时间定价对亲社会行为的影响及其心理机制
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摘要
时间定价是指将金钱价格赋予时间之上,用金钱来衡量时间的价值。随着整个社会对效率的追求,许多公司企业越来越倾向于采用时间定价的方式付给员工报酬。虽然采用时间定价的方式能够有效地管理员工的生产活动并促进效率,但是,这种组织管理方式会影响到个体生活各个方面的时间决策,进而影响个体的幸福。随着积极组织行为研究的兴起,人们越来越关注工作场所中员工的适应和幸福。亲社会行为是幸福的一个重要的影响因素。研究者开始关注时间定价这种计酬方式对个体亲社会行为的影响。时间定价激活时间经济价值最大化的心理定势,使个体更看重时间的经济回报,花更少的时间帮助他人。但是,时间定价对亲社会行为的影响可能并不仅仅局限于时间利他。已有的启动研究表明,时间定价可能造成金钱和时间两个概念的同时启动。金钱启动会激活经济效用心理定势,使个体追求经济效用最大化的目标；时间启动可能会激活情绪心理定势,使个体追求更具有情感意义的目标。然而,由于时间定价使得时间的价值金钱化,个体更倾向于认为“时间就是金钱”。因此,虽然时间定价同时启动时间和金钱两个概念,但起主导作用的是金钱激活的经济效用心理定势,即以经济效用最大化为目标的心理定势,在这种心理定势下的个体更关注事物或行为的经济实用性。时间定价可能通过经济效用心理定势影响不同的亲社会行为。时间定价和亲社会行为的关系也可能受到其他因素的影响。基于此,本研究拟通过三项研究考察时间定价对不同亲社会行为的影响及其心理机制。
由于时间利他和金钱利他是亲社会行为的两种最主要的类型,所以研究一探讨时间定价对时间利他和金钱利他的影响。实验1探讨时间定价对时间利他的影响,考察DeVoe等人研究结果的可重复性。实验2a和实验2b进一步探讨时间定价对在校大学生和已工作个体金钱利他行为的影响。实验结果表明,时间定价不仅影响个体的时间利他行为,也削弱了其金钱利他行为。时间定价所激活的经济效用心理定势,可能还影响个体的其它行为。
研究二考察时间定价影响亲社会行为的中介因素。首先通过三个实验对经济效用心理定势的表现加以研究,结果表明,时间定价使个体分配更多时间到有实用价值的工作和学习上,更少分配时间到休闲娱乐上；在享乐品和实用品选择上,时间定价使个体更倾向于选择实用品；电生理学数据表明,时间定价使个体大脑α波功率值和功率百分比更低、心率更快、皮肤电流更大,个体更不平静、更不耐烦。接着以时间分配、实用品享乐品选择为经济效用心理定势的指标,考察经济效用心理定势的中介效应。结果表明,时间定价通过经济效用心理定势影响个体的亲社会行为,经济效用心理定势在其中起部分中介作用。
研究三对物质主义价值观和超越自我中心两个人格差异变量的调节效应进行了探究,结果表明,高物质主义者和低物质主义者的亲社会行为不受时间定价的影响,而中等水平物质主义者的亲社会行为对时间定价很敏感；超越自我中心也起到调节作用,时间定价只对低超越自我中心者的亲社会行为有影响。
基于上述,本研究尝试提出了时间意义刺激激活经济效用心理定势模型来解释时间定价影响亲社会行为的心理机制。虽然该模型尚需进一步完善,但从现有的研究结果看,它能较好地解释时间定价是如何影响亲社会行为的。总之,本文进一步拓展了DeVoe等人的研究,较为完整地定义了经济效用心理定势,采用时间分配、实用品享乐品选择和电生理学指标来考察经济效用心理定势的具体表现；还考察了时间定价影响亲社会行为的中介和调节变量,为后续的探讨提供了参考。这项研究既有理论创新,也具有应用价值。它对于企业管理和提升个体幸福感有重要的应用意义。
目前对时间定价影响亲社会行为的研究刚刚起步,还存在大量的问题,例如志愿者、无偿献血者和见义勇为者对时间定价的行为反应,我们将进一步进行探讨。
Given the need of companies to increase efficiency among their employees and the availability of technology to track employee productivity, an increasing number of companies have adopted timesheets to bill their employees' working time. In addition, the development of economic globalization has spurred many Chinese companies to adopt Western corporate governance policies and practices. These policies encourage the economic evaluation of time. While billing time and hourly payment are effective management tools, they can have be negative psychological effects on employees: putting a price on time decreases happiness. Given that there are demonstrated links between prosocial behavior and happiness, organizational researchers have begun to focus on ways to maximize prosocial behavior. Accounting for time affects individuals' engagement in altruistic acts. Billing time, which fosters a cognitive connection between time and money, appears to encourage a narrow, economic evaluation of time and can lead to the perception that time is wasted when its economic value is not maximized. Consequently, it is likely that individuals who bill their time are less likely to spend time helping others since it is a less-quantifiable benefit of time's expenditure. The existing literature in this area of study has only focused on the relation between billing time and time allocation. However, the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors likely comprises more than spending time volunteering or helping others. Indeed, it is plausible that accounting for time could affect the amount of money an individual opts to donate to charity. Specifically, accounting for time promotes individuals to view time as money, so it is likely that putting a price on time activates the concept of money and primes individuals to think of money. There is increasing evidence that suggests that a mindset associated with money can affect prosocial behaviors. Research has shown that individuals primed with the concept of money chose to spend less time and money for others. Therefore, we hypothesized that accounting for time may activate a utility mindset that would affect one's allocation of time and money. We defined economic utility mindset here as a preparative state that features the goal of maximizing the economic utility of one's resources. Individuals who engage in the mindset would pursue the direct profitable return and emphasize the external usefulness of activities. Money, like time, is one of the most important resources and spending money on others promotes happiness. Therefore, in this study we not only investigated the effect of billing time on the level one is willing to spend time for others, but also the effect on donating personal income to charity. However, the relation between billing time and prosocial acts is not one-to-one and may be affected by other factors. Therefore, our primary aim was to examine the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors and their psychological mechanism.
Study one investigated the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors. Experiment1examined the effect of billing time on time spent helping to text the accuracy of DeVoe's results. Experiment2a and experiment2b examined the effect of accounting for time on money spent helping of college students and individuals who had worked for over one year. The results showed that accounting for time reduced participants'time spent helping and willingness to donate money. These finding may indicate that accounting may activate an economic utility maximization mindset.
Study two examined the mediating factor of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors. Firstly, experiment3a,3b, and3c investigated the indicators of economic utility mindsets. The results indicated that accounting for time urged students spend more time on work and study which possess high economic utility mindsets; individuals who had billed time were inclined to choose utilitarian goods rather than hedonic goods; compared with control condition, experimental condition subjects showed lower alpha power, faster heart rate, and larger galvanic skin response which indicate higher impatience. Secondly, experiment4examined the mediating effect of economic utility mindsets. The results showed that accounting for time affects prosocial behaviors through economic utility mindsets.
Study three examined the moderating factors of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors. Mterialism moderated the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behavior. Specifically, for individuals who scored in the mid-range of materialism, participants assigned to a non-billing condition volunteered more time and donated more money than those in a billing-time condition. However, for individuals who scored the highest or lowest on materialism, no significant differences were observed. Self-transcendence moderated the relation between accounting for time and prosocial behaviors. Specifically, for individuals who scored the lowest on self-transcendence meaning of life scale, participants assigned to a non-billing condition were more inclined to prove help for other. Howerer, for those who scored the highest on the scale, no significant differences were observed.
To sum up, these studies explored the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors and their psychological mechanism which expanded DeVoe's research. We provided a complete definition of economic utility mindsets. Adopting time allocation, the selection between utilitarian goods and hedonic ones, and Electrophysiological indicators, we examined the meaning of economic utility mindsets. This research results are of great value in business management and individual happiness. Employers should avoid adopting hourly payment systems and should not require employees to bill their time.
At present, the research of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors has just begun; there are still a lot of questions to resolve. Future research should examine other types of pro-social behaviors; propose a more complete model of the psychological mechanisms to explain the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors.
由于时间利他和金钱利他是亲社会行为的两种最主要的类型,所以研究一探讨时间定价对时间利他和金钱利他的影响。实验1探讨时间定价对时间利他的影响,考察DeVoe等人研究结果的可重复性。实验2a和实验2b进一步探讨时间定价对在校大学生和已工作个体金钱利他行为的影响。实验结果表明,时间定价不仅影响个体的时间利他行为,也削弱了其金钱利他行为。时间定价所激活的经济效用心理定势,可能还影响个体的其它行为。
研究二考察时间定价影响亲社会行为的中介因素。首先通过三个实验对经济效用心理定势的表现加以研究,结果表明,时间定价使个体分配更多时间到有实用价值的工作和学习上,更少分配时间到休闲娱乐上；在享乐品和实用品选择上,时间定价使个体更倾向于选择实用品；电生理学数据表明,时间定价使个体大脑α波功率值和功率百分比更低、心率更快、皮肤电流更大,个体更不平静、更不耐烦。接着以时间分配、实用品享乐品选择为经济效用心理定势的指标,考察经济效用心理定势的中介效应。结果表明,时间定价通过经济效用心理定势影响个体的亲社会行为,经济效用心理定势在其中起部分中介作用。
研究三对物质主义价值观和超越自我中心两个人格差异变量的调节效应进行了探究,结果表明,高物质主义者和低物质主义者的亲社会行为不受时间定价的影响,而中等水平物质主义者的亲社会行为对时间定价很敏感；超越自我中心也起到调节作用,时间定价只对低超越自我中心者的亲社会行为有影响。
基于上述,本研究尝试提出了时间意义刺激激活经济效用心理定势模型来解释时间定价影响亲社会行为的心理机制。虽然该模型尚需进一步完善,但从现有的研究结果看,它能较好地解释时间定价是如何影响亲社会行为的。总之,本文进一步拓展了DeVoe等人的研究,较为完整地定义了经济效用心理定势,采用时间分配、实用品享乐品选择和电生理学指标来考察经济效用心理定势的具体表现；还考察了时间定价影响亲社会行为的中介和调节变量,为后续的探讨提供了参考。这项研究既有理论创新,也具有应用价值。它对于企业管理和提升个体幸福感有重要的应用意义。
目前对时间定价影响亲社会行为的研究刚刚起步,还存在大量的问题,例如志愿者、无偿献血者和见义勇为者对时间定价的行为反应,我们将进一步进行探讨。
Given the need of companies to increase efficiency among their employees and the availability of technology to track employee productivity, an increasing number of companies have adopted timesheets to bill their employees' working time. In addition, the development of economic globalization has spurred many Chinese companies to adopt Western corporate governance policies and practices. These policies encourage the economic evaluation of time. While billing time and hourly payment are effective management tools, they can have be negative psychological effects on employees: putting a price on time decreases happiness. Given that there are demonstrated links between prosocial behavior and happiness, organizational researchers have begun to focus on ways to maximize prosocial behavior. Accounting for time affects individuals' engagement in altruistic acts. Billing time, which fosters a cognitive connection between time and money, appears to encourage a narrow, economic evaluation of time and can lead to the perception that time is wasted when its economic value is not maximized. Consequently, it is likely that individuals who bill their time are less likely to spend time helping others since it is a less-quantifiable benefit of time's expenditure. The existing literature in this area of study has only focused on the relation between billing time and time allocation. However, the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors likely comprises more than spending time volunteering or helping others. Indeed, it is plausible that accounting for time could affect the amount of money an individual opts to donate to charity. Specifically, accounting for time promotes individuals to view time as money, so it is likely that putting a price on time activates the concept of money and primes individuals to think of money. There is increasing evidence that suggests that a mindset associated with money can affect prosocial behaviors. Research has shown that individuals primed with the concept of money chose to spend less time and money for others. Therefore, we hypothesized that accounting for time may activate a utility mindset that would affect one's allocation of time and money. We defined economic utility mindset here as a preparative state that features the goal of maximizing the economic utility of one's resources. Individuals who engage in the mindset would pursue the direct profitable return and emphasize the external usefulness of activities. Money, like time, is one of the most important resources and spending money on others promotes happiness. Therefore, in this study we not only investigated the effect of billing time on the level one is willing to spend time for others, but also the effect on donating personal income to charity. However, the relation between billing time and prosocial acts is not one-to-one and may be affected by other factors. Therefore, our primary aim was to examine the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors and their psychological mechanism.
Study one investigated the influence of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors. Experiment1examined the effect of billing time on time spent helping to text the accuracy of DeVoe's results. Experiment2a and experiment2b examined the effect of accounting for time on money spent helping of college students and individuals who had worked for over one year. The results showed that accounting for time reduced participants'time spent helping and willingness to donate money. These finding may indicate that accounting may activate an economic utility maximization mindset.
Study two examined the mediating factor of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors. Firstly, experiment3a,3b, and3c investigated the indicators of economic utility mindsets. The results indicated that accounting for time urged students spend more time on work and study which possess high economic utility mindsets; individuals who had billed time were inclined to choose utilitarian goods rather than hedonic goods; compared with control condition, experimental condition subjects showed lower alpha power, faster heart rate, and larger galvanic skin response which indicate higher impatience. Secondly, experiment4examined the mediating effect of economic utility mindsets. The results showed that accounting for time affects prosocial behaviors through economic utility mindsets.
Study three examined the moderating factors of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors. Mterialism moderated the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behavior. Specifically, for individuals who scored in the mid-range of materialism, participants assigned to a non-billing condition volunteered more time and donated more money than those in a billing-time condition. However, for individuals who scored the highest or lowest on materialism, no significant differences were observed. Self-transcendence moderated the relation between accounting for time and prosocial behaviors. Specifically, for individuals who scored the lowest on self-transcendence meaning of life scale, participants assigned to a non-billing condition were more inclined to prove help for other. Howerer, for those who scored the highest on the scale, no significant differences were observed.
To sum up, these studies explored the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors and their psychological mechanism which expanded DeVoe's research. We provided a complete definition of economic utility mindsets. Adopting time allocation, the selection between utilitarian goods and hedonic ones, and Electrophysiological indicators, we examined the meaning of economic utility mindsets. This research results are of great value in business management and individual happiness. Employers should avoid adopting hourly payment systems and should not require employees to bill their time.
At present, the research of time pricing affecting prosocial behaviors has just begun; there are still a lot of questions to resolve. Future research should examine other types of pro-social behaviors; propose a more complete model of the psychological mechanisms to explain the effect of accounting for time on prosocial behaviors.
引文
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