基于主观博弈的产业组织模式变迁机理研究
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摘要
产业组织研究的对象是同一产业内企业之间的组织关系或市场关系,而产业组织模式是产业内企业之间关于竞争与分工合作关系的具体模式。从经济发展的历史看,每一个时期都存在着一个主导的产业组织模式。而不同时期的主导产业组织模式各不相同,即产业组织模式是处于一个变迁的进程之中的。一般而言,可以把产业组织模式变迁的进程大致分成三个阶段,分别是单体企业为主导的产业组织模式阶段、以纵向一体化的大型层级制企业为主导的产业组织模式阶段和网络组织模式阶段。
     传统的产业组织理论的研究主要集中在市场结构或者市场绩效上,更关注产业内企业之间的市场关系,而对企业之间的分工与合作的组织关系关注较少。新产业组织理论在一定程度上弥补了传统产业组织理论对于企业间的组织关系研究忽视的不足。将研究的重点放在了企业与企业之间的组织关系上,运用交易费用理论对企业内部的结构、企业与市场的关系和企业的组织行为等进行了分析。但新产业组织理论仅基于不同治理模式所具备的优势解释了一种新型的治理模式得以产生的原因,是一种基于功能性的解释,而非一种因果关系的解释。另外新产业组织理论对于产业组织模式变迁的研究是基于静态的均衡,而非动态的过程。因此,新产业组织理论并未就整个产业组织模式的变迁过程提出一个完整的理论框架,而是对整个变迁过程中的部分环节的研究。奥地利学派虽然从动态的角度出发研究产业组织问题,但它主要关注的是市场,忽略了企业,并且其理论缺乏系统性。
     可见,目前的理论研究缺乏一个完整解释产业组织模式变迁的理论框架,而本文的研究正是对这一研究不足的弥补。本文试图构建一个完整的理论框架,以解释产业组织模式的变迁机理,并根据变迁机理发现促进和加快产业组织模式朝有效率的组织模式变迁的对策。
     奥地利学派传统给经济学规定了两个任务——“使这个世界能够用人的行动加以解释”和“解释有目的的人的行动如何能通过社会相互影响而产生无意的结果”。本文的研究是基于这两个任务来解释产业组织模式的变迁,通过企业家的有目的行动来解释作为企业家行为的无意识的结果的产业组织模式的变迁原因。
     产业组织模式是产业内企业之间的竞争与分工合作的具体模式,产业组织模式形成的过程表现为产业内各企业边界确定的过程。=正是通过企业边界的确定,形成了产业内企业之间的竞争与分工合作关系。就其实质来说,产业组织模式是确定产业内企业之间关系的制度安排,确定了产业内企业之间的竞争与分工合作关系。但这一制度安排是各个企业家行为的无意识的结果,因此是一种自发秩序。
     这种自发秩序可以看作产业内企业家就竞争与分工合作关系而进行博弈的博弈均衡。由于企业家对博弈的参与者、各参与者的策略集合和收益函数的认知是都是基于主观的,彼此存在差异,因此这种博弈关系不是客观博弈,而是主观博弈。本文构建了关于产业组织模式形成的主观博弈模型,把产业组织模式的变迁解释为从一个主观博弈均衡移动到另一个主观博弈均衡的过程。引发主观博弈均衡变化的因素主要有两个方面,一是企业的外部环境因素的变化,二是内生性因素的积累。
     企业必然处于一定的环境之中,并受环境的制约和影响。技术环境、制度环境、市场环境因素等构成了影响产业组织模式的外部环境。一方面,外部环境的变化影响博弈参与者的策略空间,使得一些原本不可行的策略变得可行,或者反过来,一些原本可行的策略,变得不可行。另一方面,外部环境的变化影响博弈参与者的后果函数的参数,使得相同的策略在环境变化之前与变化之后带来的收益不同。这主要是因为环境的变化会影响交易的属性,而不同属性的交易需要与不同的治理结构匹配才能节省交易成本。博弈的参与者——企业的企业家,具有发现机会并进行创新的企业家精神。当一部分企业家发现了博弈形式的变化时,他们就发现了相应的市场机会,从而会促使其进行创新,调整策略。这必然会引发博弈均衡的改变。当所有的博弈参与者调整后的策略的收益符合其预期时,新的博弈均衡得以产生,即发生了产业组织模式的变迁。
     知识的内生性积累也会引发博弈参与者的策略空间和后果函数参数的变化。当内生性的知识积累到了一定程度,博弈的参与者将认知到博弈形式的变化,从而作出策略的调整。当博弈参与者各自调整后的策略为其带来的收益符合其预期时,新的博弈均衡得以生产。产业组织模式由一个均衡移动到了另一个均衡。一般而言,由于人的有限理性,人只能知道知识的某一个片段,而不能掌握所有的知识。企业家作为一个行为人也是有限理性的,虽然在一定的知识范围内,企业家通过权威在企业内协调分散的知识相对于市场而言更有优势,但随着不同交易环节的雇员的知识的不断积累,企业家难以协调越来越多的知识,或者说通过企业权威相对于通过市场协调分散知识的优势下降了。当企业家认知到这一变化之后,就会作出调整,将自己不具协调优势的交易环节从企业中分离出去,通过一种介于企业与市场之间的中间组织的形式去组织这些交易,以节省交易成本。于是出现了企业之间的分工与合作,形成了新的产业组织模式。
     本文内容共分7个部分,具体安排如下:
     第一章是导论。主要介绍本文的选题背景与研究意义、论文的研究方法、研究思路和框架结构;对已有文献进行梳理和简单的评论;并对全文的研究内容作了一个简单的介绍。
     第二章介绍本文研究所涉及到的理论,包括交易成本理论、奥地利学派相关理论和主观博弈论,并介绍了三者之间假设的一致性,为理论之间的沟通架起桥梁。
     第三章基于主观博弈构建了产业组织模式形成的基本理论框架。把产业内企业之间关于组织模式的竞争与分工合作的关系看作一种基于主观的博弈关系。产业组织模式是这一主观博弈的均衡。产业组织模式的变迁实际上是一个均衡到另一个均衡的移动。而外部环境的变化,以及企业的内生性积累都会引致企业家的主观认知的变化,引发博弈均衡的改变,导致产业组织模式的变迁。产业组织模式作为一种自发秩序,是具有效率的,政府干预往往导致无效率的结果。
     第四章单独分析了外部环境变化对于产业组织模式的影响。企业外部环境向量的变化会引发博弈形式改变。一方面改变企业的策略空间,另一方面改变企业家的后果函数的参数。后果函数参数的变化主要是因为环境的变化改变了交易的属性。当企业家认知到这种环境变化带来博弈形式的改变时,他就会调整策略。企业家这种策略的改变,必然引发博弈均衡的改变,直到博弈参与者的策略带来的收益与其预期一致时,新的博弈均衡形成,即产生了新的产业组织模式。
     第五章单独分析了内生性的知识积累对产业组织模式变迁的影响。首先介绍了知识的分类与性质。接着解释了分散的知识与企业权威存在的兼容性以及知识影响下企业边界的确定。并进一步分析了当知识以分散的形式在不同的企业成员头脑之中积累时,企业家对于博弈形式的认知会发展改变。不同的知识积累情况导致了不同的博弈形式的认知。企业家对博弈形式的新认知会使得企业家采取新的策略,并引发博弈均衡的改变和产业组织模式的变迁。
     第六章用前面构建的产业组织模式变迁的理论框架分析产业组织模式变迁的历史进程。并基于企业外部环境变化趋势和知识的积累对产业组织模式的变迁趋势进行了预测。
     第七章是总结和启示。总结了产业组织模式的变迁的理论分析框架,从产业组织模式变迁的机理中得到启示,就我国产业组织模式变迁中存在的问题,提出了促进我国产业组织模式朝有效率的组织模式变迁的对策。
The study subject of industrial organization is the organized relationship or market relationship among enterprises in an industry. The model of industrial organization is a kind of specific model of relationship about the division of labor and cooperation organization among the enterprises in the industry. According to the development of the history, there is a dominant model of industrial organization every term, and the dominant model of industrial organizations of every terms are not identical, namely industrial organization model is in a transitional process. In general, people be divided the process of industrial organization transition into three stages. They are the single enterprise dominant model of industrial organization, the vertical integration of large hierarchical enterprise as the dominant industrial organization model and the modular production network organization model.
     Traditional industrial organization theory mainly focused their research on the market structure and market performance, namely the market relationship among the enterprises in the industry. They concerned so little about division of labor and cooperative relationship among the enterprises. The new industrial organization theory offset the insignificance of the main industrial organization theory to a certain extent, and focuses on the organized relationship among enterprises. Analyzing enterprises'interior structure, the relationship between the enterprises and the market, and enterprise organized behavior with the transaction cost theory. But the new industrial organization theory explains the reason of emergence of new governance based only on different model's advantage, which is a kind of functional explanation, rather than a causal sequence. And the research of the new industrial organization theory is based on the static equilibrium, rather than dynamic process. Therefore, the new industrial organization theory hasn't formed a complete theoretical framework for the transition of industrial organization model, but the research of the part of the whole transition process. Although Austrian school study the topic of industrial organization from the dynamic point of view, but it is mainly concerned with the market. And it neglects the enterprise. It's a kind of systematic theory.
     At present, the industrial organization theory lack of an entire theoretical framework to explain the transition of industrial organization model, while the research of this paper is a remedy. This paper tries to construct a complete theoretical framework to explain the industrial organization pattern transition mechanism. And according to the transition mechanism, we can find out the countemeasure to promote and accelerate the transition of the industrial organization model.
     This paper explain industrial organization mode transition based on the traditional two tasks given by Austrian School of economics:" make the world explained by human action" and "interpretation of human's purposeful and social interactional actions how can produce unintended results". Namely we use the entrepreneur's purposeful actions to interpret the reason of industrial organization model's transition, which is regarded as the unconscious result of industrial entrepreneurs'purposeful actions.
     The model of industrial organization is the specific model of cooperation and division of labor among enterprises in the industry, and the process of the formation of industry organization model is the process of the enterprises to determine its boundary. By determining its boundary, the industry cooperation and labor division among the enterprises was formed. The essence of industrial organization model is a kind of institutional arrangement about the organizational relationship of the division of labor and cooperation among the enterprise inside the industry. It determines the division of labor and cooperation relations of the enterprise, but this institutional arrangement is the entrepreneur's behavior's unconscious result. So it is a kind of spontaneous order.
     This kind of spontaneous order can be regarded as the equilibrium of the game among the entrepreneurs inside the industry. Due to the entrepreneur's cognition to the game player, each participant's strategy set and gain of function is based on subjective recognition, differing from one another, so the game is not objective game, but subjective game. This paper construct the subjective game model on the industrial organization model transition, and interpret the industry organization pattern's transition as a process of moving from one subjective of game equilibrium moves to another. There are two kinds of factors could cause subjective game equilibrium to change, one is the change of the external environment factors, the other is the accumulation of endogenous factors.
     Enterprise is inevitably in certain environment, and restricted and influenced by the environment. Technology environment, institutional environment, and market environment compose the environment affecting the industrial organization model. On one hand, the change of the external environment affect the game participant strategy's space, making some originally unavailable strategy available, or conversely. On the other hand, the change of the external environment affects the game participant revenue function parameters, so the same strategy has different outcome when the environment changing.This is mainly because that the environment changes will affect the transaction attributes, and it can save the transaction cost by matching the different transaction attributes with the different governance structure. When the strategy keeps unchanged, namely governance structure unchanged, and the transaction attributes are changed by the changing environment, the transaction cost will inevitable changed. It is mainly because the revenue function parameters are changed, which makes the income change. Game player acting as an entrepreneur, have the entrepreneurial spirit to find the opportunity and make innovations. When some entrepreneurs find the changes of game form, he find the relevant market opportunities, which will lead him to make new innovation and adjust the strategy. And it will inevitably lead to the change of game equilibrium. When all game players the strategy is consistent with their expected earnings, a new game equilibrium occurred, and the model of industrial organization changed.
     The endogenous accumulation of knowledge can also cause the change of the game player's the strategy space and revenue function's parameters. When endogenous factors accumulate to a certain extent, the game players will recognize the change of the game form; they will make the adjustment of strategy. When the adjustment of the strategy brings the expected revenue to respective participants, the new game equilibrium occurs, and the model of the industrial organization move from one equilibrium to another equilibrium. Generally speaking, due to the limited rationality, people only know the fragment of the knowledge. Man can not master all the knowledge. Entrepreneurs as an actor are limited rationality too. Although in certain knowledge range, entrepreneurs' coordination of dispersed knowledge through the authority in the enterprise has advantage relative to market, with the knowledge accumulation of different aspects of the transaction, it's harder for the entrepreneur to coordinate more and more knowledge. The advantage of the coordination of knowledge in the firm relative to the market decline. When entrepreneurs recognize the change, they will make the adjustment, and separate the transaction without advantage from the firm, and organize these transactions through a kind of governance structure between the firm and the market, in order to save transaction cost. So the division of labor and cooperation among the enterprise appears, form a new model of industrial organization.
     This paper is divided into7parts as follows: The first chapter is introduction. Mainly introduces the research background and the research significance, research method, research ideas and framework. Sort out the research literatures, give the briefly comments, also introduce the main research content of the paper.
     The second chapter introduces the theory related to our study, including the theory of transaction cost, theory of Austrian school and subjective game theory. And introduced hypotheses of consistency among the three theories to bridge the communication among the theories
     The third chapters construct a basic theory framework of industrial organization transition based on subjective game model. The industrial enterprises'organization mode of competition and cooperation relationship is regarded as a subjective game, and the model of the industrial organization is the subjective game's equilibrium. The transition of the industry organization model is actually the moving from one equilibrium to another. The change of external environment, as well as the endogenous accumulation will cause the entrepreneur's subjective cognition to change, and it cause game equilibrium to change, which means the change of industrial organization model.
     The forth chapter separately analyzes the effects to the model of industrial organization brought by the changes of the external environment. The change of Enterprises'external environment vector will trigger the change of game form. On one hand the entrepreneur's strategy space is changed, on the other hand entrepreneurs' revenue function parameter is changed. This is mainly because the transaction attributes are changed. When entrepreneur recognize the change of game form brought by change of the environment, the entrepreneurs will make the adjustment. The change of the entrepreneur's strategy will inevitably lead to the change of the equilibrium, until the revenue brought by the new game player strategy is consistent with expectation, and the new game equilibrium occurs, which also means that new model of the industrial organization occurs.
     Chapter five separately analyze the effect to model of industrial organization transition brought by the endogenous accumulation of knowledge. Firstly explains the classification and the nature of the knowledge. Then explain the compatibility between the distributed knowledge and enterprise authority. Further we analyze the difficulty of the entrepreneur as authoritative coordinator to coordinate the different knowledge when knowledge to dispersed form in different enterprise member accumulates, and it means the transaction cost to coordinate the different knowledge in the firm will increase. In fact, it's mainly because the game form changed, namely entrepreneurial strategy set and revenue function parameters are changed, and thereby the entrepreneur will adopt the new strategy, which will lead to the equilibrium change and the change of the model of industrial organization.
     In chapter six, based on theory framework of the industrial organization model transition constructed, we analyzes the history of industrial organization mode, and forecast the development trend of industrial organization based on the change of enterprise external environment and the endogenous knowledge accumulation.
     Chapter seven is the summary and enlightenment; we summarize the theory framework of the model of industrial organization transition, and get the enlightenment from industrial organization model transition mechanism, regarding the industrial organization model's transition as a spontaneous process. The government should reduce the intervention, and the role of the government should be to maintain and improve the market mechanism; make impersonal market forces play a role
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    ①威廉姆森.资本主义经济制度[M].北京:商务印书馆,2003年,第83页
    ②同①,第78-79页
    ③同①,第121页
    ①逯建,乔洪武.奥地利经济学与新古典经济学[J].求索,2008,10
    ② Boettke, P. J. Alternative paths forward for Austrian economics. In:Boettke, P. J. (ed) The Elgar companion to Austrian Economics, USA, Edward Elgar,1994
    ③ Hayek, F. A., Personal Recollections of Keynes and the "Keynesian Revolution" [A]. in New studies in Philosophy Politics, Economics and the history of Ideas[C]. Chicago University of Chicago press,1978.
    ②克里斯坦森方法论个人主义[A]格尔.经济学方法论探究[C].北京:新星出版社,2006
    ①谢志刚.奥地利学派的制度分析方法[J].云南财经大学学报,2011,2.
    ②斯蒂芬.霍维茨主观主义[A]卡尔.门格尔.经济学方法论探究[C].北京:新星出版社,2006
    ③米塞斯.人类行为的经济学分析[M].广州:广东经济出版社,2010:12.
    ④ Hayek The Counter-revolution of Science[M]. Glencoe Illinois:The Free Press,1952:26-27
    (?) Israel M. Kirzner, Competition and Entrepreneurship, Chicago:university of Chicago Press,1973.
    ④哈耶克.哈耶克文选[M].南京:凤凰出版传媒集团, 江苏人民出版社,2000.
    ⑤伊斯雷尔.科兹纳均衡与市场过程[A].埃德温.多兰.现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008:105.
    ①谢志刚.奥地利学派的制度分析方法[J]云南财经大学学报,2011,2.
    ②诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].上海:三联书店出版社,上海人民出版社,2008年.
    ①王军.现代奥地利经济学派研究[M].北京:中国经济出版社,2004.
    ②哈耶克.自由秩序原理[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,1999年
    ③张文喜.对哈耶克的“有限理性”观和“自发秩序”观的解读[J].社会科学家,1999(1)
    ①朱海就.市场的本质[M].上海:三联出版社,上海人民出版社,2009,p.20.
    ② Ludwig von Mises, Human action, Yale university Press,1963, p.395.
    ①埃德温.多兰.作为非常规科学的奥地利学派经济学[A].埃德温.多兰主编现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C]杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008.
    ②伊斯雷尔.科兹纳,论奥地利学派经济学的方法[A].埃德温.多兰主编现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C]杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008.
    ③朱海就.市场的本质:人类新闻的视角与方法[M].上海三联出版社,2009:21
    ④伊斯雷尔.科兹纳.方法论的个人主义、市场均衡与市场过程[A]埃德温.多兰主编现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C]杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008.
    ① Israel M. Kirzner, Competition and Entrepreneurship[M]. Chicage:University of Chicago,1978,:65-69。
    ②米塞斯.人的行为[M].台湾远流出版事业股份有限公司,1991,第109页.
    ③同②.
    ④ Fama, E. Agency Problem and the Theory of the Firm [J]. Journal of Political Economy, 1980,88:288-307.
    ⑤ Cheung, Steven. The Contractual Nature of the Firm [J]. Journal of Law and Economics, 1983,26:1-21.
    ⑥周清杰,现代奥地利学派企业理论评述[J].外国经济与管理,2005.9:2-15.
    ①埃德温.多兰.现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[M].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008,第31页.
    ②刘树君,“经济学与知识”:哈耶克的一个转折点[J].长春工业大学学报(社会科学版),2011,1(23)
    ③黄春兴,奥地利学派经济理论的一个学习框架[J].南大商学评论,2007(1)
    ④ O'Driscoll, Gerald P. Jr and Rizzo, Mario J., the economics of Time and Ignorance, Basil Blackwell,1985, P.36.
    ⑤项后军.奥地利学派企业理论研究[M].成都:四川出版集团,2008,6:33-34.
    ①赫苏斯.维尔塔奥地利学派:市场秩序与企业家创造性[M].浙江大学出版社,2010.
    ②哈耶克。哈耶克经济学、哲学、政治学文集[M].江苏人民出版社,1999:297.
    ③青木昌彦.比较制度分析[M].上海:上海远东出版社,2001:240.
    ①青木昌彦.比较制度分析[M]上海:上海远东出版社,2001:5-16.
    ②黄凯南.主观博弈论与制度内生演化[J]经济研究,2010.(4):134-146.
    ③同②
    ①黄凯南.主观博弈论与制度内生演化[J]经济研究,2010.(4):134-146.
    ②丁利.从均衡到均衡:制度变迁的主观博弈框架[J].制度经济学研究,2005:12-29. ①杨小凯.不完全信息与有限理性的差别[N].经济学信息报,2001-11-23.
    ②赫伯特·西蒙《现代决策理论的基石》(北京经济学院出版社,1989年)。关于最优解和满意解,见该书第70、83页,关于行为主体实现理性的境界,见该书第3—4页.
    ③同①
    ④威廉姆森.资本主义经济制度[M].北京:商务印书馆,2002:68-71.
    ⑤何大安.行为经济人有限理性的实现程度[J].中国社会科学.2004.4.
    ① Shand, Alexander H., The Capitalist Alternative:An Introduction to Neo-Austrian Economics, Harvester Press Publishing Group,1984, Foreword.
    ② Ludwig von Mises, Human Action, Yale University Press,1963, P.395
    ③汪丁丁.从“交易费用”到博弈均衡[J].经济研究,1995,9:72-80.
    ④韦森.奥地利学派的主观主义认知论与交易费用经济学范式未来的发展:一个偶然的理论猜想[J].云南大学学报,2005,6.
    ①本文重点研究的是产业的内一些企业就自身企业边界的变化而形成的与产业内另一些企业之间的竞争与合作的产业组织模式。产业内企业边界确定的过程,正是企业之间分工合作关系形成的过程,因此也是产业组织模式确定的过程。
    ②埃里克.弗鲁伯顿,鲁道夫.芮切特.新制度经济学[M].上海:上海三联书店,上海人民出版社,2006年:7-10.
    ① Schotter. Andrew. The Economic Theory of Social Institutions[M]. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press,1981:11.
    ①诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].上海:三联书店出版社,上海人民出版社,2008年.
    ②产业组织模式作为一种自发秩序是指在政府不干预的情况,其作为一种制度,可以自我维系。
    ④转引自邓正来:《哈耶克的社会理论》,见邓正来:《研究与反思》,辽宁大学出版社,1998年第224页.
    ⑤谢志刚.奥地利学派的制度分析方法[J].云南财经大学学报.2011,2.
    ①亚当.斯密:《国民财富的性质与原因的研究》(中译本)下卷,商务印书馆,1994年,第27页.
    ②哈耶克.通往奴役之路[M].中国社会科学出版社1997.P52.③ Lachmann, L. M.,1977, Capital, Expections, and the Market Process:Essays on the Theory of the market Economy,Sheed Andrew and Mcmeel, INC, P.153.
    ④ Kirzner, I. M.,1990, "Entrepreneurship and Equilibrating Process", in Littlechild, S. (ed), Austrian Economics, Edward Elgar,pp73-79.
    ① F. Sautet, An entrepreneurial theory of the firms, Routlege, London,2000.
    ②同①.
    ① Tony Fu Lai Yu, " Toward a Praxeological Theory of the Firm", Review of Austrian Economics,1999 (12):25—41.
    ②诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].上海:上海三联书店,2008:114-116.
    ①企业之间竞争的策略有很多,如这里不考虑价格、广告等策略,但这里对这些策略都不考虑,仅考虑企业边界调整引发企业之间的竞争与合作的博弈关系。
    ② Oliver Williamson. Transaction Cost Economics:The Governance of Contractual Relations[J] Journal of Law and Economics.1975 (22):233-261.
    ①青木昌彦比较制度分析[M].上海:上海远东出版社,2001.
    ② Luwig von Mises, Human Action, Yale university Press,1963,P.100.
    ①原本一项交易通过企业组织的交易成本低于通过市场组织该交易的交易成本,当该项交易通过企业组织的交易的交易成本高于通过市场组织该项交易的成本时,就发生了根本性变化。
    ②汪丁丁.交易费用与博弈均衡[J].经济研究,1995,9:72-80.
    ③韦森.奥地利学派的主观主义认知论与交易费用经济学范式未来的发展:一个偶然的理论猜想[J].云南大学学报,2005,6.
    ④奥利弗.E.威廉姆森.市场与科层:分析和反垄断的启示,1975年,第3页.
    ①汪丁丁, 韦森,姚洋.制度经济学三人谈[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2005.
    ②韦森.奥地利学派的主观主义认知论与交易费用经济学范式未来的发展:一个偶然的理论猜想[J].云南大学学报,2005,6.
    ③ Coase, R. H.1960. " The problem of Social Cost" Journal of Law and Economics3:1-44
    ④ Williamson,O. E. The Economic Institutions of Capitalism[M]. New York:Free Press,1985,P1.
    ⑤指在选择的那一时刻,交易成本并未产生,而选择之后产生的成本并非直接导致选择原因的成本。
    ⑥同②
    ⑦詹姆斯.布坎南.成本与选择[M].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2009,p44.
    ⑧同⑦
    ①弗.冯.维塞尔.自然价值[M].北京:商务印书馆,1982,6:213-215.
    ② Adam Smith, The wealth of Nat ions[M]. New York:Random House, Modern Library Edition,1937,P47.
    ③ F. H. Knight, The Ethics of competition (London:Allen and unwin,1935), p.225
    ④汀丁丁.从“交易费用”到博弈均衡[J].经济研究,1995,9:72-80.
    ⑤韦森.奥地利学派的主观主义认知论与交易费用经济学范式未来的发展:一个偶然的理论猜想[J].云南大学学报,2005,6.
    ⑥同④.
    ①汪丁丁.从“交易费用”到博弈均衡[J].经济研究,1995,9:72-80.
    ②韦森.奥地利学派的主观主义认知论与交易费用经济学范式未来的发展:一个偶然的理论猜想[J].云南大学学报,2005,6.
    ①如果自身的企业边界符合了产业组织模式的约束,则可以盈利和生存下去,否则可能亏损,甚至倒闭,被市场淘汰。
    ①朱海就.市场的本质[M].上海:三联出版社,上海人民出版社,2009,p24.
    ②博弈的域由博弈参与人集合和每个参与人在随后各期所面临的技术上可行的行动集组成。
    ③青木昌彦.比较制度分析[M].上海:上海远东出版社,2001.
    ①哈耶克.个人主义与经济秩序[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1991:50-51.
    ② Mises. Theory and History [M]. Liberty Fund Inc,2005,8:11-12.
    ①阿维纳什.迪克西特.法律缺失与经济学:可供选择的经济治理方式[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社,2007年5月:5-6.
    (?) Mises. Theory and History [M]. Liberty Fund Inc,2005,8:11-12.
    ①哈耶克.法律、立法与自由[M].北京:中国大百科全书出版社,2000.
    ② North, D. Eonomic Performance Through Time[J]. American Economic Review, 1994,6(84):359-368.
    ②汪丁丁从“交易费用”到博弈均衡[J].经济研究,1995,9:72-80.
    ①哈耶克.知识的僭妄[A].哈耶克文集[C].邓正来译,首都经贸大学出版社2001,第387页
    ②亚当.斯密著,谢祖钧译:《道德情操论》,陕西人民出版社,2006年,第283页
    ① Friedrich Hayek, The Use of Knowledge in Society[J]The American Economic Review,1945, (35).
    ①钟学义.技术,技术进步,技术经济学和数量经济学之诠释[J].数量经济技术经济研究,2006.3
    ② Thompson, James D. & Frederick L. Bates. Technology, Organization and Administration[J]. Administrative Science Quarterly,1957.2:325-343
    ③ Antonelli, Crsitiano. Externalities and Complementarities in Telecommunications Dynamics [J]. International Journal of Industrial organization,1993[1].
    ②威廉姆森认为如果由于生产规模或范軐的原因导致成本过高,那么从技术性质上说,几乎所有特大型企业就都不敢为自己提供所需要的产品。实际上企业自己生产“原材料”而不是外购,既不是规模经济也不是范围经济本身能决定的。我们可以设想一个企业,其“生产能力的”规模已经超过了企业为自己“提供原材料”的需要。如果所签合同都能兑现,那么,这家企业就会减少一个工厂,其产品不仅足以保证该企业自身的需要,还有多于的产品卖给竞争对手或其他有兴趣的买者。
    ⑤诺斯.制度、制度变迁与经济绩效[M].上海:三联书店出版社,上海人民出版社,2008年
    ①曾楚雄,林丹明.信息技术、交易成本与激励:论经济组织形式的中间化[J].中国工业经济,2006,6.
    ②埃里克.弗鲁博顿,道鲁夫.芮切特.新制度经济学——一个交易费用分析范式[M].上海:上③海三联出版社,上海人民出版社,2006(01):9-11
    ③ Lance Davis, Douglass North. Institutional Change and American Economic Growth:A First Step Towards a Theory of Institutional Innovation [J] The Journal of Economic History, 1970 (30):131-149.
    ④哈耶克.法律、立法与自由(第1卷)[M].中国大百科全书出版社,2001.
    ⑤同④
    ①这里所谈的市场环境主要是指产业内企业在同一个市场中所面对的需求数量、需求性质和供给者数量等因素。
    ②青木昌彦.比较制度分析[M].上海:上海远东出版社,2001:226-228.
    ① Armen A. Alchian. Uncertainty, Evolution, and Economic Theory [M] The Journal of Political Economy, Vol.58, No.3 (Jun.,1950), pp.211-221.
    ①柯颖.模块化生产网络:一种新产业组织形态研究[M].北京:经济科学出版社,2009年,7月,第63页.
    ② Schilling M. A. Towards a General Modular System Theory and Its Application to Inter-firm Product Modularity [J]. Academy of Management Review,2000,(25).
    ①亚当斯密.国民财富的性质和原因的研究(上)[M].北京:商务印书馆,1972,12.:6-7.
    ②同①,第16页。
    ③康芒斯.制度经济学[M].北京:商务印书馆,2006:10-11.
    ①威廉姆森.资本主义经济制度[M].北京:商务印书馆,2002,6:122.
    ②朱瑞博.模块化抗产业集群内生性风险的机理分析[J].中国工业经济,2004,5:54-60.
    ③在更大的范围内,技术的创新也可能带来不确定性,例如信息技术的发展,使得现实世界充满了没有用的信息,增大了人们对于信息选择的难度。
    ④威廉姆森将交易频率分为一次、数次和经常性。
    ①阿维纳什.迪克西特.法律缺失与经济学:可供选择的经济治理方式[M].北京:中国人民大学出版社.2007,5:35-43.
    ②钱颖一, 市场与法治[J].经济社会体制比较2000:1-11.
    ①诺斯.经济史中的结构与变迁[M].上海:上海三联书店出版社,1991:186.
    ① Kirzner,I.M.,Competition and Entrepreneurship[M]. Chicago, IL:University of Chicago Press,1973, P65
    ①项后军.奥地利学派企业理论研究[M].成都:四川出版社,2008.
    ②卡伦.沃恩.奥地利学派经济学在美国:一个传统的迁入[M].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008.
    ①哈耶克.个人主义与经济秩序[M].北京:北京经济学院出版社,1989:76.
    ②项后军.奥地利学派企业理论研究[M].成都:四川出版社,2008:126-127
    ①黄春兴,奥地利学派经济理论的一个学习框架[J].南大商学评论,2007(1).
    ②柯平,知识管理学[M].北京:科学出版社,2007年.
    ① Michael Polanyi. The Tacit Dimension [M].London:Routlege and Kegan Paul,1966.
    ②郁义鸿.知识管理与组织创新[M].上海:复旦大学出版社,2001.38.
    ① Friedrich Hayek. The Use of Knowledge in Society[J]. The American Economic Review,1945(35):519-530.
    ②弗里德里希.冯.哈耶克.个人主义与经济秩序[M].邓止来,译.北京:三联书店,2003.P291.
    ①项后军.奥地利学派:企业理论研究[M].四川出版集团,:90-91.
    ② Coase, R. H.1937. " The Nature of the firm" Economica 4:386-405.
    ②项后军.奥地利学派企业理论研究[M].成都:四川出版社,2008,P85.
    ③谢志刚.奥地利学派的制度分析方法[J].云南财经大学学报,2011(2):11-22.
    ①科兹纳.均衡与市场过程[A].埃德温.多兰.现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008:105-113.
    ②科兹纳.均衡与市场过程[A].埃德温.多兰.现代奥地利学派经济学的基础[C].杭州:浙江大学出版社,2008:111.
    ③相对于分散利用而言。
    ④奥利弗.威廉姆森.交易费用经济学:契约关系的规制[A].陈郁.企业制度与市场制度——交易费用经济学文选[C].上海,上海三联书店,上海人们出版社,1996:48.
    ① Coase, R. H.1937. " The Nature of the firm" Economica 4:386-405.
    ②同①。
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    ④同③。
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    ①虽然企业家或企业的行为在一定程度上会影响到制度环境的变化,但一般需要较长时间的积累,较短的时间内企业家或企业的行为对于制度环境的影响较小,因此可以假定其不受企业家或企业的行为的影响,把制度环境看作一个外生变量。
    ①对于甲乙二人来说s1都是占优策略,因为采用s1相对于s2能节省交易成本。
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