理想与现实的悖论
摘要
新镇是二战结束后在欧美等许多国家和地区兴起的一种城市规划和开发形式。美国新镇于20世纪60年代开始大量出现，但早在20世纪20、30年代，美国就先后出现了田园城市和绿带城镇，成为美国新镇的早期发展形式。二战结束后，美国城市进入新的发展阶段，其中，城市郊区的爆炸式发展是一个重要表现。在郊区的迅猛发展过程中，大多数社区都缺乏长远规划，日益形成低密度无序蔓延之势，结果引发了一系列社会和环境问题。另一方面，中心城市在大都市区中的优势主导地位也不断遭到削弱，各种矛盾和冲突日益加剧，到20世纪60年代，许多城市出现了“危机”状况。面对中心城市和郊区发展中存在的诸多问题，美国社会各界展开了广泛讨论。其中，许多城市规划者、社会改革者、地产开发商以及政府官员积极倡导进行新镇开发。有鉴于此，笔者选取郊区作为本文研究的切入点和研究视角，并以美国政府文献及相关研究机构的资料为研究依据，在学习和借鉴中美学者已有研究成果的基础上，对新镇在美国的发展进行论述。
全文由引言、正文和结语三大部分组成。引言部分主要介绍了本文的选题缘由、中美学界的研究综述、本文的研究目标和意义，以及研究的创新与不足等问题。
正文第一章追溯美国新镇的起源和早期发展情况，主要包括英国社会活动家霍华德提出的田园城市理论，以及莱奇沃思与韦林两座田园城市的建立；20世纪20年代美国的田园城市运动与“新政”时期联邦政府提出的绿带城镇计划等；第二章着重分析60年代新镇兴起的背景和原因，包括后工业社会的来临、白人中产阶级队伍的壮大、社区开发的盛行和大都市区发展中存在的问题。然后对美国新镇的主要特征进行概述，从整体上凸显新镇的“新”意。在此基础上，第三、四章重点论述美国新镇理想与现实悖论的具体体现，即社会融合、环境保护和联邦政府政策三个方面。其中，第三章首先论述美国传统郊区居住模式所造成的种族、阶层隔离以及环境破坏等问题，然后结合具体的新镇案例——雷斯顿、哥伦比亚和伍德兰兹，对美国新镇的社会改革目标进行论述。第四章则详细论述了美国联邦政府新镇政策的制定、实施及影响，主要包括《1968年住房与城市发展法》（第四条）和《1970年住房与城市发展法》（第七条），试图探究联邦政府与企业个体在城市社区开发中的合作关系。第五章对美国新镇的历史地位和影响进行总结和概括。从横向来看，与传统郊区相比，新镇具有许多创新性规划思想和原则，但在实践过程中却因政治、经济、文化和社会等因素而没有完全落实；从纵向来看，新镇不仅为政府与企业合作开发社区做出了有益探索，而且为新城市主义的兴起提供了经验和教训。结语部分对全文进行概括总结，并在此基础上总结美国新镇开发运动的成败得失。
New Town is a form of urban planning and development which has been popular inEurope and America since the World War II. It’s a production of urbanization. In the UnitedStates, new towns are closely connected with its suburbanization. In the late1920s and30s,there were garden cities and greenbelt towns, they were important experiences of Americannew towns. Since the World War II, suburb has been taking control of metropolitan area inthe U.S. In the process, most suburbs lacked master planning; as a result, it caused a series ofsocial and environmental issues, which gave rise to sprawl. On the other hand, as for centralcities, their dominant advantages in the metropolis have been weakened, and various kinds ofcontradiction and conflict have been aggravated. In the1960s, many cities got into “crisis”.Confronted with such kinds of problems in central cities and suburban areas, the United Stateslaunched widely discussion. And many urban planners, social reformers, property developersand local governments actively advocate for new town development. Based on a large numberof primary literatures of the United States governments, reports of all kinds of researchinstitutions and scholars related writings, I intend to explore suburban new towns, usinghistorical research perspective and comprehensive approach.
The dissertation is consisted of three parts: introduction, five chapters, and conclusion.The introduction mainly introduces the reasons of choosing such a topic, an overview of theprevious research works by American and Chinese scholars, research objectives, innovationsand shortcomings of this dissertation.
Then Chapter One reviews the origins and evolutions of American new towns, includingthe British garden city theory and practice, and case studies of Letchworth and Welywn;American garden cities in the late20s, and the greenbelt towns during the “New Deal”.Chapter Two focuses on the reasons for the spring up of new towns development in the1960sand1970s, mainly including two aspects, they were the transformation to post-industrialsociety and the problems existing in metropolitan area. Consequently, points out somecharacteristics of American new towns, that is what were “new” in new towns. Chapter Threeand Chapter Four mainly discuss new towns’ social goals, including social integration,environmental protection and federal new communities policies. As for Chapter Three, basedon the suburban critique of race and economic class segregation, environmental pollutions anddestroys, it does case studies of Reston, Colombia, and The Woodlands. Chapter Fouremphasizes on the federal government role in the development of new towns, including thelegislation and execution of Housing and Urban Development of1968, Title IV, and Housingand Urban Development of1970, Title VII. Chapter Five summarizes the status and influence of American new towns movement, comparing with conventional suburbia and NewUrbanism, and concludes that new towns movement provided important experience andlessons for urban planning and development, as well as the cooperation between governmentsand private enterprises in developing communities. The Conclusion part briefly generalizesthe history of American new towns, especially the ones in1960s and1970s, but the politicaland economic systems and complex social conditions determine the difficulties of the newtown developments in the United States.
全文由引言、正文和结语三大部分组成。引言部分主要介绍了本文的选题缘由、中美学界的研究综述、本文的研究目标和意义，以及研究的创新与不足等问题。
正文第一章追溯美国新镇的起源和早期发展情况，主要包括英国社会活动家霍华德提出的田园城市理论，以及莱奇沃思与韦林两座田园城市的建立；20世纪20年代美国的田园城市运动与“新政”时期联邦政府提出的绿带城镇计划等；第二章着重分析60年代新镇兴起的背景和原因，包括后工业社会的来临、白人中产阶级队伍的壮大、社区开发的盛行和大都市区发展中存在的问题。然后对美国新镇的主要特征进行概述，从整体上凸显新镇的“新”意。在此基础上，第三、四章重点论述美国新镇理想与现实悖论的具体体现，即社会融合、环境保护和联邦政府政策三个方面。其中，第三章首先论述美国传统郊区居住模式所造成的种族、阶层隔离以及环境破坏等问题，然后结合具体的新镇案例——雷斯顿、哥伦比亚和伍德兰兹，对美国新镇的社会改革目标进行论述。第四章则详细论述了美国联邦政府新镇政策的制定、实施及影响，主要包括《1968年住房与城市发展法》（第四条）和《1970年住房与城市发展法》（第七条），试图探究联邦政府与企业个体在城市社区开发中的合作关系。第五章对美国新镇的历史地位和影响进行总结和概括。从横向来看，与传统郊区相比，新镇具有许多创新性规划思想和原则，但在实践过程中却因政治、经济、文化和社会等因素而没有完全落实；从纵向来看，新镇不仅为政府与企业合作开发社区做出了有益探索，而且为新城市主义的兴起提供了经验和教训。结语部分对全文进行概括总结，并在此基础上总结美国新镇开发运动的成败得失。
New Town is a form of urban planning and development which has been popular inEurope and America since the World War II. It’s a production of urbanization. In the UnitedStates, new towns are closely connected with its suburbanization. In the late1920s and30s,there were garden cities and greenbelt towns, they were important experiences of Americannew towns. Since the World War II, suburb has been taking control of metropolitan area inthe U.S. In the process, most suburbs lacked master planning; as a result, it caused a series ofsocial and environmental issues, which gave rise to sprawl. On the other hand, as for centralcities, their dominant advantages in the metropolis have been weakened, and various kinds ofcontradiction and conflict have been aggravated. In the1960s, many cities got into “crisis”.Confronted with such kinds of problems in central cities and suburban areas, the United Stateslaunched widely discussion. And many urban planners, social reformers, property developersand local governments actively advocate for new town development. Based on a large numberof primary literatures of the United States governments, reports of all kinds of researchinstitutions and scholars related writings, I intend to explore suburban new towns, usinghistorical research perspective and comprehensive approach.
The dissertation is consisted of three parts: introduction, five chapters, and conclusion.The introduction mainly introduces the reasons of choosing such a topic, an overview of theprevious research works by American and Chinese scholars, research objectives, innovationsand shortcomings of this dissertation.
Then Chapter One reviews the origins and evolutions of American new towns, includingthe British garden city theory and practice, and case studies of Letchworth and Welywn;American garden cities in the late20s, and the greenbelt towns during the “New Deal”.Chapter Two focuses on the reasons for the spring up of new towns development in the1960sand1970s, mainly including two aspects, they were the transformation to post-industrialsociety and the problems existing in metropolitan area. Consequently, points out somecharacteristics of American new towns, that is what were “new” in new towns. Chapter Threeand Chapter Four mainly discuss new towns’ social goals, including social integration,environmental protection and federal new communities policies. As for Chapter Three, basedon the suburban critique of race and economic class segregation, environmental pollutions anddestroys, it does case studies of Reston, Colombia, and The Woodlands. Chapter Fouremphasizes on the federal government role in the development of new towns, including thelegislation and execution of Housing and Urban Development of1968, Title IV, and Housingand Urban Development of1970, Title VII. Chapter Five summarizes the status and influence of American new towns movement, comparing with conventional suburbia and NewUrbanism, and concludes that new towns movement provided important experience andlessons for urban planning and development, as well as the cooperation between governmentsand private enterprises in developing communities. The Conclusion part briefly generalizesthe history of American new towns, especially the ones in1960s and1970s, but the politicaland economic systems and complex social conditions determine the difficulties of the newtown developments in the United States.
引文
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③Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, Chapel Hill: The University ofNorth Carolina Press,1987, p.60.
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, New York: OxfordUniversity Press,1985, p.4.
①Meryl Aldridge, The British New Towns: A Programme without A Policy, London: Routledge&Kegan Paul,1979, pp.177-178.
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①Ann Forsyth. Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Berkeley: University of California Press,2005, pp.27-28.
②Carol Corden, Planned Cities: New Towns in Britain and America, Beverly Hills,1977, pp.15-16.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company,1976, p.17.
④U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of International Affairs, Planning New Towns:National Reports of the U.S. and the U.S.S.R, March1981, pp.6-7.
①Anthony Downs, Opening Up the Suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America, New Haven: Yale University Press,1973, p.viii.
②Lloyd Rodwin, The British New Towns Policy: Problems and Implications, Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press,1956.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press,1958.
①Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York: Random House,1961.
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④Raymond J. Burby III, et.al., New Communities, U.S.A, Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books,1976.
⑤Gideon Golany, New-Town Planning: Principles and Practice, New York: Wiley-Interscience,1976; GideonGolany ed., International Urban Growth Policies: New-Town Contributions, New York: Wiley-Interscience,1978.
①William Alonso,“What Are New Towns for?” Urban Studies, Vol.7, No.37,1970, pp.36-55;“The Mirage ofNew Towns”, The Public Interest, No.19, Spring1970, pp.3-17.
②Carol Corden, Planned Cities: New Towns in Britain and America, Beverly Hills: Sage,1977.
③例如:James Bailey, ed., New Towns in America: The Design and Development Process, Washington, D.C: TheAmerican Institute of Architects,1973; Muriel I. Allen, ed., New Communities: Challenge for Today,Washington D.C: American Institute of Planners1968; Donald Canty, ed., The New City, New York: NationalCommittee on Urban Growth Policy,1969.
④Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community, ColumbiaUniversity,1982.
⑤Herbert J. Gans,“The Possibilities of Class and Racial Integration in American New Towns: a Policy-OrientedAnalysis”, in Harvey Perloff and Neil Sandberg, ed., New Towns—Why and For Whom, New York: Praeger,1973, pp.137-157.
⑥Gary Armen,“The Programming of Social Provision in New Communities: Part I: Basic Problems and GerneralTheories”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.47, No.2,1976, pp.105-126; Part II: Some Case Studies andConclusions”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.47, No.3,1976, pp.269-288.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company,1976.
②Irving Lewis Allen, New Towns and the Suburban Dream: Ideology and Utopia in Planning and Development,Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press,1977.
③Alan Turner,“New Communities in the United States:1968-1973, Part I: Historical Background, Legislationand the Development Process”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.45, No.3,1974, pp.259-273;“New Communitiesin the United States:1968-1973, Part II: Design Characteristics and Case Studies”, The Town Planning Review,Vol.45, No.4,1974, pp.415-430.
④Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University,1971.
⑤Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and LeCorbusier, Cambridge: The MIT Press,1977.
⑥Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UniversityMicrofilms International,1986.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982.
②Stanley Buder, Visionaries and Planners: the Garden City Movement and the Modern Community, New York:Oxford University Press,1990.
③Stephen V. Ward, ed., The Garden City: Past, Present and Future, New York: Chapman&Hall,1992.
④Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, ChapelHill,1973.
⑤Richard B. Peiser,“Financial Feasibility Models in New Towns Development: Risk Evaluation in the UnitedStates”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.55, No.1,1984, pp.75-90.
①Richard B. Peiser and Alain C. Chang,“Is It Possible to Build Financially Successful New Towns? The MiltonKeynes Experience”, Urban Studies,1999, Vol.36, No.10, pp.1679-1703.
②Helene V. Smookler, Economic Integration in New Communities: An Evaluation of Factors Affecting Policiesand Implementation, Cambridge, Masschusetts: Ballinger,1976.
③Zane Miller, Suburb: Neighborhood and Community in Forest Park, Ohio,1935-1976, Knoxville: University ofTennessee Press,1981.
④Chris Gratton,“Industrial Diversification in New Towns”, Urban Studies,1979, No.16, pp.157-164.
⑤Royce Hanson, New Towns: Laboratories for Democracy: Report, New York: The Twentieth Century Fund,1971.
⑥Raymond J. Burby III, et.al., New Communities U.S.A., p.86.
⑦William Woollett,“Governance Promises/Problems in New Towns”, Public Administration Review, Vol.35,No.3,1975, pp.256-262.
⑧Shimon Gottschalk,“Citizen Participation in the Development of New Towns: A Cross-National View”, TheSocial Service Review, Vol.45, No.2,1971, pp.194-204.
⑨Anonymity,“Democracy in the New Towns: The Limits of Private Government”, The University of ChicagoLaw Review, Vol.36, No.2,1969, pp.379-412.
①Helene V. Smookler,“Administration Hara-Kiri: Implementation of the Urban Growth and New CommunityDevelopment Act”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.422,1975, pp.129-140.
②William C. Fucik,“The Challenge of Implementing Federally Assisted New Communities”, PublicAdministration Review, Vol.35, No.3,1975, pp.249-256.
③Eric Stowe and John Rehfuss,“Federal New Towns Policy:‘Muddling Through’at the Local Level”, PublicAdministration Review, Vol.35, No.3,1975, pp.222-228.
④Martha Derthick, New Towns In-Town, Why a Federal Program Failed, Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute,1972.
⑤Robert M. Litke, The Role of Local Government in New Community Development, Washington D.C.: U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development,1978.
⑥Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006, pp.2285-2299.
①Roger Biles,“The Rise and Fall of Soul City: Planning, Politics, and Race in Recent America”, Journal ofPlanning History,2005, Vol.4, No.1, pp.52-72.
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,Columbus: Ohio State University Press,2001.
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④Roger Biles,“New towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,Vol.13,1998, pp.113–132;
①Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus, The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28No.1,2001, pp.55-71.
②Howard Gillette Jr,“Assessing James Rouse’s Role in American City Planning”, Journal of the AmericanPlanning Association, Vol.65, No.2,1999, pp.150-165.
③Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Merchant of Illusion: James Rouse, America's Salesman of the Businessman's Utopia,Ohio State University Press,2004.
④Robert Tennenbaum, Creating a New City: Columbia, Maryland, Columbia: Perry Publishing,1996.
⑤Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Berkeley: University of California Press,2005.
⑥张捷、赵民编著：《新城规划的理论与实践－田园城市思想的世纪演绎》，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2005年版。
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①【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，邹德慈、金经元译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，1985，第28-30页。
①Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,1965, p.17.译文参阅【英】埃比尼泽·霍华德著：《明日的田园城市》，金经元译，北京：商务印书馆，译序第18页。（下同）。
②Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cambridge, p.48.
①Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century,Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.,2002, pp.99-102.
②Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, Leonard Hill: London,1963, p.45.
③Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, p.34.
④Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, p.43.
①Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UniversityMicrofilms International,1986, pp.3-4.
①U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1954,75th Anniversary Edition,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1954, p.26.
②李剑鸣：《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》，天津：天津教育出版社，1992年，第3页。
③Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of an Idea”, Journal ofthe American Planning Association,1980(October), p.425.
①U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1954,75th Anniversary Edition,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1954, p.27.
②【加】简·雅各布斯著：《美国大城市的死与生》，金衡山译，南京：译林出版社，2008年版，第15页。
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, Liverpool, UK:Liverpool University Press,1958, p.39.
①Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.41.
②Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.44.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982, pp.149-152.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UMI ResearchPress,1986, p.59.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.60.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.62.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, p.160.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, pp.55-57.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.44.
④William E. Leuchtenburg, The Greenbelt Conference on New Towns in Celebration of Greenbelt’s50thAnniversary,1987, p.1.
①William E. Leuchtenburg, The Greenbelt Conference on New Towns in Celebration of Greenbelt’s50thAnniversary,1987, p.1.
②Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.192.
③Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University Press,1971, p.26.
④Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.29.
①Joseph L. Arnold. The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.25.
②Joseph L. Arnold. The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.27.
①Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954,pp.38-39,44.
②John R.McFarland,“The Adimistration of the New Deal Greenbelt Towns”, Journal of the American PlanningAssociation,1966(July), p.218.
③Cathy D. Knepper, Greenbelt, Maryland: A Living Legacy of the New Deal, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001, p.xvi.
①Hugh Mield, Jr., Federally Assisted New Communities: new dimensions in urban development, A ULI LandmarkReport, Washington, D.C: the Urban Land Institute,1973, p.12.
②Irving Lewis Allen, New Towns and the Suburban Dream: Ideology and Utopia in Planning and Development,p.97.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.122.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.128.
①Monica MacAdams, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, Appendix A: Legislative Background,Washington, D.C.:1976, p.7.
②梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第429页。
③National Association of Real Estate Boards, Confidential Weekly Letter, September7,1937.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.131.
①Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.9.
②Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, p.145.
①【美】丹尼尔·贝尔著：《后工业社会的来临——对社会预测的一项探索》，高銛等译，北京：新华出版社，1997年，导论，第14页。
①Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.267.
②Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, New York,1987, p.182.
③Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, p.60.
④U.S. Bureau of Census, ed., Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to1970，Part I,Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1975, p.139.
①【美】C·赖特·米尔斯：《白领——美国的中产阶级》，杨小东等译，杭州：浙江人民出版社，1987年，第1页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，王希译，下卷，北京：商务印书馆，2010年，第1214页。
③Godfrey Hodgson, America in Our Time: From World War II to Nixon-What Happened and Why, PrincetonUniversity Press,2005, p.51.
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第29页。
②王旭：《莱维敦：美国郊区化的理想模式》，《厦门大学学报（哲学社会科学版）》，2003年，第3期，第85-92页。
③Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.234.
④“Up from the Potato Fields”, Time, July,3,1950, p.68.
⑤【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第29页。
①Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.71-72.
②Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community, New York:Vintage Books,1967, pp.220,186.
③William Hollingsworth Whyte, The Organization Man, Garden City, New York: Doubleday,1956, p.63.
①梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第187页。
②Todd Zimmerman&Zimmerman Associates,“Seeking an Alternative to Suburban Inefficiency”, inDocumentation on New Town Development, Selected from Presentation at the International Making CitiesLivable Conferences, California: IMCI, Council,1990, p.2.
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.54, pp.96-98.
②李艳玲：《美国城市更新运动与内城改造》，上海：上海大学出版社，2004年版，第162页。
①Anthony Downs, Opening up the suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America, p.21.
②Carl Abbott, Urban America in the Modern Age:1920to the Present, Arlington Heights, Illinois: HarlanDavidson,1987, p.129.
③孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，第394页。
④梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第435页。
①李艳玲：《对美国城市更新运动的总体分析与评价》，《上海大学学报》，2001年第6期，第80页。
②Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: the Rise and Fall of Suburbia, p.182.
③Thomas L. Daniels,“The Use of Green Belts to Control Sprawl in the United States”, Planning Practice andResearch, Vol.25, No.2(June,2010), p.255.
④Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, New York: North Point Press,2000, pp.3-4.翻译参考该书的中译本，下同。【美】安德烈斯·杜安伊、伊丽莎白·普拉特-兹伊贝克、杰夫·斯佩克著：《郊区国家：蔓延的兴起与美国梦的衰落》，苏薇等译，武汉：华中科技大学出版社，2008年。
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Declineof the American Dream, pp.5-7.
②Carl Abbott, The Metropolitan Frontier: Cities in the Modern American West, Tucson: University of ArizonaPress,1993, p.134.
③【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，第246页。
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, pp.185,239.
⑤Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, New York: North Point Press,2000, p.25.
⑥Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects, New York: Harcourt,Brace&World,1961, p.32.
⑦20世纪美国著名的民谣歌手、作曲家玛尔维娜·雷诺兹曾创作并演唱了歌曲《Little Box》。在这首歌中，玛尔维娜·雷诺兹戏称莱维敦住房为“Little boxes on the hillside, Little boxes made of ticky-tacky……Littleboxes, all the same……they all look just the same”，形象地描述了战后郊区批量化建造的住宅。http://ingeb.org/songs/littlebo.html,2010-09-08日下载。
①Council of Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality: The First-annual Report of the Council onEnvironmental Quality, p.172.
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.xii.
②Peter Blake, God’s Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America’s Landscape, New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1964, p.3.
③Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.4.
④Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, p.10.
⑤王旭：《美国城市发展模式：从城市化到大都市区化》，第210页。
⑥Harry H. Long and Paul C. Glick,“Family Pattern in Suburban Areas: Recent Trends”, in Barry Schwartz, ed.,The Changing Face of the Suburbs, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1976, p.39.
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第99-100页。
②Peter Blake, God’s Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America’s Landscape, Rinehart and Winston,1964, p.21.
③John C. Teaford, Post Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress,1997, p.25.
④Carl Abbott,“The Suburban Sunbelt”, Journal of Urban History, Vol.13, No.3(May,1987), p.292.
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.16.
②Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, Chapel Hill,1981, p.17.
③Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands, p.56.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Planning New Towns: National Reports of the U.S. andthe U.S.S.R., Washington, D.C.,1981, pp.6-7.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company, Inc.,1976, p.23.
①Reid Ewing, Developing Successful New Communities, The Urban Land Institute,1991, p.9.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.23.
③Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier, New York: Anchor Books,1992.
④Richard W.Helbock,“New Towns in the United States”, The Professional Geographer, Vol.20, No.4(1968),pp.244-245.
⑤Ann Forsyth,“Planning Lessons from Three U.S. New Towns of the1960s and1970s: Irvine, Columbia, andThe Woodlands”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.68, No.4,(Autumn,2002), p.388.
①Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.18.
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.36.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.32.
①A Publication of Gulf Reston, ed., A Brief History of Reston, Virginia, A Publication of Gulf Reston, Inc.,1970,pp.9-11.
②Ada Louise Huxtable,“First Light of New Town Era is on Horizon”, New York Times, February17,1964.
③Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore: The Jones HopkinsUniversity Press,1997, p.51.
①Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.109.
②城市开放空间理论（Open Space），源自19世纪下半叶快速工业化和城市化所导致的严重公共卫生、环境问题、城市公共用地不足等问题。1877年，英国《大都市开发空间法》（Metropolitan Open Space Act）将城市开放空间定义为：不围合、无建筑或少于1/20的城市土地有建筑物，其它土地兴建公园等娱乐设施，或闲置。20世纪60年代，许多城市规划学家、生态学家、环境学家等进一步发展和丰富了这一理论。总之，城市开放空间是指城市内部及周边具有较高生态保护、景观美学、休闲游憩、防震减灾、历史文化保护等生态、社会、经济价值的非建筑或少于建筑用地的空间形式，包括绿地、水域和广场，承担着城市形态建构、社会空间融合、城市健康可持续发展维护的重要功能。参阅邵大伟：《城市开放空间格局的演变、机制及优化研究——以南京主城区为例》，南京师范大学博士学位论文，2011年，第1-3页。
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.32.
④王旭：《美国城市发展模式》，第210页。
②美国历史上第一次黑人迁徙运动始于1916-1929年，共有约150人南部农村黑人移居北部城市。详见胡锦山：《美国黑人的第一次大迁徙》，《东北师范大学》（哲学社会科学版），1996年第2期。
①胡锦山：《1940-1970年美国黑人大迁徙概论》，《美国研究》，1995年第4期，第99页。
②【美】约翰·霍普·富兰克林著：《美国黑人史》，张冰姿等译，北京：商务印书馆，1988年，第544页。
③【美】加里·纳什等编著：《美国人民——创建一个国家和一种社会》，下卷（1865—2002），刘德斌主译，北京：北京大学出版社，2008年，第871页。
④James Heilbrun, Urban Economics and Public Policy, New York: ST. Martin’s Press,1981, p.44.
⑤Peter Muller, Contemporary Suburban America, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.,1980, p.22.
⑥梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第290页。
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life and Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.89.
②Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.227.
③David Rusk, Cities without Suburbs, Washington D.C.: the Woodrow Wilson Center Press,1995, p.1.
④哈莱姆（Harlem）位于纽约的曼哈顿北部，贝德福德—斯图维桑特（Bedford-Stuyvesant）位于纽约市布鲁克林，是20世纪下半叶美国黑人最大的聚集区和贫民窟。20世纪60年代，纽约市108.8万黑人人口中，有超过一半的黑人居住于此。
⑤“丰裕社会”是美国经济学家约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷斯提出的。加尔布雷斯改变了传统经济学以贫困社会为研究对象的模式，认为时下的美国的已经进入一个“丰裕社会”的时代。他强调，一方面，发展经济、增加社会财富，另一方面也要注意效率和社会公正，主张政府要提供住房、教育、社会福利等公共产品，在价格、利润与供求之外，提供一丝温暖的人文关怀。John Kenneth Galbraith, The AffluentSociety, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,1998, pp. viii-xii. Michal Harrington, The Other America:Poverty in the United States, New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc.,1997, p.3.
⑥孙群郎：《美国郊区化进程中的黑人种族隔离》，《历史研究》，2012年第6期，第104页。
①Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America, p.334.
②Dennis R Judd. The Politics of American Cities: Private Power and Public policy. Boston: Little, Brown andCompany,1979, p.185.
③关于“谢利诉克雷默案”的情况，详见Joe T. Darden,“Black Residential Segregation since the1948:Shelley V. Kraemer Decision”, Journal of Black Studies, Vol.25, No.6(July,1995), pp.680-691.
①Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.241.
②孙群郎：《美国郊区化进程中的黑人种族隔离》，《历史研究》，2012年第6期，第102-104页。
③James W. Hughes, ed., Suburbanization Dynamics and the Future of the City, New Brunswick, N.J.: RutgersUniversity,1974, p.195.
④孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，第343页。
①U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1982-1983,103d Annual Edition, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1982, p.160, No.261. CollegeEnrollment by Sex and Race:1960-1981.
②U.S. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, the Kener Report, p.251.转引自梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第312页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1270页。
③Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus, The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28, No.1(November2001), p.66.
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress,1985, pp.226-227.
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life and Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.138.
②Raymond J.Burby III, et.al., New Communities U.S.A., p.91.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.20.
①Mark Clapson,“Suburban Paradox? Planners ‘intentions and resident’s preferences in two new towns of the1960s: Reston, Virginia and Milton Keynes, England’”, Planning Perspectives, Vol.17, No.2(2002), p.147.
①Reston Interfaith Housing Corporation Background Paper, Affordable Housing for Low and Moderate IncomeFamilies in Reston,1984, January, p.1.
②Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.iii.
③Robert E. Simon, Jr, Reston Master Plan Report, Fairfax County, Va.,1962, March,10, p.6.
①Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.vii.
①Lawrence O’Kane,“Reston to Study Low-Income Units”, New York Times, Jan1,1967, p.162.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.75.
③Robert E. Simon, Reston Letter, December1965,2.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43.
⑤“The Shape of Reston”, Reston Times,1June,1966.
⑥George,“New Towners and the Urban Dilemma”, Reston Times,2August1968.
⑦Walter Knorr,“Crossings”, Restionian5, no.3,1989.
⑧Restonian, Gulf Reston,1974.
①Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.154-155.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.84.
③Edward Sharp,“Does AD Seek Blacks”, Reston Times, September4,1969, p.6.
④Robert Andrews,“Reston, Virginia Went from ‘New Town’ of1960s to ‘Boom Town’”, Syracuse Herald,17August1986, H6.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43-45.
②“Reston, Virginia: New Design for an Ideal City”, Reston Times, December1966, pp.90-96.
③Michal Kernan,“The Green Dream-II”.转引自Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Townsand the Transformation of the American Dream, p.187.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43.
⑤Megan Rosenfeld,“Reston Becomes Richer, Blacker”, Washington Post,1977.
①Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006, p.2287.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.89.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.90.
①Tripp,“Forum Event Celebrates Black History”, Columbia Forum Newsletter, March1985.
①Dave Barkley,“Fear Knocked; Faith Answered”, Columbia Times,1July,1968.
②“What Is New about New Towns?” Practical Builder, July1966, p.74.
③Paul Imre,“Drug Crisis”.转引自Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and theTransformation of the American Dream, p.156.
④Dave Barkley,“Fear Knocked; Faith Answered”, Columbia Times,1July,1968.
⑤Manuel,“Programs Examine Black Cultural Identity”&“Black and White Follow-Up”, Columbia Flier,10May&16June,1977.
⑥Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.99.
⑦Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, pp.91,97.
①Ruth Glick,“Bill and Pinnie Ross”, Columbia Flier,16June,1977.
②Susan Hall and Judith Tripp,“Columbia: My Hometown”, Columbia Magazine, Nov.1986, p.25.
③Jeanne Lamb O’Neill,“Columbia, Gem of America’s ‘New Towns’”, American Home, May1970.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.95.
⑤Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.96.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.98.
②Jeanne Lamb O’Neill,“Columbia, Gem of America’s ‘New Towns’”, American Home, May1970.
③Neil C. Sandberg, Stairwell7:Family Life in the Welfare State, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications,1978, p.229.
①【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1212页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1214-1215页。
③【美】埃里克·方纳：《美国自由的故事》，第438-439页。
④梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第462页。
①Mark Baldasssare,Trouble in Paradise:The Suburban Transformation in America, New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,1986, p.171.
②梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第283页。
①Howard P. Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,1981, p.300.
②Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.39.
③John Keats, The Crack in the Picture Window, Cambridge: The Riverside Press,1957, p.xiv.
④Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversity Press,1997.p.48.
⑤【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第99页。
①Kenneth T.Jackson Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.247.
②Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University Press,1971, p.26.
③梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第234页。
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第72页。
②V.G. MacKenzie,“Research Studies on Individual Sewage Disposal Systems”, American Journal of PublishHeath, Vol.42(April,1952), p.411.
③高国荣：《美国现代环保运动的兴起及其影响》，《南京大学学报》（哲学人文社会科学版），2006年第4期，第51页。
④【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第140页。
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第212页。
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.21.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live1976, p.33.
④U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, Washington D.C:1985, p.3.7.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.173.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.172.
②George T. Morgan, Jr. and John O.King, The Woodlands: New Community Development,1964-1983, Texas A&M University Press,1987, pp.33-35.
③Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.161.
④Gideon Golany, New-Town Planning: Principles and Practice, New York: Wiley,1976, pp.224-226.
⑤【美】卡尔·艾博特：《大都市边疆——当代美国西部城市》，第151页。
①侯深：《<乡村里的推土机>与环境史研究的新视角》，《世界历史》，2010年第5期，第136页。
①Wiston W. Crouch and Richard Bigger,“Metropolitan Decentralization: Britain’s New Towns Program”, TheWestern Political Quarterly, Vol.3, No.2, Jun.,1950, p.245.
②Pattrick Abercrombie, Greater London Plan1944, London: H.M. Stationery Office,1948.
③Isaac K.A.Isaacson, The Garden City and New Towns Ideology and the British New Towns Policy,1800-1970,Lund-Sweden,1988, p.16.
④Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, Boston:Routledge,1977, pp.56-57.
⑤Isaac K.A.Isaacson, The Garden City and New Towns Ideology and the British New Towns Policy,1800-1970,Lund-Sweden,1988, p.1.
①British Information Services, The New Towns of Britain, London,1974, p.2.
②British Information Services, The New Towns of Britain, London,1974, p.3.
①Frederic J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, p.341.
②Frederic J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, pp.463-466.
①陈宝森：《美国经济与政府政策—从罗斯福到里根》，世界知识出版社，1988年，第794页。
②Philip Langdon, A Better Place to Live: Reshaping the American Suburb, University of Massachusetts Press,1997, p.219.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, pp.3.2-3.9
②Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, p.13.
③Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.108.
④Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.106.
⑤Pierre Merlin, New Towns: Regional Planning and Development, London: Methuen&Co Ltd,1971, p.190.
①Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.54-55.
②Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.56-57.
①U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program,1985, p.1.5; Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, NewCommunities, U.S.A, pp.57-58.
①Anonymous,“Chronological History of the New Communities Act of1968”, in Planned Community Archives.http://digilib.gmu.edu/dspace/handle/1920/1449?mode=full,2009-10-2日下载。
②Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.116.
③Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.116.
④Hugh Mields, Jr.,“New Communities: Issues and Implementation”, in Gideon Golany and Daniel Walden,edited, The Contemporary New Communities Movement in the United States. Urbana: University of IllinoisPress,1974, p.88.
⑤Maltha Munzer and John Vogel, New Towns: Building Cities from Scratch, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Incl,1974, p.108.
①Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, p.2.
②Houses and Cities: Message from the President of the United States, House of Representatives,90thCongress,2d Session,1968. http://bulk.resource.org/gao.gov/90-448/000058FF.pdf,2008-10-9日下载。
③Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.118.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co., pp.594-595.
②United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, p.596.
③United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, pp.596-599.
④全国城市发展政策委员会（National Committee on Urban Growth Policy）于1968年成立，由全国县协会（National Association of Counties）、全国城市联盟（National League of Cities）、美国市长会议（UnitedStates Conference of Mayors）和美国城市公司（Urban American, Inc）等组织联合成立，对美国城市发展政策的制定具有较大影响力。
①Donald Canty, ed., The New City, New York: National Committee on Urban Growth Policy,1969, p.172.
②U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, pp.17-18.
③Thomas L. Ashley,“Congress and New Towns,” Public Administration Review, Vol.35, No.3, May-June,1975,pp.241-242.
④U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,1976, p.20.
①U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, p.22.
②United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91thCongress-Second Session, Vol.1, Laws, St.Paul Minn.: West Publishing Co.,1970, p.2098.
③United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session1970, ConvenedJanuary19,1970; Adjourned January2,1971. Vol.1, Laws, St Paul, Mini, West Publishing Co., pp.2096-2113.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session1970, ConvenedJanuary19,1970; Adjourned January2,1971. Vol.1, Laws, pp.2102-11.
②U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Planning New Towns: National Reports of the U.S. andthe U.S.S.R., Washington, D.C.,1981, pp.6-7.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, Washinton, D.C.,1985, p.3.3.
②Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus: The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28No.1,(Nov.,2001), p.62.
③Fritz Steiner, The Politics of New Towns Planning. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press,1981, p.2.
①Roger Biles,“The Rise and Fall of Soul City: Planning, Politics, and Race in Recent America”, Journal ofPlanning History, Vol.4, No.1,2005, p.72.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session, Vol.1, Law,p.2101.
②U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, AppendixD: Achievements and Potentials, Washington, D.C.,1976, pp.5-8.
①G. Scott Thomas, The United States of Suburbia: How the Suburbs Took Control of America and What TheyPlan to Do with It, New York: Prometheus,1998, p.93.
①Thomas L. Ashley,“Congress and New Towns,” Public Administration Review, Vol.35, No.3, May-June,1975,p.241.
②Helene V. Smookler,“Administration Hara-Kiri: Implementation of the Urban Growth and New CommunityDevelopment Act”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,1975(422), p.139.
③U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, p.2.14.
①U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, AppendixB, Washington, D.C.,1976, p.28.
①Jane Jacobs. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House,1961.中译本参阅：简·雅各布斯：《美国大城市的死与生》，金衡山译，南京：译林出版社，2008年。下同。
②Jane Jacobs. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. p.143.
①Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of an Idea”, Journal ofthe American Planning Association, Vol.46, Issue4,1980(October), p.435.
②【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，第245页。
③Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.193.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.87.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Appendix B, Table.10.
②Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006(November), p.2293, Table3.
①Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore&London: The JohnHopkins University Press,1997, p.49.
②Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.50.
③Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.51.
④Robert E. Simon, Jr, Reston Master Plan Report, Fairfax County, Va.,1962, March,10, p.4.
⑤Ada Louise Huxtable,“Fully Planned Town Opens in Virginia”, New York Times,1965, Dec5, pg.1.
①James W. Rouse,“Cities that Work for Man-Victory Ahead”, at the Lions International/University of PuertoRico Symposium on “The City of The Future”, San Juan, Puerto Rico, October18,1967, p.5.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.109.
①Margaret Eckel Goertz, New Towns in the United States: Suburban Enclaves or Balanced Communities?Syracuse University, Ph.D.,1971, pp.219-220.
②Henry Bain, The Reston Express Bus: A Case History of Citizen Action to Improve Urban Transportation,August,1969, p.4.
③Robert Cervero,“Planned Communities, Self-containment and Commuting: A Cross-national Perspective”,Urban Studies, Vol.32, No.7,1995, p.1142; Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities ofIrvine, Columbia, and the Woodlands, Table13.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.49.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., pp.326-327.
②Robert Cervero,“Planned Communities, Self-containment and Commuting: A Cross-national Perspective”,Urban Studies, Vol.32, No.7,1995, p.1142.
③Mahlon Apgar IV,“New Business from New Towns?” The Appraisal Journal,1973(January), p.12.
④Alert A. Foer,“Democracy in the New Towns: The Limits of Private Government”, Chicago Law Review, Vol.36, No.2,1969, pp.379-412.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.168.
②Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.176.
①Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.vii.
②Margaret Eckel Goertz, New Towns in the United States: Suburban Enclaves or Balanced Communities? p.363.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.326.
②Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.327.
①Ann Forsyth,“Planning Lessons from Three U.S. New Towns of the1960s and1970s: Irvine, Columbia, andThe Woodlands”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.68, No.4, Autumn2002, p.405.
①如William Alonso,“What Are New Towns for?” Urban Studies,1970,7:37, pp.36-55;“The Mirage of NewTowns”, The Public Interest, No.19, Spring1970, pp.3-17.John C. DeBoer, Alexander Greendale, ed. Are NewTowns for Lower Income Americans Too? New York: Praeger Publishers, Inc.,1974.
②Reid Ewing, Developing Successful New Communities, the Urban Land Institute,1991, p.2.
③Pierre Merlin, New Towns: Regional Planning and Development, p.189.
④Jack A. Underhill, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, Appendix D: Achievements and Potentials,Washington D.C.:U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration,1976, I-35.
①William H. Whyte, Jr.,“Research and the Open Space Problem”, Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol.21,No.4(Oct.,1962), pp.405-406.
②Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,pp.277-278.
①Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.46
②Herbert Gans,“The Failure of Urban Renewal, A Critique and Some Proposals”, Commentary,1965(April),p.35.转引自Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of anIdea”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.46, Issue4,1980(October), p.434.
②【美】彼得·卡尔索普著:《未来美国大都市——生态·社区·美国梦》，郭亮译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2009年，第56页。
①William B. Fulton, The New Urbanism: Hope or Hype for American Communities?, Cambridge, MA: LincolnInstitute of Land Policy,1996, p.13. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/865_New%20Urbanism.pdf,2013-12-21日下载。
②Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p. xvi.
③Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, pp.15-17.
④William B. Fulton, The New Urbanism: Hope or Hype for American Communities?, p.11.
①单皓：《美国型城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第11-12页。
②详见本文第三章第71页。
③单皓：《美国型城市主义》，《建筑师》，第11页。
①孙群郎：《美国新城市主义运动的兴起及其面临的困境》，《史学理论研究》，2013年第1期，第112页。
②Javier Monclus and Manuel Guardia, eds., Culture, Urbanism and Planning, Burlington: Ashgate PublishingCompany,2000, p.185.转引自林广：《新城市主义与美国城市规划》，《美国研究》，2007年第4期，第30页。
③“Charter of New Urbanism”, http://www.cnu.org/charter,2012-3-21日下载。
④董宏伟，王磊：《美国新城市主义指导下的公交导向发展：批评与反思》，《国际城市规划》，第23卷，第2期，2008，第71页。
①单皓：《美国新城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第5页。
①孙群郎：《美国新城市主义运动的兴起及其面临的困境》，《史学理论研究》，2013年第1期，第111页。
②单皓：《美国新城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第5页。
③董宏伟，王磊：《美国新城市主义指导下的公交导向发展：批评与反思》，《国际城市规划》，第23卷，第2期，2008，第68页。
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9.卡尔·艾博特：《大都市边疆——当代美国西部城市》，王旭，郭立明，姜立杰译，北京：商务印书馆，1998年。
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12.李艳玲：《美国城市更新运动与内城改造》，上海：上海大学出版社，2004年。
13.梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，2002年。
14.刘易斯·芒福德：《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》，宋俊玲、倪文彦译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2008年。
15.罗伯特·M·福格尔森：《布尔乔亚的恶梦：1870-1930年的美国城市郊区》，朱歌姝译，上海人民出版社，2007年。
16.迈克·詹克斯等：《紧缩城市－一种可持续发展的城市形态》，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2004年。
17.诺南·帕迪森：《城市研究手册》，郭爱军，王贻志等译校，上海：格致出版社，2009年。
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20.孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，北京：商务印书馆，2005年。
21.王旭：《美国城市发展模式——从城市化到大都市区化》，北京：清华大学出版社，2006年。
22.王旭，罗思东：《美国新城市化时期的地方政府——区域统筹与地方自治的博弈》，厦门：厦门大学出版社，2009年。
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24.张京祥编著：《西方城市规划思想史纲》，东南大学出版社，2005年。
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26.张捷、赵民编著：《新城规划的理论与实践－田园城市思想的世纪演绎》，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2005年。
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28.陈红霞、西宝：《快速城市化背景下新城发展研究》，《哈尔滨工业大学学报》（社会科学版），2008（5）：34-38.
29.黄胜利、宁越敏：《国外新城建设及启示》，《现代城市研究》，2003（4）：12-17.
30.李莉：《美国公共住房政策演变述评》，《史学理论研究》，2010年第1期，第113-124页。
31.林广：《以色列城市化进程中的政治因素——以新城镇为例》，《世界历史》，2006年第5期，第36-44页。
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33.梁茂信：《略论美国政府解决城市社会问题的效用有限性》，《美国研究》，2002（4）:48-68.
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35.林广：《新城市主义与美国城市规划》，《美国研究》，2007（4）：23-37.
36.马万利、梅雪芹：《有价值的乌托邦一一对霍华德田园城市理论的一种认识》，《史学月刊》，2003(5)：104-111.
37.马万利：《田园城市理论的初步实践和历史影响》，《浙江学刊》，2005(2)：84-89.
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39.梅耀林、张培刚、丁志刚：《美国大都市区的郊区规划》，《城市问题》，2007（9）：85-89.
40.单皓：《二战后美国城市的发展》，《国外规划研究》，2003（6）：72-80.
41.孙群郎：《20世纪70年代美国的“逆城市化”现象及其实质》，《世界历史》，2005（1）：19-27.
42.孙群郎：《当代美国郊区的蔓延对生态环境的危害》，《世界历史》，2006（5）：15-25
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44.孙群郎：《美国现代城市郊区化动因初探》，《世界历史》，2003（1）：8-15.
45.孙群郎：《美国现代城市郊区化动因再探》，《安徽大学学报》（哲学社会科学版），2004（7）：149-153.
46.孙群郎：《美国郊区化进程中的黑人种族隔离》，《历史研究》，2012（6）：97-112.
47.唐子来：《田园城市理念对于西方战后城市规划的影响》，《城市规划汇刊》，1998（6）：5-8.
48.陶希东：《国外新城建设的经验与教训》，《城市问题》，2005（6）：95-98.
49.陶希东、刘君德：《国外大城市郊区化的演变及对我国的启示》，《城市问题》,2003(4)：69–73.
50.王玲慧、万勇：《国际大都市新城发展特点比较》，《城市问题》，2004（2）：66-70.
51.王庆安：《美国战后新城镇开发建设及其启示》，《国际城市规划》，2007(1)：63-66.
52.王旭、梁茂信：《当代美国大都市区城郊发展失衡现象及其影响》，《世界历史》，2005（1）：6-18.
53.王旭、王洋：《中国的美国城市史研究述评》，《史学理论研究》，2011（1）：133-142.
54.王旭：《当代美国大都市区社会问题与联邦政府政策》，《世界历史》，2001（3）：4-13.
55.王旭：《对美国大都市区化历史地位的再认识》，《历史研究》，2002（3）：110-119
56.王旭：《莱维敦：美国郊区化的理想模式》，《厦门大学学报（哲学社会科学版）》，2003（3）：85-92.
57.杨靖、司玲：《马里兰州哥伦比亚的新城规划》，《规划师》，2005（6）：87-90.
58.张捷：《当代我国新城建设的若干讨论——形势分析和概念新解》，《城市规划》，2005(5)：71-75.
59.张捷、赵民：《新城运动的演进及现实意义——重读Peter Hall的<新城——英国的经验>》，《国外城市规划》，2002（5）：46-49.
60.张敏：《美国新城的规划建设及其类型与特点》，《国外城市规划》，1998(4)：49-52.
61.赵学彬：《巴黎新城规划建设及其发展历程》，《规划师》，2006(11):95-97.
62.朱东风、吴明伟：《战后中西方新城研究回顾及对国内新城发展的启示》，《城市规划汇刊》，2004(5):31-36.
63.李莉：《美国公共住房政策的演变》，厦门大学博士学位论文，2008年。
64.林仲煜：《近郊新城可持续形态的构建——理论与实证研究》，重庆大学博士学位论文，2009年。
65.王洋：《新城：美国新城市化进程中的第三条道路》，厦门大学博士学位论文，2011年。
②U. S.Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States:1971.(92d Annual Edition), Washington,D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1971, p.16. No.14. Population, by Residence and Race:1950-1970.
③Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, Chapel Hill: The University ofNorth Carolina Press,1987, p.60.
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, New York: OxfordUniversity Press,1985, p.4.
①Meryl Aldridge, The British New Towns: A Programme without A Policy, London: Routledge&Kegan Paul,1979, pp.177-178.
②美国不列颠百科全书公司编著：《不列颠百科全书（国际中文版第12卷）》，中国大百科全书出版社不列颠百科全书编辑部编译，北京：中国大百科全书出版社，1999，第112页。
③Reid. H. Ewing, Developing Successful New Communities, Washington, D.C.: Urban Land Institute,1991,pp.2-3.
①Ann Forsyth. Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Berkeley: University of California Press,2005, pp.27-28.
②Carol Corden, Planned Cities: New Towns in Britain and America, Beverly Hills,1977, pp.15-16.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company,1976, p.17.
④U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of International Affairs, Planning New Towns:National Reports of the U.S. and the U.S.S.R, March1981, pp.6-7.
①Anthony Downs, Opening Up the Suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America, New Haven: Yale University Press,1973, p.viii.
②Lloyd Rodwin, The British New Towns Policy: Problems and Implications, Cambridge, Massachusetts: HarvardUniversity Press,1956.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, Liverpool, UK: Liverpool University Press,1958.
①Jane Jacobs, The Death and Life of Great American Cities, New York: Random House,1961.
②【美】刘易斯·芒福德著：《城市发展史——起源、演变和前景》，宋俊玲、倪文彦译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2008年。
③Lewis Mumford,“Mother Jacobs’ Home Remedies”, The New Yorker, December1,1962, Vol.38, Issue41,p.148.
④Raymond J. Burby III, et.al., New Communities, U.S.A, Lexington, Massachusetts: Lexington Books,1976.
⑤Gideon Golany, New-Town Planning: Principles and Practice, New York: Wiley-Interscience,1976; GideonGolany ed., International Urban Growth Policies: New-Town Contributions, New York: Wiley-Interscience,1978.
①William Alonso,“What Are New Towns for?” Urban Studies, Vol.7, No.37,1970, pp.36-55;“The Mirage ofNew Towns”, The Public Interest, No.19, Spring1970, pp.3-17.
②Carol Corden, Planned Cities: New Towns in Britain and America, Beverly Hills: Sage,1977.
③例如:James Bailey, ed., New Towns in America: The Design and Development Process, Washington, D.C: TheAmerican Institute of Architects,1973; Muriel I. Allen, ed., New Communities: Challenge for Today,Washington D.C: American Institute of Planners1968; Donald Canty, ed., The New City, New York: NationalCommittee on Urban Growth Policy,1969.
④Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community, ColumbiaUniversity,1982.
⑤Herbert J. Gans,“The Possibilities of Class and Racial Integration in American New Towns: a Policy-OrientedAnalysis”, in Harvey Perloff and Neil Sandberg, ed., New Towns—Why and For Whom, New York: Praeger,1973, pp.137-157.
⑥Gary Armen,“The Programming of Social Provision in New Communities: Part I: Basic Problems and GerneralTheories”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.47, No.2,1976, pp.105-126; Part II: Some Case Studies andConclusions”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.47, No.3,1976, pp.269-288.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company,1976.
②Irving Lewis Allen, New Towns and the Suburban Dream: Ideology and Utopia in Planning and Development,Port Washington, New York: Kennikat Press,1977.
③Alan Turner,“New Communities in the United States:1968-1973, Part I: Historical Background, Legislationand the Development Process”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.45, No.3,1974, pp.259-273;“New Communitiesin the United States:1968-1973, Part II: Design Characteristics and Case Studies”, The Town Planning Review,Vol.45, No.4,1974, pp.415-430.
④Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University,1971.
⑤Robert Fishman, Urban Utopias in the Twentieth Century: Ebenezer Howard, Frank Lloyd Wright, and LeCorbusier, Cambridge: The MIT Press,1977.
⑥Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UniversityMicrofilms International,1986.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982.
②Stanley Buder, Visionaries and Planners: the Garden City Movement and the Modern Community, New York:Oxford University Press,1990.
③Stephen V. Ward, ed., The Garden City: Past, Present and Future, New York: Chapman&Hall,1992.
④Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, ChapelHill,1973.
⑤Richard B. Peiser,“Financial Feasibility Models in New Towns Development: Risk Evaluation in the UnitedStates”, The Town Planning Review, Vol.55, No.1,1984, pp.75-90.
①Richard B. Peiser and Alain C. Chang,“Is It Possible to Build Financially Successful New Towns? The MiltonKeynes Experience”, Urban Studies,1999, Vol.36, No.10, pp.1679-1703.
②Helene V. Smookler, Economic Integration in New Communities: An Evaluation of Factors Affecting Policiesand Implementation, Cambridge, Masschusetts: Ballinger,1976.
③Zane Miller, Suburb: Neighborhood and Community in Forest Park, Ohio,1935-1976, Knoxville: University ofTennessee Press,1981.
④Chris Gratton,“Industrial Diversification in New Towns”, Urban Studies,1979, No.16, pp.157-164.
⑤Royce Hanson, New Towns: Laboratories for Democracy: Report, New York: The Twentieth Century Fund,1971.
⑥Raymond J. Burby III, et.al., New Communities U.S.A., p.86.
⑦William Woollett,“Governance Promises/Problems in New Towns”, Public Administration Review, Vol.35,No.3,1975, pp.256-262.
⑧Shimon Gottschalk,“Citizen Participation in the Development of New Towns: A Cross-National View”, TheSocial Service Review, Vol.45, No.2,1971, pp.194-204.
⑨Anonymity,“Democracy in the New Towns: The Limits of Private Government”, The University of ChicagoLaw Review, Vol.36, No.2,1969, pp.379-412.
①Helene V. Smookler,“Administration Hara-Kiri: Implementation of the Urban Growth and New CommunityDevelopment Act”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.422,1975, pp.129-140.
②William C. Fucik,“The Challenge of Implementing Federally Assisted New Communities”, PublicAdministration Review, Vol.35, No.3,1975, pp.249-256.
③Eric Stowe and John Rehfuss,“Federal New Towns Policy:‘Muddling Through’at the Local Level”, PublicAdministration Review, Vol.35, No.3,1975, pp.222-228.
④Martha Derthick, New Towns In-Town, Why a Federal Program Failed, Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute,1972.
⑤Robert M. Litke, The Role of Local Government in New Community Development, Washington D.C.: U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development,1978.
⑥Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006, pp.2285-2299.
①Roger Biles,“The Rise and Fall of Soul City: Planning, Politics, and Race in Recent America”, Journal ofPlanning History,2005, Vol.4, No.1, pp.52-72.
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,Columbus: Ohio State University Press,2001.
③【美】亚当·罗姆著：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，高国荣，孙群郎，耿晓明译，北京：中国环境科学出版社，2011年版。
④Roger Biles,“New towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,Vol.13,1998, pp.113–132;
①Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus, The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28No.1,2001, pp.55-71.
②Howard Gillette Jr,“Assessing James Rouse’s Role in American City Planning”, Journal of the AmericanPlanning Association, Vol.65, No.2,1999, pp.150-165.
③Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Merchant of Illusion: James Rouse, America's Salesman of the Businessman's Utopia,Ohio State University Press,2004.
④Robert Tennenbaum, Creating a New City: Columbia, Maryland, Columbia: Perry Publishing,1996.
⑤Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Berkeley: University of California Press,2005.
⑥张捷、赵民编著：《新城规划的理论与实践－田园城市思想的世纪演绎》，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2005年版。
①张敏：《美国新城的规划建设及其类型与特点》，《国外城市规划》，1998年，第4期，第49-52页。
②杨靖、司玲：《马里兰州哥伦比亚的新城规划》，《规划师》，2005年，第6期，第87-90页。
③王旭：《美国城市发展模式——从城市化到大都市区化》，北京：清华大学出版社，2006年版，第183-184，197页
④梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，长春：东北师范大学出版社，2002年，第193页。
⑤孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，北京：商务印书馆，2005年，第165-166、374-378页。
⑥王庆安：《美国战后新城镇开发建设及启示》，《国际城市规划》，2007年，第1期，第63-66页。
⑦马万利、梅雪芹：《有价值的乌托邦一一对霍华德田园城市理论的一种认识》，《史学月刊》，2003年，第5期，第104-111页。马万利：《田园城市理论的初步实践和历史影响》，《浙江学刊》，2005年，第2期。
⑧林广：《以色列城市化进程中的政治因素——以新城镇为例》，《世界历史》，2006年第5期，第36-44页。
①王洋：《新城：美国新城市化进程中的第三条道路》，博士学位论文，厦门大学，2011年。
①参阅黄柯可：《关于美国城市化研究若干问题的思考——兼评我国的研究情况》，《世界历史》，1995年第6期；王旭、王洋：《中国的美国城市史研究》，《史学理论研究》，2011年第1期。
①【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，邹德慈、金经元译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，1985，第28-30页。
①Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press,1965, p.17.译文参阅【英】埃比尼泽·霍华德著：《明日的田园城市》，金经元译，北京：商务印书馆，译序第18页。（下同）。
②Ebenezer Howard, Garden Cities of To-morrow, Cambridge, p.48.
①Peter Hall, Cities of Tomorrow: An Intellectual History of Urban Planning and Design in the Twentieth Century,Oxford: Blackwell Publishers Ltd.,2002, pp.99-102.
②Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, Leonard Hill: London,1963, p.45.
③Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, p.34.
④Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, The New Towns: The Answer to Megalopolis, p.43.
①Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UniversityMicrofilms International,1986, pp.3-4.
①U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1954,75th Anniversary Edition,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1954, p.26.
②李剑鸣：《大转折的年代——美国进步主义运动研究》，天津：天津教育出版社，1992年，第3页。
③Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of an Idea”, Journal ofthe American Planning Association,1980(October), p.425.
①U.S. Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1954,75th Anniversary Edition,Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1954, p.27.
②【加】简·雅各布斯著：《美国大城市的死与生》，金衡山译，南京：译林出版社，2008年版，第15页。
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, Liverpool, UK:Liverpool University Press,1958, p.39.
①Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.41.
②Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.44.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, Philadelphia: Temple University Press,1982, pp.149-152.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, Michigan: UMI ResearchPress,1986, p.59.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.60.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.62.
①Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, p.160.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, pp.55-57.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.44.
④William E. Leuchtenburg, The Greenbelt Conference on New Towns in Celebration of Greenbelt’s50thAnniversary,1987, p.1.
①William E. Leuchtenburg, The Greenbelt Conference on New Towns in Celebration of Greenbelt’s50thAnniversary,1987, p.1.
②Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.192.
③Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University Press,1971, p.26.
④Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.29.
①Joseph L. Arnold. The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.25.
②Joseph L. Arnold. The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, p.27.
①Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954,pp.38-39,44.
②John R.McFarland,“The Adimistration of the New Deal Greenbelt Towns”, Journal of the American PlanningAssociation,1966(July), p.218.
③Cathy D. Knepper, Greenbelt, Maryland: A Living Legacy of the New Deal, The Johns Hopkins University Press,2001, p.xvi.
①Hugh Mield, Jr., Federally Assisted New Communities: new dimensions in urban development, A ULI LandmarkReport, Washington, D.C: the Urban Land Institute,1973, p.12.
②Irving Lewis Allen, New Towns and the Suburban Dream: Ideology and Utopia in Planning and Development,p.97.
③Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.122.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.128.
①Monica MacAdams, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, Appendix A: Legislative Background,Washington, D.C.:1976, p.7.
②梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第429页。
③National Association of Real Estate Boards, Confidential Weekly Letter, September7,1937.
④Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.131.
①Clarence S. Stein, Toward New Towns for America, p.9.
②Daniel Schaffer, Garden Cities for America: The Radburn Experience, p.145.
①【美】丹尼尔·贝尔著：《后工业社会的来临——对社会预测的一项探索》，高銛等译，北京：新华出版社，1997年，导论，第14页。
①Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.267.
②Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, New York,1987, p.182.
③Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, p.60.
④U.S. Bureau of Census, ed., Historical Statistics of the United States, Colonial Times to1970，Part I,Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office,1975, p.139.
①【美】C·赖特·米尔斯：《白领——美国的中产阶级》，杨小东等译，杭州：浙江人民出版社，1987年，第1页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，王希译，下卷，北京：商务印书馆，2010年，第1214页。
③Godfrey Hodgson, America in Our Time: From World War II to Nixon-What Happened and Why, PrincetonUniversity Press,2005, p.51.
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第29页。
②王旭：《莱维敦：美国郊区化的理想模式》，《厦门大学学报（哲学社会科学版）》，2003年，第3期，第85-92页。
③Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.234.
④“Up from the Potato Fields”, Time, July,3,1950, p.68.
⑤【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第29页。
①Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.71-72.
②Herbert J. Gans, The Levittowners: Ways of Life and Politics in a New Suburban Community, New York:Vintage Books,1967, pp.220,186.
③William Hollingsworth Whyte, The Organization Man, Garden City, New York: Doubleday,1956, p.63.
①梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第187页。
②Todd Zimmerman&Zimmerman Associates,“Seeking an Alternative to Suburban Inefficiency”, inDocumentation on New Town Development, Selected from Presentation at the International Making CitiesLivable Conferences, California: IMCI, Council,1990, p.2.
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.54, pp.96-98.
②李艳玲：《美国城市更新运动与内城改造》，上海：上海大学出版社，2004年版，第162页。
①Anthony Downs, Opening up the suburbs: An Urban Strategy for America, p.21.
②Carl Abbott, Urban America in the Modern Age:1920to the Present, Arlington Heights, Illinois: HarlanDavidson,1987, p.129.
③孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，第394页。
④梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第435页。
①李艳玲：《对美国城市更新运动的总体分析与评价》，《上海大学学报》，2001年第6期，第80页。
②Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: the Rise and Fall of Suburbia, p.182.
③Thomas L. Daniels,“The Use of Green Belts to Control Sprawl in the United States”, Planning Practice andResearch, Vol.25, No.2(June,2010), p.255.
④Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, New York: North Point Press,2000, pp.3-4.翻译参考该书的中译本，下同。【美】安德烈斯·杜安伊、伊丽莎白·普拉特-兹伊贝克、杰夫·斯佩克著：《郊区国家：蔓延的兴起与美国梦的衰落》，苏薇等译，武汉：华中科技大学出版社，2008年。
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Declineof the American Dream, pp.5-7.
②Carl Abbott, The Metropolitan Frontier: Cities in the Modern American West, Tucson: University of ArizonaPress,1993, p.134.
③【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，第246页。
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, pp.185,239.
⑤Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, New York: North Point Press,2000, p.25.
⑥Lewis Mumford, The City in History: Its Origins, Its Transformations, and Its Prospects, New York: Harcourt,Brace&World,1961, p.32.
⑦20世纪美国著名的民谣歌手、作曲家玛尔维娜·雷诺兹曾创作并演唱了歌曲《Little Box》。在这首歌中，玛尔维娜·雷诺兹戏称莱维敦住房为“Little boxes on the hillside, Little boxes made of ticky-tacky……Littleboxes, all the same……they all look just the same”，形象地描述了战后郊区批量化建造的住宅。http://ingeb.org/songs/littlebo.html,2010-09-08日下载。
①Council of Environmental Quality, Environmental Quality: The First-annual Report of the Council onEnvironmental Quality, p.172.
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.xii.
②Peter Blake, God’s Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America’s Landscape, New York: Holt,Rinehart and Winston,1964, p.3.
③Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.4.
④Robert Fishman, Bourgeois Utopias: The Rise and Fall of Suburbia, p.10.
⑤王旭：《美国城市发展模式：从城市化到大都市区化》，第210页。
⑥Harry H. Long and Paul C. Glick,“Family Pattern in Suburban Areas: Recent Trends”, in Barry Schwartz, ed.,The Changing Face of the Suburbs, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press,1976, p.39.
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第99-100页。
②Peter Blake, God’s Own Junkyard: The Planned Deterioration of America’s Landscape, Rinehart and Winston,1964, p.21.
③John C. Teaford, Post Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, The Johns Hopkins UniversityPress,1997, p.25.
④Carl Abbott,“The Suburban Sunbelt”, Journal of Urban History, Vol.13, No.3(May,1987), p.292.
①Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.16.
②Carl Abbott, The New Urban America: Growth and Politics in Sunbelt Cities, Chapel Hill,1981, p.17.
③Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands, p.56.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Planning New Towns: National Reports of the U.S. andthe U.S.S.R., Washington, D.C.,1981, pp.6-7.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, Reston Publishing Company, Inc.,1976, p.23.
①Reid Ewing, Developing Successful New Communities, The Urban Land Institute,1991, p.9.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.23.
③Joel Garreau, Edge City: Life on the New Frontier, New York: Anchor Books,1992.
④Richard W.Helbock,“New Towns in the United States”, The Professional Geographer, Vol.20, No.4(1968),pp.244-245.
⑤Ann Forsyth,“Planning Lessons from Three U.S. New Towns of the1960s and1970s: Irvine, Columbia, andThe Woodlands”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.68, No.4,(Autumn,2002), p.388.
①Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.18.
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.36.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.32.
①A Publication of Gulf Reston, ed., A Brief History of Reston, Virginia, A Publication of Gulf Reston, Inc.,1970,pp.9-11.
②Ada Louise Huxtable,“First Light of New Town Era is on Horizon”, New York Times, February17,1964.
③Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore: The Jones HopkinsUniversity Press,1997, p.51.
①Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.109.
②城市开放空间理论（Open Space），源自19世纪下半叶快速工业化和城市化所导致的严重公共卫生、环境问题、城市公共用地不足等问题。1877年，英国《大都市开发空间法》（Metropolitan Open Space Act）将城市开放空间定义为：不围合、无建筑或少于1/20的城市土地有建筑物，其它土地兴建公园等娱乐设施，或闲置。20世纪60年代，许多城市规划学家、生态学家、环境学家等进一步发展和丰富了这一理论。总之，城市开放空间是指城市内部及周边具有较高生态保护、景观美学、休闲游憩、防震减灾、历史文化保护等生态、社会、经济价值的非建筑或少于建筑用地的空间形式，包括绿地、水域和广场，承担着城市形态建构、社会空间融合、城市健康可持续发展维护的重要功能。参阅邵大伟：《城市开放空间格局的演变、机制及优化研究——以南京主城区为例》，南京师范大学博士学位论文，2011年，第1-3页。
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.32.
④王旭：《美国城市发展模式》，第210页。
②美国历史上第一次黑人迁徙运动始于1916-1929年，共有约150人南部农村黑人移居北部城市。详见胡锦山：《美国黑人的第一次大迁徙》，《东北师范大学》（哲学社会科学版），1996年第2期。
①胡锦山：《1940-1970年美国黑人大迁徙概论》，《美国研究》，1995年第4期，第99页。
②【美】约翰·霍普·富兰克林著：《美国黑人史》，张冰姿等译，北京：商务印书馆，1988年，第544页。
③【美】加里·纳什等编著：《美国人民——创建一个国家和一种社会》，下卷（1865—2002），刘德斌主译，北京：北京大学出版社，2008年，第871页。
④James Heilbrun, Urban Economics and Public Policy, New York: ST. Martin’s Press,1981, p.44.
⑤Peter Muller, Contemporary Suburban America, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.,1980, p.22.
⑥梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第290页。
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life and Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.89.
②Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.227.
③David Rusk, Cities without Suburbs, Washington D.C.: the Woodrow Wilson Center Press,1995, p.1.
④哈莱姆（Harlem）位于纽约的曼哈顿北部，贝德福德—斯图维桑特（Bedford-Stuyvesant）位于纽约市布鲁克林，是20世纪下半叶美国黑人最大的聚集区和贫民窟。20世纪60年代，纽约市108.8万黑人人口中，有超过一半的黑人居住于此。
⑤“丰裕社会”是美国经济学家约翰·肯尼斯·加尔布雷斯提出的。加尔布雷斯改变了传统经济学以贫困社会为研究对象的模式，认为时下的美国的已经进入一个“丰裕社会”的时代。他强调，一方面，发展经济、增加社会财富，另一方面也要注意效率和社会公正，主张政府要提供住房、教育、社会福利等公共产品，在价格、利润与供求之外，提供一丝温暖的人文关怀。John Kenneth Galbraith, The AffluentSociety, New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,1998, pp. viii-xii. Michal Harrington, The Other America:Poverty in the United States, New York: Simon&Schuster, Inc.,1997, p.3.
⑥孙群郎：《美国郊区化进程中的黑人种族隔离》，《历史研究》，2012年第6期，第104页。
①Peter O. Muller, Contemporary Suburban America, p.334.
②Dennis R Judd. The Politics of American Cities: Private Power and Public policy. Boston: Little, Brown andCompany,1979, p.185.
③关于“谢利诉克雷默案”的情况，详见Joe T. Darden,“Black Residential Segregation since the1948:Shelley V. Kraemer Decision”, Journal of Black Studies, Vol.25, No.6(July,1995), pp.680-691.
①Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.241.
②孙群郎：《美国郊区化进程中的黑人种族隔离》，《历史研究》，2012年第6期，第102-104页。
③James W. Hughes, ed., Suburbanization Dynamics and the Future of the City, New Brunswick, N.J.: RutgersUniversity,1974, p.195.
④孙群郎：《美国城市郊区化研究》，第343页。
①U. S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States,1982-1983,103d Annual Edition, Washington D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office,1982, p.160, No.261. CollegeEnrollment by Sex and Race:1960-1981.
②U.S. National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders, the Kener Report, p.251.转引自梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第312页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1270页。
③Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus, The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28, No.1(November2001), p.66.
④Kenneth T. Jackson, Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, Oxford: Oxford UniversityPress,1985, pp.226-227.
①Kenneth Fox, Metropolitan America: Urban Life and Urban Policy in the United States,1940-1980, Jackson:University Press of Mississippi,1986, p.138.
②Raymond J.Burby III, et.al., New Communities U.S.A., p.91.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.20.
①Mark Clapson,“Suburban Paradox? Planners ‘intentions and resident’s preferences in two new towns of the1960s: Reston, Virginia and Milton Keynes, England’”, Planning Perspectives, Vol.17, No.2(2002), p.147.
①Reston Interfaith Housing Corporation Background Paper, Affordable Housing for Low and Moderate IncomeFamilies in Reston,1984, January, p.1.
②Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.iii.
③Robert E. Simon, Jr, Reston Master Plan Report, Fairfax County, Va.,1962, March,10, p.6.
①Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.vii.
①Lawrence O’Kane,“Reston to Study Low-Income Units”, New York Times, Jan1,1967, p.162.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.75.
③Robert E. Simon, Reston Letter, December1965,2.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43.
⑤“The Shape of Reston”, Reston Times,1June,1966.
⑥George,“New Towners and the Urban Dilemma”, Reston Times,2August1968.
⑦Walter Knorr,“Crossings”, Restionian5, no.3,1989.
⑧Restonian, Gulf Reston,1974.
①Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.154-155.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.84.
③Edward Sharp,“Does AD Seek Blacks”, Reston Times, September4,1969, p.6.
④Robert Andrews,“Reston, Virginia Went from ‘New Town’ of1960s to ‘Boom Town’”, Syracuse Herald,17August1986, H6.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43-45.
②“Reston, Virginia: New Design for an Ideal City”, Reston Times, December1966, pp.90-96.
③Michal Kernan,“The Green Dream-II”.转引自Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Townsand the Transformation of the American Dream, p.187.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.43.
⑤Megan Rosenfeld,“Reston Becomes Richer, Blacker”, Washington Post,1977.
①Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006, p.2287.
②Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.89.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.90.
①Tripp,“Forum Event Celebrates Black History”, Columbia Forum Newsletter, March1985.
①Dave Barkley,“Fear Knocked; Faith Answered”, Columbia Times,1July,1968.
②“What Is New about New Towns?” Practical Builder, July1966, p.74.
③Paul Imre,“Drug Crisis”.转引自Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and theTransformation of the American Dream, p.156.
④Dave Barkley,“Fear Knocked; Faith Answered”, Columbia Times,1July,1968.
⑤Manuel,“Programs Examine Black Cultural Identity”&“Black and White Follow-Up”, Columbia Flier,10May&16June,1977.
⑥Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.99.
⑦Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, pp.91,97.
①Ruth Glick,“Bill and Pinnie Ross”, Columbia Flier,16June,1977.
②Susan Hall and Judith Tripp,“Columbia: My Hometown”, Columbia Magazine, Nov.1986, p.25.
③Jeanne Lamb O’Neill,“Columbia, Gem of America’s ‘New Towns’”, American Home, May1970.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.95.
⑤Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.96.
①Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.98.
②Jeanne Lamb O’Neill,“Columbia, Gem of America’s ‘New Towns’”, American Home, May1970.
③Neil C. Sandberg, Stairwell7:Family Life in the Welfare State, Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications,1978, p.229.
①【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1212页。
②【美】埃里克·方纳：《给我自由！一部美国的历史》，第1214-1215页。
③【美】埃里克·方纳：《美国自由的故事》，第438-439页。
④梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第462页。
①Mark Baldasssare,Trouble in Paradise:The Suburban Transformation in America, New York: ColumbiaUniversity Press,1986, p.171.
②梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第283页。
①Howard P. Chudacoff, The Evolution of American Urban Society, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall,1981, p.300.
②Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p.39.
③John Keats, The Crack in the Picture Window, Cambridge: The Riverside Press,1957, p.xiv.
④Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore: The Johns HopkinsUniversity Press,1997.p.48.
⑤【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第99页。
①Kenneth T.Jackson Crabgrass Frontier: The Suburbanization of the United States, p.247.
②Joseph L. Arnold, The New Deal in the Suburbs: A History of the Greenbelt Town Program,1935-1954, OhioState University Press,1971, p.26.
③梁茂信：《都市化时代——20世纪美国人口流动与城市社会问题》，第234页。
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第72页。
②V.G. MacKenzie,“Research Studies on Individual Sewage Disposal Systems”, American Journal of PublishHeath, Vol.42(April,1952), p.411.
③高国荣：《美国现代环保运动的兴起及其影响》，《南京大学学报》（哲学人文社会科学版），2006年第4期，第51页。
④【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第140页。
①【美】亚当·罗姆：《乡村里的推土机——郊区住宅开发与美国环保主义的兴起》，第212页。
②Nicholas Dagen Bloom, Suburban Alchemy:1960s New Towns and the Transformation of the American Dream,p.21.
③Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live1976, p.33.
④U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, Washington D.C:1985, p.3.7.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.173.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.172.
②George T. Morgan, Jr. and John O.King, The Woodlands: New Community Development,1964-1983, Texas A&M University Press,1987, pp.33-35.
③Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia, and The Woodlands, p.161.
④Gideon Golany, New-Town Planning: Principles and Practice, New York: Wiley,1976, pp.224-226.
⑤【美】卡尔·艾博特：《大都市边疆——当代美国西部城市》，第151页。
①侯深：《<乡村里的推土机>与环境史研究的新视角》，《世界历史》，2010年第5期，第136页。
①Wiston W. Crouch and Richard Bigger,“Metropolitan Decentralization: Britain’s New Towns Program”, TheWestern Political Quarterly, Vol.3, No.2, Jun.,1950, p.245.
②Pattrick Abercrombie, Greater London Plan1944, London: H.M. Stationery Office,1948.
③Isaac K.A.Isaacson, The Garden City and New Towns Ideology and the British New Towns Policy,1800-1970,Lund-Sweden,1988, p.16.
④Frederic J. Osborn&Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, Boston:Routledge,1977, pp.56-57.
⑤Isaac K.A.Isaacson, The Garden City and New Towns Ideology and the British New Towns Policy,1800-1970,Lund-Sweden,1988, p.1.
①British Information Services, The New Towns of Britain, London,1974, p.2.
②British Information Services, The New Towns of Britain, London,1974, p.3.
①Frederic J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, p.341.
②Frederic J. Osborn and Arnold Whittick, New Towns: Their Origins, Achievements and Progress, pp.463-466.
①陈宝森：《美国经济与政府政策—从罗斯福到里根》，世界知识出版社，1988年，第794页。
②Philip Langdon, A Better Place to Live: Reshaping the American Suburb, University of Massachusetts Press,1997, p.219.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, pp.3.2-3.9
②Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, p.13.
③Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.108.
④Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.106.
⑤Pierre Merlin, New Towns: Regional Planning and Development, London: Methuen&Co Ltd,1971, p.190.
①Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.54-55.
②Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, New Communities, U.S.A, pp.56-57.
①U.S.Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program,1985, p.1.5; Raymond J. Burby III, et.al, NewCommunities, U.S.A, pp.57-58.
①Anonymous,“Chronological History of the New Communities Act of1968”, in Planned Community Archives.http://digilib.gmu.edu/dspace/handle/1920/1449?mode=full,2009-10-2日下载。
②Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.116.
③Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.116.
④Hugh Mields, Jr.,“New Communities: Issues and Implementation”, in Gideon Golany and Daniel Walden,edited, The Contemporary New Communities Movement in the United States. Urbana: University of IllinoisPress,1974, p.88.
⑤Maltha Munzer and John Vogel, New Towns: Building Cities from Scratch, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Incl,1974, p.108.
①Shirley F. Weiss, New Town Development in the United States: Experiment in Private Entrepreneurship, p.2.
②Houses and Cities: Message from the President of the United States, House of Representatives,90thCongress,2d Session,1968. http://bulk.resource.org/gao.gov/90-448/000058FF.pdf,2008-10-9日下载。
③Roger Biles,“New Towns for the Great Society: A Case Study in Politics and Planning”, Planning Perspectives,1998(13), p.118.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, St. Paul, Minn.: West Publishing Co., pp.594-595.
②United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, p.596.
③United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,90thCongress-Second Session,1968, Vol.1,Laws, pp.596-599.
④全国城市发展政策委员会（National Committee on Urban Growth Policy）于1968年成立，由全国县协会（National Association of Counties）、全国城市联盟（National League of Cities）、美国市长会议（UnitedStates Conference of Mayors）和美国城市公司（Urban American, Inc）等组织联合成立，对美国城市发展政策的制定具有较大影响力。
①Donald Canty, ed., The New City, New York: National Committee on Urban Growth Policy,1969, p.172.
②U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, pp.17-18.
③Thomas L. Ashley,“Congress and New Towns,” Public Administration Review, Vol.35, No.3, May-June,1975,pp.241-242.
④U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development,1976, p.20.
①U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration, New Communities:Problems and Potentials, p.22.
②United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91thCongress-Second Session, Vol.1, Laws, St.Paul Minn.: West Publishing Co.,1970, p.2098.
③United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session1970, ConvenedJanuary19,1970; Adjourned January2,1971. Vol.1, Laws, St Paul, Mini, West Publishing Co., pp.2096-2113.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session1970, ConvenedJanuary19,1970; Adjourned January2,1971. Vol.1, Laws, pp.2102-11.
②U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Planning New Towns: National Reports of the U.S. andthe U.S.S.R., Washington, D.C.,1981, pp.6-7.
①U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, Washinton, D.C.,1985, p.3.3.
②Nicholas Bloom,“The Federal Icarus: The Public Rejection of1970s National Suburban Planning”, Journal ofUrban History, Vol.28No.1,(Nov.,2001), p.62.
③Fritz Steiner, The Politics of New Towns Planning. Athens, OH: Ohio University Press,1981, p.2.
①Roger Biles,“The Rise and Fall of Soul City: Planning, Politics, and Race in Recent America”, Journal ofPlanning History, Vol.4, No.1,2005, p.72.
①United States Code: Congressional and Administrative News,91stCongress-Second Session, Vol.1, Law,p.2101.
②U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, AppendixD: Achievements and Potentials, Washington, D.C.,1976, pp.5-8.
①G. Scott Thomas, The United States of Suburbia: How the Suburbs Took Control of America and What TheyPlan to Do with It, New York: Prometheus,1998, p.93.
①Thomas L. Ashley,“Congress and New Towns,” Public Administration Review, Vol.35, No.3, May-June,1975,p.241.
②Helene V. Smookler,“Administration Hara-Kiri: Implementation of the Urban Growth and New CommunityDevelopment Act”, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science,1975(422), p.139.
③U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research, AnEvaluation of the Federal New Communities Program, p.2.14.
①U. S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, AppendixB, Washington, D.C.,1976, p.28.
①Jane Jacobs. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. New York: Random House,1961.中译本参阅：简·雅各布斯：《美国大城市的死与生》，金衡山译，南京：译林出版社，2008年。下同。
②Jane Jacobs. The Death and Life of Great American Cities. p.143.
①Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of an Idea”, Journal ofthe American Planning Association, Vol.46, Issue4,1980(October), p.435.
②【英】彼得·霍尔：《城市和区域规划》，第245页。
③Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.193.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.87.
①Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,Appendix B, Table.10.
②Yuki Kato,“Planning and Social Diversity: Residential Segregation in American New Towns”, Urban Studies,Vol.43, No.12,2006(November), p.2293, Table3.
①Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, Baltimore&London: The JohnHopkins University Press,1997, p.49.
②Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.50.
③Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.51.
④Robert E. Simon, Jr, Reston Master Plan Report, Fairfax County, Va.,1962, March,10, p.4.
⑤Ada Louise Huxtable,“Fully Planned Town Opens in Virginia”, New York Times,1965, Dec5, pg.1.
①James W. Rouse,“Cities that Work for Man-Victory Ahead”, at the Lions International/University of PuertoRico Symposium on “The City of The Future”, San Juan, Puerto Rico, October18,1967, p.5.
②Carol A. Christensen, The American Garden City and the New Towns Movement, p.109.
①Margaret Eckel Goertz, New Towns in the United States: Suburban Enclaves or Balanced Communities?Syracuse University, Ph.D.,1971, pp.219-220.
②Henry Bain, The Reston Express Bus: A Case History of Citizen Action to Improve Urban Transportation,August,1969, p.4.
③Robert Cervero,“Planned Communities, Self-containment and Commuting: A Cross-national Perspective”,Urban Studies, Vol.32, No.7,1995, p.1142; Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities ofIrvine, Columbia, and the Woodlands, Table13.
④Carlos C. Campbell, New Towns: Another Way to Live, p.49.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., pp.326-327.
②Robert Cervero,“Planned Communities, Self-containment and Commuting: A Cross-national Perspective”,Urban Studies, Vol.32, No.7,1995, p.1142.
③Mahlon Apgar IV,“New Business from New Towns?” The Appraisal Journal,1973(January), p.12.
④Alert A. Foer,“Democracy in the New Towns: The Limits of Private Government”, Chicago Law Review, Vol.36, No.2,1969, pp.379-412.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.168.
②Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.176.
①Norman Rowland, Reston Low Income Housing Demonstration Program, Report,1969, April, p.vii.
②Margaret Eckel Goertz, New Towns in the United States: Suburban Enclaves or Balanced Communities? p.363.
①Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.326.
②Raymond J. Burby, III, Shirley F. Weiss, New Communities, U.S.A., p.327.
①Ann Forsyth,“Planning Lessons from Three U.S. New Towns of the1960s and1970s: Irvine, Columbia, andThe Woodlands”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.68, No.4, Autumn2002, p.405.
①如William Alonso,“What Are New Towns for?” Urban Studies,1970,7:37, pp.36-55;“The Mirage of NewTowns”, The Public Interest, No.19, Spring1970, pp.3-17.John C. DeBoer, Alexander Greendale, ed. Are NewTowns for Lower Income Americans Too? New York: Praeger Publishers, Inc.,1974.
②Reid Ewing, Developing Successful New Communities, the Urban Land Institute,1991, p.2.
③Pierre Merlin, New Towns: Regional Planning and Development, p.189.
④Jack A. Underhill, New Communities: Problems and Potentials, Appendix D: Achievements and Potentials,Washington D.C.:U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, New Communities Administration,1976, I-35.
①William H. Whyte, Jr.,“Research and the Open Space Problem”, Journal of Economics and Sociology, Vol.21,No.4(Oct.,1962), pp.405-406.
②Ann Forsyth, Reforming Suburbia: The Planned Communities of Irvine, Columbia and The Woodlands,pp.277-278.
①Jon C. Teaford, Post-Suburbia: Government and Politics in the Edge Cities, p.46
②Herbert Gans,“The Failure of Urban Renewal, A Critique and Some Proposals”, Commentary,1965(April),p.35.转引自Eugenie Ladner Birch,“Radburn and the American Planning Movement: The Persistence of anIdea”, Journal of the American Planning Association, Vol.46, Issue4,1980(October), p.434.
②【美】彼得·卡尔索普著:《未来美国大都市——生态·社区·美国梦》，郭亮译，北京：中国建筑工业出版社，2009年，第56页。
①William B. Fulton, The New Urbanism: Hope or Hype for American Communities?, Cambridge, MA: LincolnInstitute of Land Policy,1996, p.13. http://www.lincolninst.edu/pubs/dl/865_New%20Urbanism.pdf,2013-12-21日下载。
②Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, p. xvi.
③Andres Duany, Elizabeth Plater-Zyberk and Jeff Speck, Suburban Nation: The Rise of Sprawl and the Decline ofthe American Dream, pp.15-17.
④William B. Fulton, The New Urbanism: Hope or Hype for American Communities?, p.11.
①单皓：《美国型城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第11-12页。
②详见本文第三章第71页。
③单皓：《美国型城市主义》，《建筑师》，第11页。
①孙群郎：《美国新城市主义运动的兴起及其面临的困境》，《史学理论研究》，2013年第1期，第112页。
②Javier Monclus and Manuel Guardia, eds., Culture, Urbanism and Planning, Burlington: Ashgate PublishingCompany,2000, p.185.转引自林广：《新城市主义与美国城市规划》，《美国研究》，2007年第4期，第30页。
③“Charter of New Urbanism”, http://www.cnu.org/charter,2012-3-21日下载。
④董宏伟，王磊：《美国新城市主义指导下的公交导向发展：批评与反思》，《国际城市规划》，第23卷，第2期，2008，第71页。
①单皓：《美国新城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第5页。
①孙群郎：《美国新城市主义运动的兴起及其面临的困境》，《史学理论研究》，2013年第1期，第111页。
②单皓：《美国新城市主义》，《建筑师》，2003年第3期，第5页。
③董宏伟，王磊：《美国新城市主义指导下的公交导向发展：批评与反思》，《国际城市规划》，第23卷，第2期，2008，第68页。
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42.孙群郎：《当代美国郊区的蔓延对生态环境的危害》，《世界历史》，2006（5）：15-25
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55.王旭：《对美国大都市区化历史地位的再认识》，《历史研究》，2002（3）：110-119
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