise, difficulty to development. Before secondary education reform in the beginning of20th century, civics existed as study module such as "citizen science" and "civil government" rather than curriculum. In1916, The Social Studies in Secondary Education broke this situation and civics was identified as a formal course in primary and middle school. However, two World Wars made civics course in trouble and the failure of New Social Studies Activity in the middle of20th century made the course value in question. In1980s, the report "A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform" comprehensively rethinked national education and triggered education foundation activity. American federal government intervened school education and civics course began brand new change, then civics curriculum standards appeared. In the beginning of21st century, No Child Left behind Act brought new opportunity to curriculum development, which laid legal foundation for current civics course. Based on historical development of civics course, the second clue analyzes the changing process and its' reasons of civics course status, from civic education module affiliated to history curriculum to independent course in social studies system, and from non-core course in social studies to a core course. The changes of core content and historical status of civics curriculum under different historical backgrounds reflect that civics course is an inheritance way of political culture and the curriculum cultivates citizens according to demands of mainstream political ideology as the starting point.
Chapter Three reviews the legal and theoretical origins of National Standard for Civics and Government. In America, state government owns jurisdiction of primary and secondary school. The civics curriculum standard at national level derives from national intervention on education, which is the demand of national social and economic development as well as an inevitable result of course reform in basic education field, obtaining strong support of national policy and social education institutions. Due to different understandings on US federal constitution at different times, the administration authority of curriculum in primary and secondary school transits from full management by state government to national intervention. As per legal origin, formation basis of the national standard can be analyzed mainly from three aspects, U.S. federal constitution and its amendment, education regulations and case law. There are abundant thoughts and theories about civic education in America. In order to understand education objectives and core contents of curriculum standard, theoretical origin analyzes classical philosophical thoughts in Europe, citizenship theory and political socialization theory that have great influence on civics curriculum contents, all of which are rooted in special political soil. In the early years of the new nation, European traditions continued its influences on America civic education, then were combined with local education, thus localization development of education theory is as important as reference. Reviewing the issuing background, legal and theoretical origins of curriculum standard is beneficial for understanding legality and regularity origin of curriculum standard as well as education objective of civics.
Chapter Four analyzes the core contents of civics curriculum standard in America. Based on introduction about main framework of curriculum standard and three basic constitutions contents, namely civic knowledge, civic skill and civic character, this chapter takes Antconc as a tool, adopts category searching, Kwic Sort in context and critical discourse analysis to analyze curriculum standards. Analysis scope involves nouns expressing civic knowledge requirements, verbs related to civic skills and modal verbs related to constitutor's intention. Through data processing and discourse analysis, core contents of civics curriculum standard can be concluded to four parts:knowledge related to government and nation, knowledge related to constitution and constitutionalism, knowledge related to citizen as well as knowledge related to value, principle, belief and moral character. Finally, the thesis summarizes characteristics of curriculum standard from four aspects:system design, structural layout, content framework and ideology. Reviewing core contents of curriculum standard is beneficial for understanding requirement on adolescent civic education by American political system and political power as well as helpful to discriminate intrinsic requirement of core contents and ideology orientation hidden in discourse.
Chapter Five analyzes civics curriculum standard in states of America. Civics curriculum standard not only puts forward instructive framework to learning content, but offers basis to formulate curriculum standard in state level. At macro level, this chapter introduces basic situation of curriculum standard such as main content, presentation way and features in50states and District of Columbia. At micro level, the chapter selects two curriculum standards as cases-civics, citizenship and citizen government in "Learning Standard about Social Sciences" of New York and civics in "History-Social Science Framework" of California, which specifically analyze core contents of state curriculum standard, concludes difference and consistency in content of civics curriculum standard. Through comparison between national and federal curriculum standard as well as curriculum standard in various states, it has been found that civics curriculum standard is formed under the guidance of content framework in National Standard for Civics and Government and based on specific regulations about curriculum standard in each state. Despite of diverse forms and large amount of curriculum standards, it has inherent uniformity in essence, which unifies in political thought and political value advocated by mainstream society in America.
Chapter Six analyzes the application of civics curriculum standard, involving national standard, federal standard, textbook, discipline evaluation framework, teacher training and civic education institutions. Civics curriculum standards are researched, formulated, adopted or recognized by education department, which are publicly issuing documents used to guide civics course teaching within certain scope. It makes teaching objective and framework explicit, and offers basis for performance comparison of students and course evaluation. The function realization of curriculum standard needs subsidiary carriers such as textbook, performance evaluation framework, teachers and civic education institutions. Textbook is the specific and alive curriculum standard, and it deconstruct course framework to lucid learning units; curriculum evaluation system can reflect learning result of students and it is the feedback index of course teaching; teachers are the "spokesmen" of curriculum standard, and they are communication bridge between curriculum standard and students; civic education institutions are social resources and they have important functions in researching, developing and modifying curriculum standard, teacher trainings and students' interaction, etc.
Chapter Seven discusses enlightenment of civics curriculum standard in America on ideological and political education in Chinese schools. Based on basic situation of relevant curriculum standard of ideological and political education at elementary and secondary education stage in China, this chapter reflects on enlightenment and reference of civics curriculum standard in America on ideological and political education in China. It proposes that in order to optimize the function of civic education course, it's necessary to be established in the actuality of social politics and economic development, follow objective development law and national demand, construct systematic curriculum combined civic knowledge, civic skill and civic character in primary school, middle school and high school, enhance cultivation of social civic education resources, perfect curriculum assesement system and attract extensive attention from all sectors of society, which is also a striving direction of curriculum reform in primary and secondary schools in China.
美国公民学课程标准是界定公民学课程性质、课程目标、课程内容和课程教学的指导性规定,描述了对不同年级的学生在公民学领域应该获得成绩、行为和个人发展的规定,体现了美国主流社会对理想公民的期求与希翼,是研究美国学校公民教育基本特征和价值取向的重要依据。以公民学课程标准这一相对稳定、规范的文本为观测视角,既能有效规避由于教育分权制度和多样化的课程教学实践等因素给研究带来的不确定性,加深对公民学这一美国中小学教育体系中核心课程的认识,还有助于从本质上把握课程所传播的主流意识形态,揭示公民教育目标的合法性根源,深化对公民教育实践活动规律的认识。
本文以辩证唯物主义和历史唯物主义为指导,采用历史分析法、语篇分析法、理论思辨法、诠释学方法、观察体验法和比较分析法,以公民学课程在美国公民教育课程历史中的嬗变为基础,以史为脉络,阐述公民学课程标准出现的历史必然性和存在的重要性,追溯公民学课程标准的法律依据和理论渊源；其次,对国家和联邦州两个层面公民学课程标准的内容体系进行解构对比,分析其统一性与差异性,试图归纳美国政治体系和政治权力所倡导的政治思想和政治价值,即主流社会对“理想公民”的期望；再次,通过对课程标准运用过程中各因素的分析,论证公民学课程标准对课程教学和教学质量评估产生了怎样的影响。最后,批判地思考该研究对我国思想政治教育课程实践的启示和借鉴价值。
基于这一思路,文章共分为七章,具体内容概括如下。
第一章为绪论部分。首先,阐述了美国公民学课程标准研究这一选题的缘由、选题目标和研究意义；其次,根据研究需要,对美国公民教育课程发展史、公民教育基础理论、公民教育课程结构、公民教育课程实践和公民教育课程标准五个方面的国内外研究现状进行梳理,总结现有研究进展、特点与不足；再次,对社会科、公民学、课程标准、政治文化与政治社会化五个重要的概念进行界定；在此基础上,确定本文的研究思路、研究方法和创新点。
第二章梳理了美国中小学公民学课程的历史沿革,经由公民学课程发展的历史与公民学课程地位的变化两条线索展开。第一条线索以时间为顺序,选取对公民学课程发展最具影响的四个时间节点,叙述了公民学课程从兴起、遭遇困境到蜕变发展的嬗变过程。在20世纪初中等教育改革以前,公民学很少以课程形态存在,大多以“公民科”、“公民政府”等学习模块呈现。1916年《中等教育中的社会科》报告打破这一局面,正式将公民学确定为中小学的正式课程。而后两次世界大战使公民学课程的发展屡遭波折,20世纪中叶新社会科运动的失败更使该课程及其价值备受质疑。20世纪80年代,《国家处于危险之中》这一报告对国家教育进行了全面反思,引发了教育基础化运动,美国政府强势干预学校教育,公民学课程开始了全新蜕变,公民学课程标准出现。21世纪初,《不让一个孩子掉队法案》为学校课程发展带来了新的机遇,奠定了现有公民学课程的立法基础。第二条线索立足于公民学课程的历史发展,分析了公民学课程从仅仅作为附属于历史课程的公民教育模块,发展为社会科体系中一门独立课程,再从社会科体系中一门非核心课程,发展为核心课程这一变化过程及其原因。不同历史背景下公民学课程核心内容和历史地位的变化,既凸显了公民学课程是政治文化传承的方式,又体现了该课程以主流政治意识需要为出发点培养公民的性质。
第三章梳理了美国《公民学与政府国家标准》的产生及法律与理论基础。在实施教育分权的美国,州政府拥有中小学教育管辖权,国家层面公民学课程标准的出现源于国家对教育的干预,它是国家社会经济发展需要与基础教育领域课程改革的必然结果,得到了国家政策和社会性教育机构的大力支持。由于不同时期对美国宪法的不同理解,美国中小学课程的管理权经历了州政府全权管理到国家干预的过渡。法律依据部分从美国宪法及其修正案、教育法令法规和判例法二个方面解析了现有公民学课程国家标准形成的法律依据。美国拥有丰富的公民教育思想理论,为了理解课程标准的教育目标和核心内容,理论基础部分分析了对现有公民学课程内容产生较大影响的欧洲占典哲学思想、公民资格理论和政治社会化理论,这些思想理论根植于特定的政治土壤中。在建国初期,美国公民教育基本上延续欧洲传统,之后逐步与美国教育实际相结合,教育理论借鉴与本土化发展并重。对课程标准颁布背景、法律和理论基础的梳理,有利于了解公民学课程标准和公民学教育目标的合法性、合规律性与合目的性根源。
第四章解析了美国公民学课程国家标准的核心内容。在介绍课程标准的主体架构和公民知识、公民技能、公民品性三大基本构成内容的基础上,本章以antconc语料库软件为工具,采用类别检索、上下文关键词分类和批判性话语分析三种方法,对课程标准文本进行解析。解析范围涉及表达公民知识要求的名词、与公民技能相关的动词和与标准制定者意图相关的情态动词。通过数据处理和话语分析,公民学课程国家标准的核心内容可以概括为四部分：与政府和国家相关的知识,与宪法和宪政相关的知识,与公民相关的知识,与价值观、原则、信仰和品性相关的知识。最后,文章从体系设计、结构布局、内容框架和意识形态四个方面总结了课程标准的特色。通过对课程标准核心内容的梳理,能更清晰地认识美国政治体系和政治权力对青少年公民教育的要求,有助于辨析核心内容的内在要求和话语中隐藏的意识形态倾向。
第五章分析了美国各州公民学课程标准。公民学课程国家标准不仅对课程学习内容提出了指导性框架,也为联邦各州课程标准的制定提供了依据。本章在宏观上介绍了联邦50个州和哥伦比亚特区课程标准的主要内容、呈现形式和特征等基本状况；微观上选取了纽约州“社会科学习标准”之公民学、公民资格与公民政府,加利福尼亚州“历史——社会科学框架”之公民学两份课程标准为案例,具体剖析了州课程标准的核心内容,概括了公民学课程标准在内容上的差异性与一致性。通过国家和联邦州之间课程标准的对比,不同州之间课程标准的对比,发现公民学课程标准是以《国家标准》的内容框架为指导,以州课程标准的具体规定为依据,兼顾地方特色而形成的。虽然课程标准的形式多样、数量庞大,但其实质上具有内在统一性,统一于美国主流社会所倡导的政治思想和政治价值。
第六章分析了公民学课程标准的应用,涉及《国家标准》、联邦州标准、教科书、学科测评框架、学校教师和公民教育机构。公民学课程标准是教育部门研发、制定、采纳或认可,用于指导一定范围内公民学课程教学的公开发行文件,它明确了课程的教学目标和框架,为学生学习成绩比较和课程评估提供依据。课程标准功能的发挥需要依靠教科书、学业测评框架等载体的辅助作用,通过学校教师、公民教育机构等主体的努力来实现。教科书是具体化和鲜活的课程标准,将课程框架解构为易懂的学习单元；课程评价体系可以反映学生的学习成果,是课程教学的反馈指标；教师是课程标准的“代言人”,是课程标准与学生之间的沟通桥梁；公民教育机构作为社会性资源,在课程标准的研发与修改、教师培训、学生互动等方面具有不可忽视的作用。
第七章美国公民学课程标准对我国学校思想政治教育的启示。本章基于我国基础教育阶段思想政治教育相关课程标准的基本情况,思考美国公民学课程标准研究对我国的启示和借鉴作用,认为只有立足于我国社会政治经济发展实际,遵循客观发展规律和国家需求,构建小学-初中-高中连贯的公民知识-公民技能-公民品性三位一体的课程体系,加强社会性公民教育资源培育,完善思想政治课程的评价体系,吸引社会各界广泛关注和参与,才能实现公民教育课程功能的最优化,这也是我国中小学公民教育课程改革应该努力的方向。
School is an important venue and way for civic education, which shoulders the task to spread mainstream values and cultivate qualified citizens. Civic education curriculum is the core carrier of civic education in schools, which offers coherent and systematic specialized guidance to adolescent students, thus it's a direct and effective channel to spread civic knowledge and cultivate civic skills. Primary and secondary civic education in America is mainly realized through social studies, which relies on four core disciplines-civics, history, geography and economy, integrating humanistic and social science knowledge, thus it's a set of inter-disciplinary and comprehensive learning system. Civics plays an important role to help citizens to identify basic value and principle of constitutional democracy in America as well as participate in political life responsibly, so it's very important in social studies.
Civics curriculum standards in America is an instructive stipulation to define curriculum nature, objective, content and teaching of civics, which describes stipulations about students' performance, behavior and personal development ought to be obtained at different grades in civics field, as well as reflects expectation and hope of mainstream society to ideal citizens. Thus the currirulum is an important basis to study essential features and value orientation of civic education in American schools. As a relatively stable and normative text, the research of civics curriculum standards can effectively avoid uncertainty caused by education decentralization system and diversified course teaching, deepen the understanding of civics, one of the core curricula in American primary and secondary education, essentially master mainstream ideology spread by course, reveal legality source of civic education objective and enhance understanding about activity routines of civic education.
Firstly, guided by dialectical materialism and historical materialism, the thesis adopts the methods of historical analysis, discourse analysis, theoretical analysis, hermeneutics, observation experience and comparative analysis to elaborate the historical inevitability and importance of civics curriculum standards, which sets evolution of civics in the history of American civic education curriculum as basis and history as context. Secondly, the thesis makes deconstruction and comparison between national and federal contents of civics curriculum standards, analyzes the uniformity and difference, and concludes political thought and value advocated by political system and power, namely the expectation of "ideal citizen" by mainstream society. Thirdly, through analysis about various factors during application process of curriculum standards, the thesis argues the influence of civics curriculum standards on course teaching and teaching quality assessment. Fourthly, the thesis critically reflects on enlightenment and reference of this research for ideological and political education course practice in China.
Based on this thought, the thesis is divided into seven chapters and the specific contents are concluded as follows.
Chapter one is introduction. Firstly, the reason, objective and significance of research on American civics curriculum standards are elaborated. Secondly, based on research demands, research status at home and abroad is reviewed, mainly from the curriculum development, basic theory, curriculum structure, curriculum practice and curriculum standards of civic education. And then the current research progress, features and shortcomings are concluded. Thirdly, the concepts of social studies, civics, curriculum standards, political culture and political socialization are defined, then the research thought, research method and innovation point of the thesis are confirmed based on that.
Chapter two reviews historical development of civics in American primary and secondary school, which is developed from two clues, namely history and status change of civics course. By setting time as order, the first clue selects four most influencing time nodes of civics course development and narrates evolution process of civics curriculum from rise, difficulty to development. Before secondary education reform in the beginning of20th century, civics existed as study module such as "citizen science" and "civil government" rather than curriculum. In1916, The Social Studies in Secondary Education broke this situation and civics was identified as a formal course in primary and middle school. However, two World Wars made civics course in trouble and the failure of New Social Studies Activity in the middle of20th century made the course value in question. In1980s, the report "A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform" comprehensively rethinked national education and triggered education foundation activity. American federal government intervened school education and civics course began brand new change, then civics curriculum standards appeared. In the beginning of21st century, No Child Left behind Act brought new opportunity to curriculum development, which laid legal foundation for current civics course. Based on historical development of civics course, the second clue analyzes the changing process and its' reasons of civics course status, from civic education module affiliated to history curriculum to independent course in social studies system, and from non-core course in social studies to a core course. The changes of core content and historical status of civics curriculum under different historical backgrounds reflect that civics course is an inheritance way of political culture and the curriculum cultivates citizens according to demands of mainstream political ideology as the starting point.
Chapter Three reviews the legal and theoretical origins of National Standard for Civics and Government. In America, state government owns jurisdiction of primary and secondary school. The civics curriculum standard at national level derives from national intervention on education, which is the demand of national social and economic development as well as an inevitable result of course reform in basic education field, obtaining strong support of national policy and social education institutions. Due to different understandings on US federal constitution at different times, the administration authority of curriculum in primary and secondary school transits from full management by state government to national intervention. As per legal origin, formation basis of the national standard can be analyzed mainly from three aspects, U.S. federal constitution and its amendment, education regulations and case law. There are abundant thoughts and theories about civic education in America. In order to understand education objectives and core contents of curriculum standard, theoretical origin analyzes classical philosophical thoughts in Europe, citizenship theory and political socialization theory that have great influence on civics curriculum contents, all of which are rooted in special political soil. In the early years of the new nation, European traditions continued its influences on America civic education, then were combined with local education, thus localization development of education theory is as important as reference. Reviewing the issuing background, legal and theoretical origins of curriculum standard is beneficial for understanding legality and regularity origin of curriculum standard as well as education objective of civics.
Chapter Four analyzes the core contents of civics curriculum standard in America. Based on introduction about main framework of curriculum standard and three basic constitutions contents, namely civic knowledge, civic skill and civic character, this chapter takes Antconc as a tool, adopts category searching, Kwic Sort in context and critical discourse analysis to analyze curriculum standards. Analysis scope involves nouns expressing civic knowledge requirements, verbs related to civic skills and modal verbs related to constitutor's intention. Through data processing and discourse analysis, core contents of civics curriculum standard can be concluded to four parts:knowledge related to government and nation, knowledge related to constitution and constitutionalism, knowledge related to citizen as well as knowledge related to value, principle, belief and moral character. Finally, the thesis summarizes characteristics of curriculum standard from four aspects:system design, structural layout, content framework and ideology. Reviewing core contents of curriculum standard is beneficial for understanding requirement on adolescent civic education by American political system and political power as well as helpful to discriminate intrinsic requirement of core contents and ideology orientation hidden in discourse.
Chapter Five analyzes civics curriculum standard in states of America. Civics curriculum standard not only puts forward instructive framework to learning content, but offers basis to formulate curriculum standard in state level. At macro level, this chapter introduces basic situation of curriculum standard such as main content, presentation way and features in50states and District of Columbia. At micro level, the chapter selects two curriculum standards as cases-civics, citizenship and citizen government in "Learning Standard about Social Sciences" of New York and civics in "History-Social Science Framework" of California, which specifically analyze core contents of state curriculum standard, concludes difference and consistency in content of civics curriculum standard. Through comparison between national and federal curriculum standard as well as curriculum standard in various states, it has been found that civics curriculum standard is formed under the guidance of content framework in National Standard for Civics and Government and based on specific regulations about curriculum standard in each state. Despite of diverse forms and large amount of curriculum standards, it has inherent uniformity in essence, which unifies in political thought and political value advocated by mainstream society in America.
Chapter Six analyzes the application of civics curriculum standard, involving national standard, federal standard, textbook, discipline evaluation framework, teacher training and civic education institutions. Civics curriculum standards are researched, formulated, adopted or recognized by education department, which are publicly issuing documents used to guide civics course teaching within certain scope. It makes teaching objective and framework explicit, and offers basis for performance comparison of students and course evaluation. The function realization of curriculum standard needs subsidiary carriers such as textbook, performance evaluation framework, teachers and civic education institutions. Textbook is the specific and alive curriculum standard, and it deconstruct course framework to lucid learning units; curriculum evaluation system can reflect learning result of students and it is the feedback index of course teaching; teachers are the "spokesmen" of curriculum standard, and they are communication bridge between curriculum standard and students; civic education institutions are social resources and they have important functions in researching, developing and modifying curriculum standard, teacher trainings and students' interaction, etc.
Chapter Seven discusses enlightenment of civics curriculum standard in America on ideological and political education in Chinese schools. Based on basic situation of relevant curriculum standard of ideological and political education at elementary and secondary education stage in China, this chapter reflects on enlightenment and reference of civics curriculum standard in America on ideological and political education in China. It proposes that in order to optimize the function of civic education course, it's necessary to be established in the actuality of social politics and economic development, follow objective development law and national demand, construct systematic curriculum combined civic knowledge, civic skill and civic character in primary school, middle school and high school, enhance cultivation of social civic education resources, perfect curriculum assesement system and attract extensive attention from all sectors of society, which is also a striving direction of curriculum reform in primary and secondary schools in China.
引文
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4 国家教委与联合国儿童基金会1990-1993 周期合作调研项目.学习质量和质量标准[M].南宁：广西教育出版社,1995：280
1 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). Expectations of Excellence:Curriculum Standards for Social Studies [EB/OL]. Washington DC:NCSS Publication,1994. http://www.ncss.org/standardsl.1.html.
2 由于各州对公民教育投入的不同,有些州有单独的公民学大纲,如宾夕法尼亚州的“公民学和政府学术标准”,大部分州则制定社会科课程标准或大纲,将公民学和历史等学科统整其中。
3 G. Almond, Comparative Political System[J]. The Journal of Politics, Vol.18, Aug.1956:393.
Lucian Pye. International Encyclopedia of Social Science[M]. MaCmillan Co. and the Free Press,1961. Vol.12: 218.
1 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：254.
2 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：2236-237
1 See generally Mark C. Alexander, Law-Related Education:Hope for Today's Students.20 OHIO N.U.L. REV. 1993:57,61-68.
2 《中等教育中的社会科》报告由全国教育协会(NEA)下属社会科委员会作为20世纪初中等教育改革的成果报告发布。
3 1892年在威斯康辛州麦迪逊举办了关于历史、公民政府和政治经济的研讨会,称为麦迪逊会议,属于美国国家教育协会(National Education Association)中等学校教育委员会的组成部分。会议由以查尔斯·肯德尔·亚当斯(Charles Kendall Adams)为代表的历史学家主导,试图提出一份综合中学历史教学方案。
1 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years [M]. State University of New York Press.1991:46-47.
2 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years [M]. State University of New York Press.1991:121.
3 美围历史协会,成立于1884年,致力十历史文件的收集、保存与传播与推广历史课程。
1 Diane Ravitch, "Tot Sociology," The American Scholar. Summaer 1987:10.
2 表格资料来自Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:22.
3 表格资料来自Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:35.
1 See generally Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:52-53.
2 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M], Albany:State University of New York Press.1991.157.
3 Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:12.
4 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M]. Albany:State University of New York Press.1991:153.
5 伯纳德曾发表A Program of Civics Teaching for War Times and After[J], Historical Outlook,9, no.9. December 1918:492-500一文
1 Mortimer Smith. And Madly Teach:A Layman Looks at Public School Education[M]. Chicago:Henry Regnery Company,1949.
2 Arthur Eugene Bestor. Educational Wastelands:The Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools[M]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1953.
1 Kitty Jones, Robert L. Olivier. Progressive Education is REDucation[M]. Boston:Meador Publishing Co., 1956.
2 Clarence Karier. The Individual Society, and Education[M]. Urbana:University of Illinois Press,287.
3 《国防教育法》,1958年9月2日由美国总统艾森豪威尔签署生效,源十冷战背景下苏联成功发射人造卫星,致力于为美国教育各级机构提供资金,加强学校的国防教育。
4 John Doyle and Stephen C. Shenkman. Revitalizing Civic Education:A Case Study [J]. Florida Bar Journal 80, no.10.2006.31.
5 国家科学基金会,一个美国政府机构,支持医学领域以外的科学和工学学士基础研究和教育。
6 Ronald W. Evans, The Hope for American School Reform:The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies[M]. New York:PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.2011:13.
1 Nathaniel Leland Schwartz. Civic Disengagement:The Demise of the American High School Civics Class[D]. senior honors thesis, Havard College,2002.
2 Barbara Barksdale Clowse. Brainpower for the Cold War:The Sputnik Crisis and the National Defense Edcuation of 1958[M]. Westport, CT:Greenwood Press,1981:159.
Ronald W. Evans. The Hope for American School Reform:The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learing in Social Studies[M]. NY:PALGRAVE MACMILLAM.2011:161.
1 Standards Movement in American Education [DB/OL]. http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2445/Standards-Movement-in-American-Education.html
1 《不让一个孩子掉队》法案,颁布于2001年,关注教育公平,改革教育评价制度,实施奖罚措施,以提高学生学习成绩为根本目的,关注教育公平,改革教育评价制度,实施奖罚措施。
2 James A. Duplass. Elementary Social Studies:Trite, Disjointed, and in Need of Reform?[J]. The Social Studies, 2007,98 (4):139.
1 Gayle Y. Thieman. Crossing Borders, Building Bridges[J].Social Education, Vol.72, No.1.
1 Cogan, J.J.Social Studies:Past, Present, Future[J]. Social Education.1976:33 (4).293-295.
David J. Feith, Evan H. Daar, etc. Teaching America:The Case for Civics Education [M]. R&L Education. 2011:3.
3 参见Kerry J Kennedy. Citizenship Education and the Modern Stae[M]. The Falmer Press,1997:139-146.
4 William J. Reese, America's Public Schools:From the Common School to "No Child Left Behind"[M]. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Universtiy Press,2005:28.
5 刘传德,许华.美国的历史教学[J].史学史研究.1997(01)：75.
6 刘传德,许华.美国的历史教学[J].史学史研究.1997(01)：76.
1 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M]. Albany:State University of New York Press.1991:7.
1 Tryphena Winifred Linwood. Civcs as the Predominant Subject to be Handled in the Social Studies[D]. Prairie View A & M College,1949.
2 John Doyle and Stephen C. Shenkman. Revitalizing Civic Education:A Case Study[J]. Florida Bar Journal 80, no.10(2006):31.
1 参见丁尧清.美国标准化运动中的社会科课程改革[J].外国教育研究2002年第9期和高峡.美国公民教育课程的设计与内涵[J].全球教育展望,2008年第9期.
2 格林斯坦,波尔斯比主编.政治学手册精选(下)[M].北京：商务印书馆,1996：231.
1 [美]丹尼尔·贝尔.后工业社会的来临——对社会预测的一项探索[M].高铪等译.北京：上午印书馆,1984.23.
1 林京耀,陈荷清.科学——改变世界的主导力量[M].南京：江苏人民出版社,1989.81.
2 Kadriya Salimova and Nan L. Dodde. International Handbook on History of Education. Orbita-M.2000.541.转引自方晓东,李新翠.美国构建国家基础教育质量监测评价体系的尝试——实施国家教育进展评估[A].纪念《教育史研究》创刊二十周年论文集(17)[C].2009.
3 1981年,时任美国总统里根授权当时的教育部长贝尔组建“美国高质量教育委员会”调查美国教育现状,该委员会经过历时18个月的调查,于1983年发布了广为人知的《国家处于危险之中》报告。
1 美国大学理事会,成立于1900年,前身是美国大学入学考试委员会(College Entrance Examination Board),是美国最大的非政府性教育组织,有超过5900多所院校和教育机构组成,为高等教育机构提供测试学生学术能力的标准化考试.
2 现已更名为学术能力评估测试,英文名称Scholastic Assessment Test,俗称“美国高考”,由美国大学理事会委托教育机构定期举办SAT测验,作为美国大学申请的重要条件之一。
3 Gardner, David P. A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. An Open Letter to the American People. A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education (ED), Washington, DC.1983.
4 Gardner, David P. A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. An Open Letter to the American People. A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education (ED), Washington, DC.1983.
3 参见孙锴.美国基础教育全国课程标准的社会形成研究[D].东北师范大学,2005.
6 Howard D. Mehlinger and O.L. Davis, Jr. The Social Studies. Eightieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. University of Chicago Press.1981.16.
1 1988年的NAEP调查发生在《公民学与政府国家标准》制定前,所测评的课程《公民学：美国政府和政治学》是当时一门比较普遍的课程。
2 《2061计划》启动于1985年,是美国促进科学协会联合美国科学院、联邦教育部等12个机构制定的一项面向21世纪的中小学课程改革工程,体现了当时美国基础教育课程改革的期望与趋势。
3 The National Education Goals:A Report to the Nation's Governors (1990).
4 Higgenbotham, M. ed. What Governors Need to Know About Education Reform? [M]. Washington, DC: National Governors Association.1995.
5 美国全国教育目标专门小组成立于全国教育峰会次年,目的是报告全国完成教育峰会目标的进展情况。《2000年目标：美国教育法》正式赋予其法律地位,要求它每年报告教育进展。2000年,NCLD法案正式生效后,该小组使命终止。
6 参见陈光辉,詹栋梁.各国公民教育[M].台北：水牛图书出版事业有限公司,1998：115-116.
1 柯森.美国90年代的课程改革[J].课程·教材·教法,1997(2).
2 加州律师协会,成立于1927年,所有成员都是法庭成员,是一个服务于加州最高法院,术语政府司法体系内的一个公共机构。
1 美国律师协会,成立于1878年,是美国律师的全国性组织,致力于提高律师素质,加强司法管理,加强成员间的交流等。
2 美国教师联盟,成立于1916年,现在在全美拥有超过3000个附属机构约150万教师成员。
3 美国公民教育中心2002年年报中指出《公民学与政府国家标准》有中文译文,但在笔者所检索的所有国内公开出版书籍与网上资料中,并未寻找到中文版本。原因可能有有两个,一是美国公民教育中心与我国教育部教材中心和部分省市有合作关系,中文译文版仅作为内部资料交流使用,并未公开发行,二是中文译文版在台湾、香港等地区发行,并未进入内地。
4 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2002：298.
5 1776年7月4日,第二次大陆会议批准杰斐逊起草的《独立宣言》,北美13个英属殖民地宣告独立。
1 林玉体.美国教育思想史[M].台北：九州出版社,2006：111.
2 该法案后来成为美国宪法第一修正案创设条文的基础。
3 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_Aml.html,宪法第一修正案于1789年9月25
日提出,1791年12月15日批准,宪法前十条修正案被称为美国《权利法案》
4 威廉·玛丽学院是美国历史第二悠久的大学,乔治·华盛顿、托马斯·杰斐逊等四位美国总统毕业十该校。
5 聂迎娉.美国公民宗教及其在公民教育中的作用研究[D].中国地质大学,2011.
1 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst Am1O.html
2 [美]菲利普·方纳.杰斐逊文选[M].王华译.北京：商务印书馆,1963：78.
3 1980年在该办公室的基础上,成立美国教育部(the Department of Education)
4 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_AlSec8.html
5 宪法第一条第八款国会的隐性权力说借鉴了朱旭东,李卫群的观点。朱旭东,李卫群.美国联邦政府十顶教育的几个理论问题分析[J].比较教育研究,1999(04).
6 美国《中小学教育法》,也称为《初等中等教育法》是美国总统林登·约翰逊“伟大社会”计划在教育领域内的法律成果,开启了联邦政府大规模资助中小学教育的先河。
1 美国《权利法案》指美国第一至第十宪法修正案,于1791年通过。
2 在1998年《美国法典》中,《国防教育法》被归纳在第二十《教育法卷》中,属于教育立法,而非国防立法。
3 Sundquist, J. Politics and Policy. The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years[M]. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press,1968.:215.
4 Wright, D. Understanding Intergovernmental Relation. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cloe,1988:195.
1 See generally Center for Civic Education. National Standards for Civics and Government[M]. California: Center for Civic Education.1994.
2 Elsie W. Clews. Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments[M]. New York: Macmillan & Co.,1899..
3 1926年开始,美国人将建国以来国会的所有立法(不包括《独立宣言》、《联邦条例》和联邦宪法)分类进行整理编撰,第一版仅有15卷,后经过不断修订,目前最新版本共有51卷与5个补充卷。
4 Newton Edwards. The Courts and the Public Schools:The Legal Basis of School Organization and Administration[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1933.
5 Robert Rolla Hamilton, Paul R. Mort. The Law and Public Education, with Cases[M]. The Foundation Press, inc.,1941.
5 William D Valente. Law in the Schools. Columbus[M]. OH:Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co.,1980.
1 Michael A. Rebell, Arthur R. Block. Educational Policy Making and the Courts:An Empirical Study of Judicial Activism[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1982.
1 (美)约翰·S·布鲁们克著,吴元训译.教育问题史[M].安徽教育出版社,1991：4.
2 (美)列奥·施特劳斯,彭刚译.自然权利与历史[M].北京：三联书店,2003：导言.81.3.
3 (美)杜威.民主主义与教育[M].王承绪译.北京：人民教育出版社,2001：476.
4 《理想国》是柏拉图在大约公元前390年所写的作品,以他的老师苏格拉底为主角的对话形式题材完成。
5 Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. Philosophical foundations of education[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall/Merrill.,2003.
1 结构主义是20世纪下半叶用来分析语言、文化和社会的常用研究方法,公民教育领域受其影响的代表人物是杰罗姆·布鲁纳,详见论文1.2.4部分。
2 要素主义产生于20世纪30年代的美国,与进步主义相对,公民教育领导受该思想影响的代表人物有杰克·泽伟,参见论文1.2.3部分。
1 L.迪安·韦布著.陈露茜,李朝阳译.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国实验[M].安徽教育出版社,2010：23.
1 Feinberg, W. Common Schools/Uncommon Identities:National Unit and Cultural Difference[M]. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,1988:10.
2 郭忠华.公民资格的解释范式与分析走向[J].浙江学刊.2009(03).
3 尤尔根·哈贝马斯.包容他者[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2002：133.
1 卡耐基基金会成立于1911年,宗旨是增进和传播知识,促进美国与其他国家,特别是英联邦成员国之间的了解。
2 Herbert H. Hyman. Political Socialization:A Study in the Psychology of Political Behavior[M]. Glencoe:Free Press,1959.
3 David Easton, Jack Dennis. Children in the Political System:Origins of Political Legitimacy[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1969.
4 David Eastion, Jack Dennis. Children in the Political System:Origins of Political Legitimacy [M]. N.Y.: McGraw-Rill,1969:7.
5 Rechard E. Dawson & Kenneth Prewitt. Political Socialization [M]. Boston:Little Brown and Company. Boston,1969.
6 威廉·F·斯通.政治心理学[M].黑龙江：人民出版社,1997：64.
1 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：237.
2 高峰.当代西方政治社会化理论述评[J].教学与研究,1997(04).
3 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：254.
4 克林顿著.金灿荣等译.希望与历史之间[M].海口：海南出版社,1997：98.
1 参见高峰.美国公民教育的基本内涵[J].比较教育研究,2005,(05)
1 束永容,傅安洲,聂迎娉.美国公民教育研究方法新探——批评性话语分析[J].学校党建与思想教育.2013,(03).
1 参见纽约州教育部门官网http://www.pl2.nysed.gov/part100/pages/1005.html "100.5毕业要求”的规定。
2 Center for Civic Education. National Standards for Civics and Government[EB/OL]. http://www.civiced.org/index.php?page=stds
1 时蓉华.现代社会心理学[M].上海：华东师范学出版社,2007：277.
2 参见李稚勇.社会中心·学科中心·学生发展中心——论美国社会科课程结构的多样化发展[J].外国中小学教育.2009(03).
1 Jennings, H.F. Why National Standards and Test? Politics and the Quest for Better Schools[M]. SAGE Publications.1998:6.
1 该部分关于NAEP公民学课程测评框架介绍的数据来源于NAEP官网以及2010年公民学评估框架http://www.nagb.org/publications/frameworks/civicsframework.pdf
1 任京民.当代美国社会科教师角色论析[J].教育科学研究.2009,(01).
2 参见Jack Zevin. Social Studies for the Twenty-First Century. Mahwah:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,2000：3-18,转引自任京民.当代美国社会科教师角色论析[J].教育科学研究.2009.(01).
1 调查数据引自王永红.左右美国社会科课程的社会力量[J].学科教育.2003(08).
1 数据引自周长祜,韩呼生,金郁向.美国的公民教育[J].国际学术动态.2003(03).
2 有宝华.“培养青年积极公民权利意识”研讨会在马来西亚槟城召开[J].基础教育课程.2005(03).
1 参见陈华洲.思想政治教育资源论[D].华中师范大学,2007.
2 参见傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社.2010：312.
3 田海林.中学思想政治教育资源配置研究[D].陕西师范大学,2012.
1 吴刚平.国家课程标准中学习水平与行为动词问题探讨[J].乐山师范学院学报.2002.(02).
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1 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M]. Albany:State University of New York Press.1991.
2 麦迪逊会议于1892年在威斯康辛州的麦迪逊召开,主题涉及关于历史、公民政府和政治经济,认为公民与政府,政治经济知识,特别是历史课程能为学生提供成为思维严谨公民所需的智力技能。
3 1896年,美国历史协会指定一个七人委员会为学校提供一套更全面的历史课程,两年后,七人委员会发布了一个指导性的四年历史课程模型,内容涉及古代史、欧洲史、英国史、美国历史与政府等内容。
4 中等教育改革社会科委员会,形成于1912年,致力于学校公民教育改革。
5 Ronald W. Evans. The Tragedy of American School Reform:How Currirulum Politics and Entrenched Dilemmas Have Diverted Us from Democracy[M]. NY:PALGRAVE MACMILLAM.2011.
6 Ronald W. Evans. The Hope for American School Reform:The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learing in Social Studies[M]. NY:PALGRAVE MACMILLAM.2011.
7 新社会科运动,指发生在20世纪中叶的一次公民教育课程改革。
8 回到基础运动,指发生在20世纪七八十年代强调学科基础知识学习的一次社会科改革。
9 课程标准化运动,指20世纪八九十年代为提高学校质量,大规模制定学科课程标准的教育改革。
10 标准化测试,由美国教育进步评估中心组织,对选作样本的学生进行考核,旨在实现对学校、教师的控制和测评。
11 Howard Mehlinger. The Social Studies:Eightieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education[M]. University of Chicago Press,1981.
1 National Council for Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence:Curriculum Standards for Social Studies[M]. Washington DC:NCSS Publication.1994.
1 确定问题测验,科尔伯格学生——美国明尼苏达大学教育詹姆斯莱斯特教授设计的一个道德发展构建模型,1982年,该大学成立伦理发展研究中心作为这项测试的媒介。
2 [美]戴维·伊斯顿.儿童早期政治社会化过程——对民主参政概念的接受[J].国外政治学.1985：(2)
1 William B. Stanley, Jack L. Nelson. The Foundations of Social Education in Historical Context,转引自 Rebecca A. Martusewicz:Inside/Out:Contemporary Critical Perspectives in Education 中第17章. St. Martins Press.1994.
2 Robert D. Barr, James L. Bath, S. Samuel Shermis. Defining the Social Studies [M]. National Council for the Social Studies.1977.
1 Jack Zevin. Social Studies for the Twenty-First Century [M]. NY:Longman,1999.
2 David Kerr. Citizenship Education:an International Comparison.1999 [EB/OL]. http://www.inca.org.uk/pdf/citizenship_no_intro.pdf
John J Cogan, Ray Derricott. Citizenships for the 21th Century:An International Perspective on Education [Ml. Kogan Page Limited.1998.
1 Bloom B.S. Taxonomy of Educational Objectives:The Classification of Educational Goals[M]. New York: David McKay Co. Inc.1956.
2 Marvin W. Berkowitz, Fritz Oser. Moral Education:Theory and Application[M]. L. Erlbaum Associates.1985.
1 新品格教育运动,指兴起十20世纪80年代,以传统品格教育为基础充分吸收不同学者的道德教育观点,以“实践”为重要特征的中小学道德教育理论和实践模式。
2 Thomas Lickona. Educating for Character:How Our Schools can Teach Respect and Responsibility[M]. Bantam Trade Paperback Ed:1992.
3 Thomas Lickona. Moral Development and Behavior[M]. Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1976.
4 Evelyn Holt. Character Education[M], Blooming, In:ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education,2002.
5 Quinn M. Pearson. Comprehensive Character Education in the Elementary Schools:Strategy for Administrators, Teachers and Counselors[J]. The Journal of Humanistic Counseling, Education and Development. Vol.38. June 2000:243-251.
6 美国公民学习和参‘j信息研究中心,成立于2001年,致力十针对学校公民教育、青年美国人的投票与政治参与、激进主义等公民参与形式开展研究,该中心研究报告被学术书籍和许多国家新闻媒体广泛引用。
7 Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement [R]. The Civic Mission of Schools. New York:2003.
8 美国公民教育中心成立于1965年,是美国最大的非营利、非党派性质的公民教育机构。
1 该法案于1993年由克林顿政府提出,作为法案提请国会两院审议,于1994年正是通过,用于支持以课程标准为基础的教育改革。
2 June R. Chapin. A Practical Guide to Middle and Secondary Social Studies[M]. Boston:Pearson.2011.
1 Mary. E. Haas, Margaret A. Laughlin. Meeting the Standards:Social Studies Reading for K-6 EducatorsfM]. Washington, DC:National Council for the Social Studies.1997.
2 《社会教育》期刊是目前美国礼会科委员会旗下最重要的刊物。
3 《政治科学与政治》创刊于1968年,是美国政治科学协会旗下刊物。
1 教育部基础教育司.历史与社会课程标准解读[M].北京：北京师范大学出版社,2002.3.
2 Thomas Jesse Jones. Social Studies in the Hampton Curriculum[M]. Hampton:Hampton Institute Press.1906.
2 全国教育协会,致力于促进公共交易事业,在美国每个州和超过14000个社区都设置有附属机构。
3 该概念于1992年被社会科协会采用,出版物发行于1994年。National Council for The Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence:Curriculum Standards for Social Studies [R]. Washington D.C.; NCSS Publication, 1994:3.
1 National Council for The Social Studies. Expectations of Excellence:Curriculum Standards for Social Studies [R]. Washington D.C.; NCSS Publication,1994:16-17.
1 引自澳大利亚课程、评估和报告当局发布的The Shape of the Australian Curriculum:Civics and Citizenship. 2012.http://www.acara.edu.au/verve/_resources/Shape of the_Australian Curriculum_Civics_and_Citizenship_251012.pdf
2 引自美国新闻学会http://nieonline.com/detroit/members/civics flip book.pdf
3 秦树理.西方公民学[M].(公民教育研究丛书)郑州大学出版社,2008：3.
5 Frederick Converse Beach, George Edwin Rines. The Americana:a universal reference library, comprising the arts and sciences, literature, history, biography, geography, commerce, etc., of the world, Volume 5, Scientific American compiling department,1912:1.
1 施良方.课程理论[M].北京：教育科学出版社,1996：3-7
2 顾明远主编：教育大词典(第一卷)[M].上海：上海教育出版社,1990：893.
3 美国国家研究理事会.美国国家科学教育标准[J].北京：科学技术文献出版社,1999.
4 国家教委与联合国儿童基金会1990-1993 周期合作调研项目.学习质量和质量标准[M].南宁：广西教育出版社,1995：280
1 National Council for the Social Studies (NCSS). Expectations of Excellence:Curriculum Standards for Social Studies [EB/OL]. Washington DC:NCSS Publication,1994. http://www.ncss.org/standardsl.1.html.
2 由于各州对公民教育投入的不同,有些州有单独的公民学大纲,如宾夕法尼亚州的“公民学和政府学术标准”,大部分州则制定社会科课程标准或大纲,将公民学和历史等学科统整其中。
3 G. Almond, Comparative Political System[J]. The Journal of Politics, Vol.18, Aug.1956:393.
Lucian Pye. International Encyclopedia of Social Science[M]. MaCmillan Co. and the Free Press,1961. Vol.12: 218.
1 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：254.
2 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：2236-237
1 See generally Mark C. Alexander, Law-Related Education:Hope for Today's Students.20 OHIO N.U.L. REV. 1993:57,61-68.
2 《中等教育中的社会科》报告由全国教育协会(NEA)下属社会科委员会作为20世纪初中等教育改革的成果报告发布。
3 1892年在威斯康辛州麦迪逊举办了关于历史、公民政府和政治经济的研讨会,称为麦迪逊会议,属于美国国家教育协会(National Education Association)中等学校教育委员会的组成部分。会议由以查尔斯·肯德尔·亚当斯(Charles Kendall Adams)为代表的历史学家主导,试图提出一份综合中学历史教学方案。
1 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years [M]. State University of New York Press.1991:46-47.
2 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years [M]. State University of New York Press.1991:121.
3 美围历史协会,成立于1884年,致力十历史文件的收集、保存与传播与推广历史课程。
1 Diane Ravitch, "Tot Sociology," The American Scholar. Summaer 1987:10.
2 表格资料来自Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:22.
3 表格资料来自Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:35.
1 See generally Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:52-53.
2 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M], Albany:State University of New York Press.1991.157.
3 Arthur William Dunn. The Social Studies in Secondary Education, Report of the Committee on Social Studies of the Commission on the Reorganization of Secondary Education, National Education Association, United States Bureau of Education, Bulletin,1916, no.28. Washington, D.C.:GPO,1916:12.
4 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M]. Albany:State University of New York Press.1991:153.
5 伯纳德曾发表A Program of Civics Teaching for War Times and After[J], Historical Outlook,9, no.9. December 1918:492-500一文
1 Mortimer Smith. And Madly Teach:A Layman Looks at Public School Education[M]. Chicago:Henry Regnery Company,1949.
2 Arthur Eugene Bestor. Educational Wastelands:The Retreat from Learning in Our Public Schools[M]. Urbana: University of Illinois Press,1953.
1 Kitty Jones, Robert L. Olivier. Progressive Education is REDucation[M]. Boston:Meador Publishing Co., 1956.
2 Clarence Karier. The Individual Society, and Education[M]. Urbana:University of Illinois Press,287.
3 《国防教育法》,1958年9月2日由美国总统艾森豪威尔签署生效,源十冷战背景下苏联成功发射人造卫星,致力于为美国教育各级机构提供资金,加强学校的国防教育。
4 John Doyle and Stephen C. Shenkman. Revitalizing Civic Education:A Case Study [J]. Florida Bar Journal 80, no.10.2006.31.
5 国家科学基金会,一个美国政府机构,支持医学领域以外的科学和工学学士基础研究和教育。
6 Ronald W. Evans, The Hope for American School Reform:The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learning in Social Studies[M]. New York:PALGRAVE MACMILLAN.2011:13.
1 Nathaniel Leland Schwartz. Civic Disengagement:The Demise of the American High School Civics Class[D]. senior honors thesis, Havard College,2002.
2 Barbara Barksdale Clowse. Brainpower for the Cold War:The Sputnik Crisis and the National Defense Edcuation of 1958[M]. Westport, CT:Greenwood Press,1981:159.
Ronald W. Evans. The Hope for American School Reform:The Cold War Pursuit of Inquiry Learing in Social Studies[M]. NY:PALGRAVE MACMILLAM.2011:161.
1 Standards Movement in American Education [DB/OL]. http://education.stateuniversity.com/pages/2445/Standards-Movement-in-American-Education.html
1 《不让一个孩子掉队》法案,颁布于2001年,关注教育公平,改革教育评价制度,实施奖罚措施,以提高学生学习成绩为根本目的,关注教育公平,改革教育评价制度,实施奖罚措施。
2 James A. Duplass. Elementary Social Studies:Trite, Disjointed, and in Need of Reform?[J]. The Social Studies, 2007,98 (4):139.
1 Gayle Y. Thieman. Crossing Borders, Building Bridges[J].Social Education, Vol.72, No.1.
1 Cogan, J.J.Social Studies:Past, Present, Future[J]. Social Education.1976:33 (4).293-295.
David J. Feith, Evan H. Daar, etc. Teaching America:The Case for Civics Education [M]. R&L Education. 2011:3.
3 参见Kerry J Kennedy. Citizenship Education and the Modern Stae[M]. The Falmer Press,1997:139-146.
4 William J. Reese, America's Public Schools:From the Common School to "No Child Left Behind"[M]. Baltimore:Johns Hopkins Universtiy Press,2005:28.
5 刘传德,许华.美国的历史教学[J].史学史研究.1997(01)：75.
6 刘传德,许华.美国的历史教学[J].史学史研究.1997(01)：76.
1 David Warren Saxe. Social Studies in Schools:A History of the Early Years[M]. Albany:State University of New York Press.1991:7.
1 Tryphena Winifred Linwood. Civcs as the Predominant Subject to be Handled in the Social Studies[D]. Prairie View A & M College,1949.
2 John Doyle and Stephen C. Shenkman. Revitalizing Civic Education:A Case Study[J]. Florida Bar Journal 80, no.10(2006):31.
1 参见丁尧清.美国标准化运动中的社会科课程改革[J].外国教育研究2002年第9期和高峡.美国公民教育课程的设计与内涵[J].全球教育展望,2008年第9期.
2 格林斯坦,波尔斯比主编.政治学手册精选(下)[M].北京：商务印书馆,1996：231.
1 [美]丹尼尔·贝尔.后工业社会的来临——对社会预测的一项探索[M].高铪等译.北京：上午印书馆,1984.23.
1 林京耀,陈荷清.科学——改变世界的主导力量[M].南京：江苏人民出版社,1989.81.
2 Kadriya Salimova and Nan L. Dodde. International Handbook on History of Education. Orbita-M.2000.541.转引自方晓东,李新翠.美国构建国家基础教育质量监测评价体系的尝试——实施国家教育进展评估[A].纪念《教育史研究》创刊二十周年论文集(17)[C].2009.
3 1981年,时任美国总统里根授权当时的教育部长贝尔组建“美国高质量教育委员会”调查美国教育现状,该委员会经过历时18个月的调查,于1983年发布了广为人知的《国家处于危险之中》报告。
1 美国大学理事会,成立于1900年,前身是美国大学入学考试委员会(College Entrance Examination Board),是美国最大的非政府性教育组织,有超过5900多所院校和教育机构组成,为高等教育机构提供测试学生学术能力的标准化考试.
2 现已更名为学术能力评估测试,英文名称Scholastic Assessment Test,俗称“美国高考”,由美国大学理事会委托教育机构定期举办SAT测验,作为美国大学申请的重要条件之一。
3 Gardner, David P. A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. An Open Letter to the American People. A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education (ED), Washington, DC.1983.
4 Gardner, David P. A Nation at Risk:The Imperative for Educational Reform. An Open Letter to the American People. A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education. National Commission on Excellence in Education (ED), Washington, DC.1983.
3 参见孙锴.美国基础教育全国课程标准的社会形成研究[D].东北师范大学,2005.
6 Howard D. Mehlinger and O.L. Davis, Jr. The Social Studies. Eightieth Yearbook of the National Society for the Study of Education. University of Chicago Press.1981.16.
1 1988年的NAEP调查发生在《公民学与政府国家标准》制定前,所测评的课程《公民学：美国政府和政治学》是当时一门比较普遍的课程。
2 《2061计划》启动于1985年,是美国促进科学协会联合美国科学院、联邦教育部等12个机构制定的一项面向21世纪的中小学课程改革工程,体现了当时美国基础教育课程改革的期望与趋势。
3 The National Education Goals:A Report to the Nation's Governors (1990).
4 Higgenbotham, M. ed. What Governors Need to Know About Education Reform? [M]. Washington, DC: National Governors Association.1995.
5 美国全国教育目标专门小组成立于全国教育峰会次年,目的是报告全国完成教育峰会目标的进展情况。《2000年目标：美国教育法》正式赋予其法律地位,要求它每年报告教育进展。2000年,NCLD法案正式生效后,该小组使命终止。
6 参见陈光辉,詹栋梁.各国公民教育[M].台北：水牛图书出版事业有限公司,1998：115-116.
1 柯森.美国90年代的课程改革[J].课程·教材·教法,1997(2).
2 加州律师协会,成立于1927年,所有成员都是法庭成员,是一个服务于加州最高法院,术语政府司法体系内的一个公共机构。
1 美国律师协会,成立于1878年,是美国律师的全国性组织,致力于提高律师素质,加强司法管理,加强成员间的交流等。
2 美国教师联盟,成立于1916年,现在在全美拥有超过3000个附属机构约150万教师成员。
3 美国公民教育中心2002年年报中指出《公民学与政府国家标准》有中文译文,但在笔者所检索的所有国内公开出版书籍与网上资料中,并未寻找到中文版本。原因可能有有两个,一是美国公民教育中心与我国教育部教材中心和部分省市有合作关系,中文译文版仅作为内部资料交流使用,并未公开发行,二是中文译文版在台湾、香港等地区发行,并未进入内地。
4 滕大春.美国教育史[M].北京：人民教育出版社,2002：298.
5 1776年7月4日,第二次大陆会议批准杰斐逊起草的《独立宣言》,北美13个英属殖民地宣告独立。
1 林玉体.美国教育思想史[M].台北：九州出版社,2006：111.
2 该法案后来成为美国宪法第一修正案创设条文的基础。
3 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_Aml.html,宪法第一修正案于1789年9月25
日提出,1791年12月15日批准,宪法前十条修正案被称为美国《权利法案》
4 威廉·玛丽学院是美国历史第二悠久的大学,乔治·华盛顿、托马斯·杰斐逊等四位美国总统毕业十该校。
5 聂迎娉.美国公民宗教及其在公民教育中的作用研究[D].中国地质大学,2011.
1 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst Am1O.html
2 [美]菲利普·方纳.杰斐逊文选[M].王华译.北京：商务印书馆,1963：78.
3 1980年在该办公室的基础上,成立美国教育部(the Department of Education)
4 参见美国宪法在线网：http://www.usconstitution.net/xconst_AlSec8.html
5 宪法第一条第八款国会的隐性权力说借鉴了朱旭东,李卫群的观点。朱旭东,李卫群.美国联邦政府十顶教育的几个理论问题分析[J].比较教育研究,1999(04).
6 美国《中小学教育法》,也称为《初等中等教育法》是美国总统林登·约翰逊“伟大社会”计划在教育领域内的法律成果,开启了联邦政府大规模资助中小学教育的先河。
1 美国《权利法案》指美国第一至第十宪法修正案,于1791年通过。
2 在1998年《美国法典》中,《国防教育法》被归纳在第二十《教育法卷》中,属于教育立法,而非国防立法。
3 Sundquist, J. Politics and Policy. The Eisenhower, Kennedy, and Johnson Years[M]. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution Press,1968.:215.
4 Wright, D. Understanding Intergovernmental Relation. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cloe,1988:195.
1 See generally Center for Civic Education. National Standards for Civics and Government[M]. California: Center for Civic Education.1994.
2 Elsie W. Clews. Educational Legislation and Administration of the Colonial Governments[M]. New York: Macmillan & Co.,1899..
3 1926年开始,美国人将建国以来国会的所有立法(不包括《独立宣言》、《联邦条例》和联邦宪法)分类进行整理编撰,第一版仅有15卷,后经过不断修订,目前最新版本共有51卷与5个补充卷。
4 Newton Edwards. The Courts and the Public Schools:The Legal Basis of School Organization and Administration[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press,1933.
5 Robert Rolla Hamilton, Paul R. Mort. The Law and Public Education, with Cases[M]. The Foundation Press, inc.,1941.
5 William D Valente. Law in the Schools. Columbus[M]. OH:Charles E. Merrill Pub. Co.,1980.
1 Michael A. Rebell, Arthur R. Block. Educational Policy Making and the Courts:An Empirical Study of Judicial Activism[M]. Chicago:University of Chicago Press.1982.
1 (美)约翰·S·布鲁们克著,吴元训译.教育问题史[M].安徽教育出版社,1991：4.
2 (美)列奥·施特劳斯,彭刚译.自然权利与历史[M].北京：三联书店,2003：导言.81.3.
3 (美)杜威.民主主义与教育[M].王承绪译.北京：人民教育出版社,2001：476.
4 《理想国》是柏拉图在大约公元前390年所写的作品,以他的老师苏格拉底为主角的对话形式题材完成。
5 Ozmon, H. A., & Craver, S. M. Philosophical foundations of education[M]. Upper Saddle River, NJ:Prentice Hall/Merrill.,2003.
1 结构主义是20世纪下半叶用来分析语言、文化和社会的常用研究方法,公民教育领域受其影响的代表人物是杰罗姆·布鲁纳,详见论文1.2.4部分。
2 要素主义产生于20世纪30年代的美国,与进步主义相对,公民教育领导受该思想影响的代表人物有杰克·泽伟,参见论文1.2.3部分。
1 L.迪安·韦布著.陈露茜,李朝阳译.美国教育史：一场伟大的美国实验[M].安徽教育出版社,2010：23.
1 Feinberg, W. Common Schools/Uncommon Identities:National Unit and Cultural Difference[M]. New Haven, CT:Yale University Press,1988:10.
2 郭忠华.公民资格的解释范式与分析走向[J].浙江学刊.2009(03).
3 尤尔根·哈贝马斯.包容他者[M].上海：上海人民出版社,2002：133.
1 卡耐基基金会成立于1911年,宗旨是增进和传播知识,促进美国与其他国家,特别是英联邦成员国之间的了解。
2 Herbert H. Hyman. Political Socialization:A Study in the Psychology of Political Behavior[M]. Glencoe:Free Press,1959.
3 David Easton, Jack Dennis. Children in the Political System:Origins of Political Legitimacy[M]. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,1969.
4 David Eastion, Jack Dennis. Children in the Political System:Origins of Political Legitimacy [M]. N.Y.: McGraw-Rill,1969:7.
5 Rechard E. Dawson & Kenneth Prewitt. Political Socialization [M]. Boston:Little Brown and Company. Boston,1969.
6 威廉·F·斯通.政治心理学[M].黑龙江：人民出版社,1997：64.
1 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：237.
2 高峰.当代西方政治社会化理论述评[J].教学与研究,1997(04).
3 傅安洲,阮一帆,彭涛.德国政治教育研究[M].人民出版社,2010：254.
4 克林顿著.金灿荣等译.希望与历史之间[M].海口：海南出版社,1997：98.
1 参见高峰.美国公民教育的基本内涵[J].比较教育研究,2005,(05)
1 束永容,傅安洲,聂迎娉.美国公民教育研究方法新探——批评性话语分析[J].学校党建与思想教育.2013,(03).
1 参见纽约州教育部门官网http://www.pl2.nysed.gov/part100/pages/1005.html "100.5毕业要求”的规定。
2 Center for Civic Education. National Standards for Civics and Government[EB/OL]. http://www.civiced.org/index.php?page=stds
1 时蓉华.现代社会心理学[M].上海：华东师范学出版社,2007：277.
2 参见李稚勇.社会中心·学科中心·学生发展中心——论美国社会科课程结构的多样化发展[J].外国中小学教育.2009(03).
1 Jennings, H.F. Why National Standards and Test? Politics and the Quest for Better Schools[M]. SAGE Publications.1998:6.
1 该部分关于NAEP公民学课程测评框架介绍的数据来源于NAEP官网以及2010年公民学评估框架http://www.nagb.org/publications/frameworks/civicsframework.pdf
1 任京民.当代美国社会科教师角色论析[J].教育科学研究.2009,(01).
2 参见Jack Zevin. Social Studies for the Twenty-First Century. Mahwah:Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,2000：3-18,转引自任京民.当代美国社会科教师角色论析[J].教育科学研究.2009.(01).
1 调查数据引自王永红.左右美国社会科课程的社会力量[J].学科教育.2003(08).
1 数据引自周长祜,韩呼生,金郁向.美国的公民教育[J].国际学术动态.2003(03).
2 有宝华.“培养青年积极公民权利意识”研讨会在马来西亚槟城召开[J].基础教育课程.2005(03).
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