近代英国政党政府的形成:1689-1762年
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摘要
政党政府是维持代议制政体下民主原则与政治决策间平衡的折中机制,它的作用在于在建构有效政府的同时保持政府的代议制民主本质。政党政府是一个动态的概念体系,政府的政党性是分析政党政府的标准。政府的政党性在三个维度上对政府提出政党的要求:必须存在一个能够进入政府并实际控制政府的政党,政党进入政府能够有效的影响政府的人事能力和政策能力。本文以1689—1762年政党政府产生期为研究对象,分析其产生的历史基础、形成过程、政府政党性维度特征及时代价值。
     政党政府形成于光荣革命后,1688—1689年革命既是一次革命解决,又是一次财政解决,前者改变了18世纪英国政党的基本性质,后者则直接促进了政党政府的产生。同时革命后,政党重新活跃于下议院,内阁也逐渐成为政府事实上的中枢,完成了对政党政府的关键性准备。经历1689—1762年间威廉三世、安女王、乔治一世及乔治二世四任国王历时七十余年的发展,政党政府在英国终成为大势所趋。
     1689—1762年的政党政府本质上是国王与政党共存的政党政府,是“国王的政党政府”,但在执政政党的存在、政党的人事能力及政党的政策能力三个维度上仍展现出巨大的政党性。在执政政党的存在维度上,威廉三世首先将政党整体性引入政府,是政党从政府外的政党转变为“政府中政党”;而汉诺威王朝建立后,随着辉格党一党优势的确立和巩固,长期执政的辉格党更逐步发展出执政党模式的雏形,其与内阁政府及与议会的关系使之较前期的“政府中政党”在政府的政党性上进一步的发展,18世纪英国政府中长期存在发挥主导作用的执政政党。在政党的人事能力维度上,1698—1762年间“国王的政党政府”在人事能力演进上主要区分为两个阶段,第一阶段为威廉三世统治时期,在威廉三世亲政的时代背景下内阁尚未形成自己独立的领导政府与议会多数党通过国王信任的议会经理人为中介,政党作为一个整体被议会经理介绍给国王;第二阶段在威廉三世后随着内阁制的发展大臣间逐渐形成具有领导能力的首席大臣,首席大臣与政党内阁在结合的过程中逐渐融合,具有党派性的首相最终产生,政党实现了对内阁和政府的掌控,政府在人事维度上的政党性程度取得突破性发展政党的人事能力使其完全有能力接管国家行政权力。在政党的政策能力维度,1689—1762年间政党完整的政策目标已成为成功组织政党政府实践中重要的政治前提;政府中政党已具备引导政府贯彻、实现整体性政策规划的手段,能够有效保障政党政策规划落实到政府公共行政之中,也能够有效驱动党派大臣积极落实和推动政党政策,辉格和托利两党已完成在政策规划能力和政策执行能力的实践准备,为政党政府的政策能力提供了坚实的基础。
     政党政府实践最重要的政治意义在于引发了政治竞争模式的革命。光荣革命后,革命体制所要求的缓和精神在政党政府不断实践中得以实现,对抗性的斗争最终走向终结,政党政府模式下,英国政治的主题从政治斗争转向政治竞争。具体而言,伴随政党政府的实践,具有高度破坏力的弹劾权逐渐为议会党争所放弃,陈情权作为更温和的竞争方式得到广泛推广,两党逐渐意识到只要能够控制议会便能实现政党轮替,从此英国不再需要革命,也不再需要狂暴。政党间围绕政府主导权有节制的竞争促成了一种文雅的政治竞争模式的产生,绅士之争成为政党政府形塑出的时代精神和政治竞争模式的主轴,这便是1689—1762年间政党政府形成及实践最为重要的时代价值。
Party Government is the compromise solution to balance politicaldecision-making and the principle of democracy in Representativedemocratic system. In this article, Party Government is a dynamic systemconcept, and “partyness of government” is the criterion of analyzing it.Partyness of government asks the party government must meet the criterionin three dimensions: there is a party in government and controlling thegovernment, the party in government can decide the appointment and thepolicy-making. The subject of the research is the growth of partygovernment in Britain from1689to1762, the article will analyse thefoundation, the process, the characteristic in partyness of government andthe value of party government in1689-1762.
     Party Government formed after The Glorious Revolution that is both arevolution settlement and a finance settlement. The revolution settlementchanged the nature of parties of England in18century, and the financesettlement promoted the form of party Government directly. After the Revolution, parties revived in Parliament and the cabinet developed to thecentre of government both in fact and in law. In these backgrounds, Britainis ready for the growth of party government. Under the development in thereign of King William III, George I, George II and Queen Anne from1689to1762, party Government became the inevitable trend in Britain.
     In the article, party government of1689-1762existed with the Kingand parties together, and it was the King's party government. But thedegrees of “partyness of government” in all three dimensions are all highunder the model of King's party government. There was at least a partyexisted and became dominant in government after King William III, whichcalled “Party in government”. After the Hanover Dynasty founded, the“Party in government” began to transfer to the original form governingparty in the time of the Whig Supremacy, the relationships between theWhig, Parliament and government developed to a new level. In thedimension of the appointment of party government, there were two stagesfrom1689-1762, the first named the “stage of parliamentary manger” underthe reign of King William III, and the second stage named “stage of primeminister” which began from the reign of Queen Anne. Following thecombine of party and the prime minister, nominees of the party occupiedthe most important position in a regime, the degree of partyness of government improved a lot that made parties get the power to control thewhole state. In the dimension of the policy-making, there were parties toformulate policy intentions for enactment, and to ensure government andpartisans in office give high priority to carry out party policies. The Whigparty and the Tory party were ready for formulating and implementing thepolicies in18century, which providing a solid foundation for thepolicy-making ability of party government.
     The most important value of party government in1689-1762iscausing a new revolution in pattern of political competition. After theRevolution of1688, the practice of party government developed the sprit ofpeace and moderate in British politics, which topic transferred frompolitical struggle to political competition with modern style. From then on,Impeachment is replaced by Address in Parliament, and both partiesrealized that if win the majority in Parliament, any party can take up thereins of government. Henceforth, there was no necessary for revolution inBritain. The model of party government made the competition betweengentlemen become the topic of political competition, which is the mostvalue of the formation of party government in1689-1762.
引文
1参见萨托利:《政党与政党体制》,王明进译,北京:商务印书馆2006年,第13—14页。
    1See: Aristotle, Politics, translated by Ernest Barker, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1995, pp.187-9(I303b17-I304b5).
    2尼科洛·马基雅维利:《佛罗伦萨史》,李活译,北京:商务印书馆,1996年,第348页。
    3Caroline Robbins,“Discordant Parties: A Study of the Acceptance of Party by Englishmen”, Political ScienceQuarterly, Vol.73, No.4(1958), p.507.
    1See: Bolingbroke, Political Writings, edited by David Armitage, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1997.
    2David Hume, The Philosophical Works of David Hume, VOL.Ⅲ, Edinburgh: Adam Black and William Tait,1826,p.62.
    1See: Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Present Discontents”, Select Works of Edmund Burke, Vol.Ⅰ, Indianapolis:Liberty Fund.
    2See: Peter Campbell,“An Early Defence of party”, Political Studies, Vol.3, Issue2(1995), pp.166-7.
    1J. R. Jones, The first Whigs: the politics of the Exclusion Crisis,1678-1683, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1961,
    2pp.10-8.Thomas Babington Macaulay, The History of England from the Accession of James II, Vol.1, Philadelphia: Porter&Coates, pp.294-95.
    3Maurice Duverger, Political Parties: their organization and activity in the modern state, translated by Barbara andRobert North, London: Methuen, New York: John Wiley and sons,1964, p. XXIII.
    1See: Lewis Namier, The structure of politics at the accession of George III, London: Macmillan,1929.
    2阎照祥:《英国政治制度史》,北京:人民出版社1999年,第251—252页。
    3M. Ostrogorski, Democracy and the organization of political parties, Part I, London: Macmillan,1902, p.22.
    1萨托利:《政党与政党体制》,王明进译,北京:商务印书馆2006年,第44页。
    2Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr., Statesmanship and party government: a study of Burke and Bolingbroke, Chicago: TheUniversity of Chicago Press,1965, p.4.
    1See: Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr., Statesmanship and party government: a study of Burke and Bolingbroke, Chicago:The University of Chicago Press,1965, and Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr.,“Party Government and the Settlement of1688”, The American Political Science Review, Vol.58, No.4(1964), pp.933-946.
    2See: Frank O'Gorman, The Emergence of the British Two-party System,1760-1832, London: Hodder Arnold,1982.
    1See: Anthony Harold Birch, Representative and responsible government: An essay on the British constitution,Toronto: University of Toronto Press,1969.
    1参见阎照祥:《近代英国上层党派关系宽容化摭论》,《世界历史》,2008年第2期,第46—58页。
    1参见刘金源:《论近代英国政党政治的兴起》,《史学月刊》,2009年第11期,第83—91页。
    1密尔:《代议制政府》,汪瑄译,北京:商务印书馆2010年,第43—55页。
    1Harvey C. Mansfield, Jr.,“Party Government and the Settlement of1688”, The American Political ScienceReview, Vol.58, No.4(1964), p.933.
    1David Hume, The Philosophical Works of David Hume, VOL.Ⅲ, Edinburgh: Adam Black and William Tait,1826, p.62.
    1Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Present Discontents”, Select Works of Edmund Burke, Vol.Ⅰ, Indianapolis:Liberty Fund, p.150.
    1Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Present Discontents”, Select Works of Edmund Burke, Vol.Ⅰ, Indianapolis:Liberty Fund, p.150.
    2E. E. Schattschneider, Party Government, and New York: Rinehart and Winston,1942, p.1.
    3Richard Rose, The Problem of Party Government, London: Macmillan,1979, p.1.
    4Rudolf Wildenmann,“The Problematic of Party Government”, in Francis G. Castles and Rudolf Wildenmann ed.,Visions and Realities of Party Government, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,1986, p.6.
    1Richard S. Katz,“Party Government: A Rationalistic Conception”, in Francis G. Castles and Rudolf Wildenmanned., Visions and Realities of Party Government, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,1986, p.45.
    1Richard Rose,“The Variability of Party Government: A Theoretical and Empirical Critique”, Political Studies,Vol.17, No.4(1969), p.413.
    1萨托利:《政党与政党体制》,王明进译,北京:商务印书馆2006年,第42页。
    1Richard S. Katz,“Party Government: A Rationalistic Conception”, in Francis G. Castles and Rudolf Wildenmanned., Visions and Realities of Party Government, Berlin: Walter de Gruyter,1986, pp.43-7.
    2让·布隆代尔、毛里齐奥·科塔(主编):《政党政府的性质——一种比较性的欧洲视角》,曾淼、林德山译,北京:北京大学出版社2006年,第64页。
    1屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第517页。
    2Mark Knights, Politics and Opinion in Crisis,1678-1681, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1994, pp.5-6.
    1Mark Knights, Politics and Opinion in Crisis,1678-1681, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1994, p.5.
    2David Ogg, England in the Reign of Charles Ⅱ, Vol.2, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1956, pp.563-4.
    3详见黄丽媛:《排斥法案危机与英国政党起源,1678—1681》,南京:南京大学硕士研究生毕业论文,2011年,第14页。
    4转引自屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第518。
    5See:'House of Commons Journal Volume9:31October1678', Journal of the House of Commons: volume9:1667-1687(1802), pp.524-530. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=27676,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1See:'House of Commons Journal Volume9:21May1679', Journal of the House of Commons: volume9:1667-1687(1802), pp.626-627. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=27782,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    2详见马恒祥:《早期辉格党政治思想研究(1679—1714)》,南京:南京大学硕士研究生学位论文,2012年,第9页。
    3托马斯·沃顿(Thomas Wharton,1st Marquess of Wharton),本文将统一简称其为沃顿。
    1J. R. Jones, The first Whigs: the politics of the Exclusion Crisis,1678-1683, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1961, pp.10-8.
    2J. R. Jones, The first Whigs: the politics of the Exclusion Crisis,1678-1683, Oxford: Oxford University Press,1961, p.9.
    3托马斯·奥斯本(Thomas Osborne,1st Duke of Leeds),本文将统一简称其为丹比。
    4屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第517页。
    1屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第521页。
    3查尔斯·塔尔伯特(Charles Talbot,1st Duke of Shrewsbury),本文将统一简称其为什鲁斯伯里。
    4威廉·卡文迪什(William Cavendish,1st Duke of Devonshire),本文将统一称其为卡文迪什。
    5爱德华·罗素(Edward Russell,1st Earl of Orford),本文将统一称其为罗素。
    1Edmund Burke,“Thoughts on the Present Discontents”, Select Works of Edmund Burke, Vol.Ⅰ, Indianapolis:Liberty Fund, p.72.
    1“The Bill of Right,1689”, in E. Neville Williams, ed., Eighteenth-century Constitution,1688-1815, Documentsand Commentary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960, pp.28-9.
    1Hugh Trevor-Roper,“Toleration and Religion After1688”, in Ole Peter Grell, Jonathan Irvine Israel, NicholasTyacke, ed., From Persecution to Toleration: The Glorious Revolution and Religion in England, Oxford:Clarendon Press,1991, pp.389-408
    2参见罗威尔:《英国政府:政党制度之部》,秋水译,上海:上海人民出版社1959年,第4页。
    1数据参见施诚:《中世纪英国财政史研究》,北京:商务印书局2010年,第123页,表“中世纪历代国王的王领收入”。
    2B. E. V Sabine, A short history of taxation, London: Butterworths,1980, p.5.
    1威廉·配第:《配第经济著作选集》,陈冬野,马清槐,周锦如译,北京:商务印书馆1997年,第52页。
    2数据参见施诚:《中世纪英国财政史研究》,北京:商务印书馆2010年,第123页,表“中世纪历代国王的王领收入”。
    3Clayton Roberts,“The Constitutional Significance of the Financial Settlement of1690”, The Historical Journal,Vol.20, No.1(1977), p.62.
    4富田俊基:《国债的历史——凝结在利率中的过去和未来》,彭曦,顾长江,曹雅洁,韩秋燕,王辉译,
    1Lydia M. Marshall,“The Levying of the Hearth Tax,1662-1688”, The English Historical Review, Vol.51, No.204(1936), p.628.
    2数据参见于民:《坚守与改革——英国财政史专题研究(1066年—19世纪中后期)》,北京:中国社会科学出版社2012年,第48页、第159页。
    3Henry Hallam, Constitutional History of England, Vol.3, London: John Murray,1832, p.156.
    4约翰·福蒂斯丘爵士:《论英格兰的法律与政制》,袁瑜琤译,北京:北京大学出版社2008年,第81-148页。
    5James Spedding, ed., The life and letters of Francis Bacon, Vol. Ⅳ, London: Longman,1857-74, p.366.
    6See: Andrew Browning, Thomas Osborne, Earl of Danby and Duke of Leeds,1632-1712, Vol.2, Letters, pp.65-8.
    1Lydia M. Marshall,“The Levying of the Hearth Tax,1662-1688”, The English Historical Review, Vol.51, No.204(1936), p.631.
    2Lydia M. Marshall,“The Levying of the Hearth Tax,1662-1688”, The English Historical Review, Vol.51, No.204(1936), p.641.
    3See: C. D. Chandaman, The English Public Revenue1660-88, Oxford: The Clarendon Press,1975, p.322.
    4尽管如格罗斯研究中所指出的,查理二世接受的法国补助金并没有想象中的多,英王的大臣们实际上很少主动恳请法国提供补助金,而且查理二世始终并未因获得补助而为路易十四操控,但在没有议会拨款的情况时仍然有益于国王的财政。见C.L. Grose,“Louis XIV’s Finanical Relations with Charles II and the Englishparliament”, The Journal of Modern History, Vol.1, No.2(1929), pp.177-204.
    1数据参见Clayton Roberts,“The Constitutional Significance of the Financial Settlement of1690”, TheHistorical Journal, Vol.20, No.1(1977), pp.62-3.
    2威廉三世的年金收入为1689—1691年间年均1,041,066镑、1692—1694年间年均942,179镑、1699—1701年间年均979,552镑。数据参见Clayton Roberts,“The Constitutional Significance of the Financial Settlement of1690”, The Historical Journal, Vol.20, No.1(1977), p.63.
    3数据参见Clayton Roberts,“The Constitutional Significance of the Financial Settlement of1690”, TheHistorical Journal, Vol.20, No.1(1977), p.65.
    11664年,查理二世曾将其年金抵押以筹集作为英荷战争的军费,议会后来偿还了这笔债务并为国王赎回了年金。
    2Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, from1667to1694, Vol.Ⅹ, London: St. John’s Square,1763,pp.13-21.
    3“The Bill of Right,1689”, in E. Neville Williams ed., Eighteenth-century Constitution,1688-1815, Documentsand Commentary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960, p.28.
    1Michael J. Braddick, The Nerves of the State: Taxation and the Finacing of the English State,1558-1714,Manchester: Manchester University Press,1996, pp.97-9.
    1Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, from1667to1694, Vol. Ⅸ, London: St. John’s Square,1763,pp.36,119,123.
    2Anchitell Grey, Debates of the House of Commons, from1667to1694, Vol. Ⅸ, London: St. John’s Square,1763,p.17.
    3在查理一世拒绝议会11年后,1640年因苏格兰叛乱召集的“短国会”上,庇姆于下议院阐发了这一经典的宣言。参见屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第451页。
    4“Triennial Act,1694”, in E. Neville Williams ed., Eighteenth-century Constitution,1688-1815, Documents andCommentary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960, pp.49-50.
    1W. Lowndes, Doris M. Gill,“the treasury,1660-1714”, The English Historical Review, Vol.46, No.184(1931),pp.600-622.
    2西德尼·戈多尔芬(Sidney Godolphin,1st Earl of Godolphin),本文将统一简称其为戈多尔芬。
    3约翰·丘吉尔(John Churchill,1st Duke of Marlborough),本文将统一简称其为马尔巴罗。
    4罗伯特·哈利(Robert Harley,1st Earl of Oxford and Earl Mortimer),本文将统一简称其为哈利。
    2密尔:《代议制政府》,汪瑄译,北京:商务印书馆2010年,第196页。
    3'House of Commons Journal Volume10:14April1690', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.378. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=29008,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1哈里·狄金逊:《1688年“光荣革命”的革命性问题》,王章辉译,尔玉校,《世界历史》,1988年第6期,第92页。
    1转引自:B. W. Hill, The Growth of Parliamentary Parties,1689-1742, London: George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1976,p.29.
    2约翰·萨默斯(John Somers,1st Baron Somers),本文将统一简称其为萨默斯。
    3查尔斯·蒙塔古(Charles Montagu,1st Earl of Halifax),本文将统一简称其为蒙塔古。
    1丹尼尔·芬奇(Daniel Finch,2nd Earl of Nottingham),本文将统一简称其为诺丁汉。
    1查尔斯·汤森德(Charles Townshend,2nd Viscount Townshend),本文将统一简称其为汤森德。
    2罗伯特·沃尔波尔(Robert Walpole,1st Earl of Orford),本文将统一简称其为沃尔波尔。
    3托马斯·佩勒姆—霍利斯(Thomas Pelham-Holles,1st Duke of Newcastle-upon-Tyne and1st Duke ofNewcastle-under-Lyne),本文将统一简称其为纽卡斯尔。
    4亨利·佩勒姆(Henry Pelham),本文将统一简称其为佩勒姆。
    5劳伦斯·海德(Laurence Hyde,1st Earl of Rochester),本文将统一称简其为罗彻斯特。
    6Robert Walcott, English politics in the early eighteenth century, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,1956, pp.198-215.
    1韦农·波格丹诺(主编):《布莱克维尔政治制度百科全书》,邓正来(中译本主编),北京:中国政法大学出版社2011年,第72页。
    2Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part I, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.18, No.4(1913), p.751.
    3See: H. W. V. Temperley,“Inner and Outer Cabinet and Privy Council”, The English Historical Review, Vol.27,No.108(1912), p.685.
    1See: E. I. Carlyle,"Committees of Council Under the Earlier Stuarts", The English Historical Review, Vol.21,No.84(1906), p.673.
    2仅以查理二世时期为例,1673年4月枢密院人数多达51人。
    3See: Edward Raymond Turner,“Committees of Council and the Cabinet1660-1688”, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.19, No.4(1914), p.774.
    4Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part I, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.18, No.4(1913), p.751.
    1E. I. Carlyle,"Committees of Council Under the Earlier Stuarts", The English Historical Review, Vol.21, No.84(1906), p.675.
    2See: E. I. Carlyle,"Committees of Council Under the Earlier Stuarts", The English Historical Review, Vol.21,No.84(1906), p.676.
    11667年,外交委员会被命名为“外交事务委员会”。
    2William R. Anson,“The Cabinet in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries”, The English Historical Review,Vol.29, No.113(1914), p.58.
    3刘金源:《论近代英国内阁制的形成》,《史学集刊》,2011年第2期,第92页。
    4See: Roger North, The life of the Right Honourable Francis North, Baron of Guilford, Lord Keeper of the GreatSeal, under King Charles II. and King James II, London: W. Clarke and Sons,1819, Vol.2, p.51.
    5乔治·萨维尔(George Savile,1st Marquess of Halifax),本文将统一简称其为哈利法克斯。
    6See: Clayton Roberts,“Privy Council Schemes and Ministerial Responsibility in Later Stuart England”, TheAmerican Historical Review, Vol.64, No.3(1959), p.569.
    1刘金源:《论近代英国内阁制的形成》,《史学集刊》2011年第2期,第93页。
    1Edward Raymond Turner,“Committees of Council and the Cabinet1660-1688”, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.19, No.4(1914), p.781.
    2Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part I, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.18, No.4(1913), p.753.
    1Clayton Roberts,“Privy Council Schemes and Ministerial Responsibility in Later Stuart England”, TheAmerican Historical Review, Vol.64, No.3(1959), p.566.
    1Clayton Roberts,“Privy Council Schemes and Ministerial Responsibility in Later Stuart England”, TheAmerican Historical Review, Vol.64, No.3(1959), p.570.
    1See:'House of Commons Journal Volume2:01June1642', Journal of the House of Commons: volume2:1640-1643(1802), pp.597-600. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=1142,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    2See: Corinne Comstock Weston,‘English Constitutional Doctrines from the Fifteenth Century to the Seventeenth:II The Theory of Mixed Monarchy under Charles I and after’, The English Historical Review, Vol.75, No.296
    (1960), p.428.
    3See: Thomas Peregrine Courtenay, William Temple, Memoirs of the Life, Works, and Correspondence of SirWilliam Temple Bart, Vol.2, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, Green&Longman,1836, pp.37-8.
    1See:“The Bill of Right,1689”, in E. Neville Williams ed., Eighteenth-century Constitution,1688-1815,Documents and Commentary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960, p.59.
    11690年,玛丽女王曾写到:“国王在议会已经宣布政府将在我掌控之下,同时私下他告诉我他已邀请了一些成员组成我的内阁会议。”See: R. Doebner ed., Memoirs of Mary, queen of England,(1689-1693): togetherwith her letters and those of Kings James II. and William III. to the electress, Sophia of Hanover, London: Leipzig,
    2Veit&comp.,1886, pp.27-8.Jennifer Carter,“Cabinet Records for the Reign of William III”, The English Historical Review, Vol.78, No.306(1963), p.111.
    3See: H. W. V. Temperley,“Inner and Outer Cabinet and Privy Council”, The English Historical Review, Vol.27,No.108(1912), pp.689-90; William R. Anson,“The Cabinet in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries”, TheEnglish Historical Review, Vol.29, No.113(1914), p.61.
    1See: William Coxe ed., Private and Original Correspondence of Charles Talbot, Duke of Shrewsbury, with KingWilliam, the Leaders of the Whig Party, and Other Distinguished Statesmen, London: Longman, Hurst, Rees,Orme and Brown,1821, pp.33-6,38-9.
    1罗伯特·斯宾塞(Robert Spencer,2nd Earl of Sunderland),本文将统一简称其为桑德兰。
    2See: Philip Yorke, Earl of Hardwicke ed., Miscellaneous State Paper from1501to1726, London: Printed for W.Strahan&T. Cadell,1778, p.460.
    3See:'House of Commons Journal Volume10:21December1689', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.317. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=28962,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1详见:温斯顿·丘吉尔:《英语国家史略》(下册),薛力敏、林林译,北京:新华出版社1985年,第
    1见Secretaries of State, State Papers: Entry Books,第102、104卷各处,第105卷1702年5月1日、第101
    卷1702年12月18日、第109卷1703/04年2月14日。转引自:Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development
    of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part I, The American Historical Review, Vol.18, No.4(1913), p.755.
    11718年3月,乔治一世曾坦言其大臣对其国家负责,因而“自己无法保护他们”。见Clayton Roberts, TheGrowth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1966, p.426.
    2Basil Williams, The Whig Supremacy,1714-1760, Revised by C. H. Stuart, Oxford: The Clarendon Press,1962,p.38.
    1Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part I, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.18, No.4(1913), p.760.
    1Basil Williams, The Whig Supremacy,1714-1760, Revised by C. H. Stuart, Oxford: The Clarendon Press,1962,p.39.
    2See: Edward Raymond Turner,“The Development of the Cabinet,1688-1760”, Part II, The American HistoricalReview, Vol.19, No.1(1913), p.28.
    1屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第571页。
    1Geoffrey S. Holmes, Britain After the Glorious Revolution,1689-1714, London: Macmillan,1969, p.41.
    2参见哈里·狄金逊:《1688年“光荣革命”的革命性问题》,王章辉译,尔玉校,《世界历史》,1988年第6期,第84页。
    3J. H. Plumb, The Growth of Political Stability in England,1675-1725, London: Penguin Books,1967, p.130.79
    1乔治·萨维尔(George Savile,1st Marquess of Halifax),本文将统一简称其为哈利法克斯。
    2B. W. Hill, The Growth of Parliamentary Parties,1689-1742, London:George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1976, p.37.
    3Geoffrey S. Holmes, British Politics in the Age of Anne, London:Macmillan,1967, pp.312-13.
    1'House of Commons Journal Volume10:21January1690', Journal ofthe House of Commons:volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.338. URL:http://www.bri tish-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=28981,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    2B. W. Hill, The Growth of Parliamentary Parties,1689-1742, London:George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1976, p.37.
    1B. W. Hill, The Growth of Parliamentary Parties,1689-1742, London: George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1976, p.41.
    2See: Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1966, p.265.
    1'House of Commons Journal Volume10:20December1692', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.759. URL: http://www.british-histoiy.ac.uk/repon.aspx?compid=29269,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    2威廉极不情愿解除诺丁汉的职位,他专门写信向诺丁汉致歉,“感谢您的服务,对您的工作我并无任何抱怨,事态至此,完全是出于时局的需要。”(Pearl Finch, History of Burley-on-the-Hill, Rutland, London: John Bale, Sons&Danielsson,1901, p.192.)
    3'House of Commons Journal Volume11:17November1693', Journal of the House of Commons: volume11:1693-1697(1803), p.5. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=38898,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    4'House of Commons Journal Volume11:6December1693', Journal of the House of Commons: volume11:1693-1697(1803), p.21. URL: http:.//www.britisli-history.ac.uk/repon.aspx?coinpid=38914,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1See: Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press,1966, p.265.
    2'House of Commons Journal Volume10:20December1692', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.759. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=29269,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1威廉极不情愿解除诺丁汉的职位,他专门写信向诺丁汉致歉,“感谢您的服务,对您的工作我并无任何抱怨,事态至此,完全是出于时局的需要。”(Pearl Finch, History of Burley-on-the-Hill, Rutland, London: John Bale,Sons&Danielsson,1901, p.192.)
    2'House of Commons Journal Volume11:17November1693', Journal of the House of Commons: volume11:1693-1697(1803), p.5. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=38898,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    3'House of Commons Journal Volume11:6December1693', Journal of the House of Commons: volume11:1693-1697(1803), p.21. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=38914,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1See:'House of Commons Journal Volume12:27March1699', Journal of the House of Commons: volume12:1697-1699(1803), pp.615-619. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=39761,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    2桑坦德所言,转引自:Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1966, p.293.
    3See:'House of Commons Journal Volume13:6December1699', Journal of the House of Commons: volume13:from November the16th,1699to May the25th,1702, London: H.M. Stationery Office,1803, p.56.
    1Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty? England,1689-1727, Oxford: Clarendon Press,2000, p.141.
    2托马斯·赫尔贝特(Thomas Herbert,8th Earl of Pembroke),本文将统一简称其为彭布罗克。
    1Klopp, Der Fall des Hauses Stuart, Ⅸ, p.483,转引自Clayton Roberts, The Growth of ResponsibleGovernment in Stuart England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1966, p.329.
    1希尔分析1705年议会构成包括267名托利党议员、246位辉格党议员;豪皮特分析的议会构成包括260名托利党议员、233名辉格党议员、20名无党派议员;沃尔科特则分析1705年政府能够直接控制超过100名“宫廷党”议员,排除他们外托利党和辉格党各自剩余力量为190席和160席。参见B. W. Hill, The Growthof Parliamentary Parties,1689-1742, London: George Allen&Unwin Ltd,1976, p.103; Julian Hoppit, A Land ofLiberty? England,1689-1727, Oxford: Clarendon Press,2000, p.286; Robert Walcott, English politics in the earlyeighteenth century, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,1956, pp.114-16.
    1The memorial of the Church of England: humbly offer'd to the consideration of all true lovers of our church andconstitution. With remarks upon the whole paragraph by paragraph, London: printed in the year,1705, p.56.
    2查尔斯·斯宾塞(Charles Spencer,3rd Earl of Sunderland),本文将统一简称其为小桑德兰。
    1圣·约翰·亨利(Henry St John,1st Viscount Bolingbroke),本文将统一简称其为博林布鲁克。
    1根据豪皮特研究的1708年议会构成包括辉格党议员268位、托利党议员225位、无党籍议员20位。参见Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty? England,1689-1727, Oxford: Clarendon Press,2000, p.286.
    1威廉·卡文迪什(William Cavendish,2nd Duke of Devonshire),本文将统一简称其为小卡文迪什。
    1据玛丽·兰塞姆估算在1710年中托利党与辉格党议员分别为350席和186席,而350席托利党议员中至少140名为极端的托利党高教社派;与之类似,据豪皮特估算1710年议会,托利党获得329席下议院议席,而辉格党和无党派议员分别只有168位和16位。参见Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Governmentin Stuart England, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1966, p.356.&Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty?England,1689-1727, Oxford: Clarendon Press,2000, p.286.
    1参见J. R. Jones, Country and Court, England,1658-1714, London: EdwardArnold,1978, p.344.
    1John Carswell, The South Sea Bubble, London: Cresset Press,1960, p.57.
    1J. R. Jones, Country and Court, England,1658-1714, London: Edward Arnold,1978, p.342.
    2屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第559页。
    1据罗伯斯估算,1713年议会托利党的绝对优势有89席之多,而哈利能够掌握的国王之友至多60席势力,无法起到在两党间的平衡作用,而据豪皮特估算1713年议会托利党席次更是达到354位,相应之下辉格党和无党派议员萎缩至148席和11席。参见Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in StuartEngland, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1966, p.370; Julian Hoppit, A Land of Liberty? England,1689-1727, Oxford: Clarendon Press,2000, p.286.
    1Basil Williams, The Whig Supremacy,1714-1760, Revised by C. H. Stuart, Oxford: The Clarendon Press,1962,p.154.
    2两人相关信件参见Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1966, p.383.
    1See: John L. Roberts, The Jacobite Wars: Scotland and the Military Campaigns of1715and1745, Edinburgh:Polygon,2002, p.48.
    1詹姆斯·斯坦霍普(James Stanhope,1st Earl Stanhope),本文将统一简称其为斯坦霍普。
    1参见陈仲丹:《南海泡沫事件与沃尔波尔在政坛的崛起》,《英国研究》第1辑,南京:南京大学出版社2009年,第75页。
    12John Morley, Walpole, London: Macmillan and Co.,1909, p.64.
    See: John Morley, Walpole, London: Macmillan and Co.,1909, p.64.
    3转引自陈仲丹:《南海泡沫事件与沃尔波尔在政坛的崛起》,《英国研究》第1辑,南京:南京大学出版社2009年,第74页。
    4Edward Potts Cheyney, Readings in English history drawn from the original sources, Boston: Ginn&Company,1935, p.576.
    1Edward Potts Cheyney, Readings in English history drawn from the original sources, Boston: Ginn&Company,1935, p.576.
    2Sir Ivor Jennings, Party Politics, Vol. II, The Growth of Parties, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1961,p.31.
    3屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第571页。
    1See: H. T. Dickinson, Walpole and the Whig Supremacy, London: The English University Press,1973, p.68.
    2约翰·卡特里特(John Carteret,2nd Earl Granville),本文将统一简称其为卡特里特。
    2菲利普·约克(Philip Yorke,1st Earl of Hardwicke),本文将统一简称其为哈德威克。
    3斯宾塞·康普顿(Spencer Compton,1st Earl of Wilmington),本文将统一简称其为威明顿。
    1威廉·斯坦霍普(William Stanhope,1st Earl of Harrington),本文将统一简称其为哈林顿。
    1See: H. T. Dickinson, Walpole and the Whig Supremacy, London: The English University Press,1973, p.168.
    1威廉·皮特(William Pitt,1st Earl of Chatham),本文将统一简称其为老皮特。
    2乔治·格伦维尔(George Grenville),本文将统一简称其为格伦维尔。
    3威廉·普尔特尼(William Pulteney,1st Earl of Bath),本文将统一简称其为普尔特尼。
    1詹金斯的耳朵战争(War of Jenkins' Ear)是英国与西班牙1739—1748年间发生的军事冲突,自1742年起其成为奥地利王位继承战争的一部分。1729年订立的《塞维利亚条约》给予西班牙政府在其领海范围内检查英国船只的权力,1731年丽贝卡号商船船长罗伯特·詹金斯称在加勒比海附近西班牙海域遭西班牙当局登船搜掠并将其一只耳朵割下,1738年后詹金斯再度公开讲述遭遇并戏剧性地在下议院听证会中展示出“自己被割下的耳朵”。该事件终引起舆论的广泛关注,认为此事牵涉国体荣辱,要求对西班牙开战。备受压力下沃尔波尔最终在1739年10月23日对西班牙宣战。
    1威廉·卡文迪什(William Cavendish,3rd Duke of Devonshire),本文将统一简称其为德文郡。
    1威廉·卡文迪什(William Cavendish,4th Duke of Devonshire),本文将统一简称其为小德文郡伯爵。
    2一个很好的例子是在纽卡斯尔政府下台后,亨利·福克斯离开伦敦,但很快被其友人写信催回,他们告诉福克斯皮特很难长时间掌控政局,既因其身体缘故,也因政党的原因。参见Horace Walpole, Memoirs of theReign of King George II, Vol. II, London: Henry Colburn,1846, p.276.
    1See: Basil Williams, The life of William Pitt, earl of Chatham, Vol. I, London: Octagon Books,1966, pp.58-9.
    2屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第608页。
    1See: Gilbert Burnet, History of My Own Time, Vol.6, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1897, p.219.
    1See: Geoffrey S. Holmes ed., British after the Glorious Revolution,1689-1714, London: Macmillan,1969, pp.96-114.
    2See: Henry Horwitz, Parliament, Policy and Politics in the Reign of William III, Manchester: ManchesterUniversity Press,1977, pp.335-337.
    1Quoted from: Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1966, p.283.
    1Geoffrey Holmes, British Politics in the Age of Anne, London: Hambledon Press,1967, p.354.
    2William Coxe, Memoirs of the Administration of the Right Honourable Henry Pelham, Collected from the familypapers and other authentic documents, Vol.1, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green,1829, p.300.
    1William Coxe, Memoirs of the Administration of the Right Honourable Henry Pelham, Collected from the familypapers and other authentic documents, Vol.1, London: Longman, Rees, Orme, Brown, and Green,1829, p.300.
    1See: Betty Kemp, King and Commons,1660-1832, London: Macmillan&Co.,1957, p.93.
    2如汤森德在诺福克、纽卡斯尔在苏塞克斯、拉特兰公爵在爱尔兰东部、阿盖尔公爵在苏格兰。
    3数据参见阎照祥:《沃尔波尔和英国资产阶级内阁制的形成》,《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》,1985年第1期,第61页。
    1辉格寡头尽管在汉诺威王朝前两位国王时长期垄断中央政权,但其权力几乎从未完整的渗透到地方治理中,地方乡绅几乎大多是托利党人,汉诺威王朝及辉格党政府的命运是以维护英国国教及尊重托利乡绅的地方利益为前提得以延续。参见屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第574、595页。
    1See: Gilbert Burnet, History of My Own Time, Vol.4, Oxford: Clarendon Press,1897, p.215.
    1George Macaulay Trevelyan, Ramillies and the Union with Scotland, Vol.2England Under Queen Anne, London:Longman’s, Green and Co.,1932, p.167.
    1A Short defence of the last Parliament, answer'd article by article, London: Printed in the year1702, p.24.
    1屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第554页。
    1See: Betty Kemp, King and Commons,1660-1832, London: Macmillan&Co.,1957, pp.42-3.
    2See: Betty Kemp, King and Commons,1660-1832, London: Macmillan&Co.,1957, pp.49-50.
    3See:'House of Commons Journal Volume13:24March1701'&'House of Commons Journal Volume13:26March1701', Journal of the House of Commons: volume13: from November the16th,1699to May the25th,1702,London: H.M. Stationery Office,1803, pp.245-6,435-6.
    1转引自屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第600页。
    2See: The right of the sovereign in the choice of his servants, Dublin: re-printed by and for A. Meres and T.Humes over against the White Hart in Copper-Alley; and sold by the booksellers,1715, pp.19-32
    1屈勒味林:《英国史》(下册),钱端升译,北京:中国社会科学出版社2008年,第517页。
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    1“The Bill of Right,1689”, in E. Neville Williams (ed.), Eighteenth-century Constitution,1688-1815, Documentsand Commentary, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,1960, p.26.
    2而实际上,《权利法案》初稿内容达28条之多,但1689年2月8日下院指示起草委员会放弃众多激进要求。随后,激进的辉格党人以题为《尊敬的下院判定我国公众的苦难必须解除》的传单形式公布全部28条原稿。(参见哈里·狄金逊:《1688年“光荣革命”的革命性问题》,王章辉译,尔玉校,《世界历史》,1988年第6期,第88页。)
    3'House of Commons Journal Volume10:1June1689', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.162. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=28842,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1William Cobbett, Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England: From the Norman Conquest, in1066to the Year1803,Vol. V, London: T. C. Hansard,1809, pp.454-6.
    2See:'House of Commons Journal Volume10:21December1689', Journal of the House of Commons: volume10:1688-1693(1802), p.317. URL: http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=28962,最后访问时间2012年12月26日。
    1William Cobbett, Cobbett's Parliamentary History of England: From the Norman Conquest, in1066to the Year1803,Vol. V, London: T. C. Hansard,1809, p.454.
    1See: William Cobbett, Parliamentary History of England, from the Earliest Period to the Year1803, Vol. VII,London: T. C. Hansard,1811, pp.114-28.
    1Quoted from: Clayton Roberts, The Growth of Responsible Government in Stuart England, Cambridge:Cambridge University Press,1966, pp.408-9.
    1波考克:《德行、商业和历史——18世纪政治思想与历史论辑》,冯克利译,北京:三联书店2012年,第357页。
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    2.【德】米歇尔斯:《寡头政治铁律——现代民主制度中的政党社会学》,任军锋等译,天津:天津人民出版社,2003年。
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    10.【美】汉密尔顿、杰伊、麦迪逊:《联邦党人文集》,程逢如、在汉、舒逊译,北京:商务印书馆,2010年。
    11.【美】拉里·戴蒙森、理查德·冈瑟(主编):《政党与民主》,徐琳译,上海:上海人民出版社,2012年。
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    14.【意】萨托利:《政党与政党体制》,王明进译,北京:商务印书馆,2006年。
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    8.许洁明:《近代英国政治稳定与发展析》,《思想战线》,1995年第3期。
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    11.阎照祥:《1832至1868年英国责任内阁制的确立》,《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》,1990年第4期。
    12.阎照祥:《19世纪早期英国托利主义析略》,《史学集刊》,2010年第2期。
    13.阎照祥:《近代英国上层党派关系宽容化摭论》,《世界历史》,2008年第2期。
    14.阎照祥:《论近代晚期英国内阁权力的扩张》,《历史研究》,1993年第4期。
    15.阎照祥:《略论英国近代两党制度的形成》,《世界历史》,1985年第7期。
    16.阎照祥:《略论英国两大政党的起源》,《史学月刊》,1981年第3期。
    17.阎照祥:《沃尔波尔和英国资产阶级内阁制的形成》,《河南大学学报(社会科学版)》,1985年第1期。
    18.阎照祥:《一八三二年前英国“反对党”理论发展述要》,《史学月刊》,1987第2期。
    19.阎照祥:《一六八八至一七一四年英国政党政治发展初探》,《史学月刊》,1984年第1期。
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