罗马帝国“弗鲁曼塔里伊”研究
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摘要
弗鲁曼塔里伊(frumentarii)是罗马帝国元首制时期由皇帝直接领导具有通信、情报和监督职能的人员。作为维护皇权和中央集权的重要力量,他们在罗马帝国政治生活中的地位较为特殊。本文旨在罗马帝国的宏观历史背景下,较为全面地梳理弗鲁曼塔里伊建制与职能问题,考察其出现、发展、解散的全过程,探讨其职能活动与公元2—3世纪不同历史阶段内皇权和中央集权之间的关系,同时考察罗马帝国时期通信、情报和监督工作的发展趋势以及皇帝在维护皇权和中央集权、进行国内统治上的政策动态等问题。
本文共分五章。第一章主要讨论弗鲁曼塔里伊作为皇帝的通信、情报和监督人员出现的时间,同时侧重从皇权和中央集权、皇权与近卫军长权力矛盾斗争的角度分析其出现的主要原因。第二章分别从弗鲁曼塔里伊的选拔与服役、弗鲁曼塔里伊的领导结构、弗鲁曼塔里伊的晋升与调转三个方面讨论其建制问题,分析其建制的特点及意义。第三章分别考察弗鲁曼塔里伊通信、情报和监督职能,讨论弗鲁曼塔里伊职能的演化过程与皇权和中央集权在公元2—3世纪不同历史阶段内特点之间的关系。第四章在梳理密探士兵(speculatores)、行省免役士兵(beneficiarii consularis)建制与职能的基础上,分析弗鲁曼塔里伊与行省政府中同类士兵的关系问题,同时考察公元2世纪后罗马帝国在行省管理上的政策演变趋势及中央政权和地方政权在运作上所具有的内在统一性和联系性。第五章考察弗鲁曼塔里伊滥用职权及导致其滥用职权现象的成因,同时结合稽查使(agentes in rebus)及戴克里先建立君主专制的相关改革措施,探讨弗鲁曼塔里伊解散的主要原因,分析通信、情报和监督工作对晚期罗马帝国皇权与中央集权的意义及其发展趋势。
从上述对弗鲁曼塔里伊问题的讨论可以看出,弗鲁曼塔里伊的出现是罗马帝国皇权和中央集权强化过程中的产物,体现了罗马帝国在行政管理上专业化、专门化的发展趋势,其职能活动反映了罗马帝国的政治、军事、经济形势在不同历史阶段内的基本特点。弗鲁曼塔里伊是皇帝维护皇权和中央集权、管理行省政治和经济事务等方面的重要力量,其出现、发展、解散的历史过程与公元2—3世纪不同历史时期内皇帝在维护皇权和中央集权上的实际需要密切相关,是皇权和中央集权发展链条中的重要环节。
The frumentarii were the agent in the role of messeng, secret service and supervise of the Roman Empire. As attached directly to the emperors, the frumentarii were the special force in maintaining the imperial power and centralization. This paper will discuss the frumentarii in the historical background, in order to study its organizational system and duties, analyse the whole process of its development, research the relation between its duties and the imperial power in the 2-3 century A.D., at the same time discuss the tendency of Roman Empire’s imperial power in different historical stage as well as its domestic policy.
This thesis contains five chapters. Chapter one discusses the origins of frumentarii, analyses the coming of frumentarii. Chapter two discusses the recruitment and the service of frumentarii, the officers of the frumentarii, the promotions and transfers of frumentarii, analysis the characters of the organizational system of frumentarii. Chapter three discusses the duties of frumentarii, analyse its development in different historical period and its relation with the imperial power in different historical stages of the 2-3 century A.D. Chapter four is based on the study of speculatores and beneficiarii consularii, analyse the relations between frumentarii and them. Thereby we can see the tendency of the Roman Empire’s policy in governing the province and the internal relations of the imperial power with the local power. Chapter five investigates the misconduct of frumentarii and its reason, analysis the demise of frumentarii through the study of agentes in rebus and the policy of Diocletian.
By the comprehensive study of frumentarii, we can see that the coming in sight of the frumentarii was the result of Roman imperial power, they represent the tendency of the specialization of Roman government. The frumentarii developed and became an important force in maintaining the imperial power and the centralization in virtue of the emperors’actual requirement, their activities of frumentarii reflected the characteristics of the politic and economic condition of the Roman Empire in different stage. The frumentarii were the important part in the development of the imperial power and centralization, the emergence and demise of them were the particular demand of the imperial power in 2-3 century A. D.
本文共分五章。第一章主要讨论弗鲁曼塔里伊作为皇帝的通信、情报和监督人员出现的时间,同时侧重从皇权和中央集权、皇权与近卫军长权力矛盾斗争的角度分析其出现的主要原因。第二章分别从弗鲁曼塔里伊的选拔与服役、弗鲁曼塔里伊的领导结构、弗鲁曼塔里伊的晋升与调转三个方面讨论其建制问题,分析其建制的特点及意义。第三章分别考察弗鲁曼塔里伊通信、情报和监督职能,讨论弗鲁曼塔里伊职能的演化过程与皇权和中央集权在公元2—3世纪不同历史阶段内特点之间的关系。第四章在梳理密探士兵(speculatores)、行省免役士兵(beneficiarii consularis)建制与职能的基础上,分析弗鲁曼塔里伊与行省政府中同类士兵的关系问题,同时考察公元2世纪后罗马帝国在行省管理上的政策演变趋势及中央政权和地方政权在运作上所具有的内在统一性和联系性。第五章考察弗鲁曼塔里伊滥用职权及导致其滥用职权现象的成因,同时结合稽查使(agentes in rebus)及戴克里先建立君主专制的相关改革措施,探讨弗鲁曼塔里伊解散的主要原因,分析通信、情报和监督工作对晚期罗马帝国皇权与中央集权的意义及其发展趋势。
从上述对弗鲁曼塔里伊问题的讨论可以看出,弗鲁曼塔里伊的出现是罗马帝国皇权和中央集权强化过程中的产物,体现了罗马帝国在行政管理上专业化、专门化的发展趋势,其职能活动反映了罗马帝国的政治、军事、经济形势在不同历史阶段内的基本特点。弗鲁曼塔里伊是皇帝维护皇权和中央集权、管理行省政治和经济事务等方面的重要力量,其出现、发展、解散的历史过程与公元2—3世纪不同历史时期内皇帝在维护皇权和中央集权上的实际需要密切相关,是皇权和中央集权发展链条中的重要环节。
The frumentarii were the agent in the role of messeng, secret service and supervise of the Roman Empire. As attached directly to the emperors, the frumentarii were the special force in maintaining the imperial power and centralization. This paper will discuss the frumentarii in the historical background, in order to study its organizational system and duties, analyse the whole process of its development, research the relation between its duties and the imperial power in the 2-3 century A.D., at the same time discuss the tendency of Roman Empire’s imperial power in different historical stage as well as its domestic policy.
This thesis contains five chapters. Chapter one discusses the origins of frumentarii, analyses the coming of frumentarii. Chapter two discusses the recruitment and the service of frumentarii, the officers of the frumentarii, the promotions and transfers of frumentarii, analysis the characters of the organizational system of frumentarii. Chapter three discusses the duties of frumentarii, analyse its development in different historical period and its relation with the imperial power in different historical stages of the 2-3 century A.D. Chapter four is based on the study of speculatores and beneficiarii consularii, analyse the relations between frumentarii and them. Thereby we can see the tendency of the Roman Empire’s policy in governing the province and the internal relations of the imperial power with the local power. Chapter five investigates the misconduct of frumentarii and its reason, analysis the demise of frumentarii through the study of agentes in rebus and the policy of Diocletian.
By the comprehensive study of frumentarii, we can see that the coming in sight of the frumentarii was the result of Roman imperial power, they represent the tendency of the specialization of Roman government. The frumentarii developed and became an important force in maintaining the imperial power and the centralization in virtue of the emperors’actual requirement, their activities of frumentarii reflected the characteristics of the politic and economic condition of the Roman Empire in different stage. The frumentarii were the important part in the development of the imperial power and centralization, the emergence and demise of them were the particular demand of the imperial power in 2-3 century A. D.
引文
①B. Reynolds and T. Ashby,“The Castra Peregrinorum”, pp. 152-167.
②B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 186.
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 187.
④William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, The Classical Journal, vol.57(1961), pp. 65-72.
⑤William G. Sinnigen,“The Origins of the Frumentarii”, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, vol.27(1962), p. 214.
⑥N.B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, Britannia, vol.18(1987), p. 249.
⑦N.B. Rankov,“Frumenatrii, The Castra Peregrina and the Provincial Officia”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol.80(1990), p. 182.
①J.C. Mann,“The Organization of Frumentarii”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 74 (1988), p. 150.
②Francis Dvornik, Orgins of Intelligence Services, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1974, p. 107.
③N.J.E. Austin, N.B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, London: Routledge, 1995.
④Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, Berlin: Hubert&Co.Gottingen, 2000, pp. 290-295.
⑤Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, New York: Frank Cass, 2005, pp. 250-260.
①参见Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957; G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982; Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, 1998; Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, Norman: University of Oklahoman Press, 1998。
②Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World, London: Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 36.
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, pp. 183-187.
①罗马帝国时期的密探士兵按其直接隶属关系可划分为如下三类:近卫军中的密探士兵、军团中的密探士兵、约在2世纪后作为行省政府工作人员的密探士兵。
②本文中谈及的公元3世纪,指公元192年康茂德被杀至公元284年戴克里先上台前的这一段历史时期。在这一历史时期内,罗马帝国的内政和外交经历了不同程度的动荡,其中尤以公元238—284年严重。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
①有关罗马军团中士兵类型、等级问题,参见G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, pp. 75-86; Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, pp. 116-120。
①苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第97页。
②N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 869.
③冯定雄:《中国汉晋与罗马帝国时代的邮驿》,《历史教学》2007年第5期。
④莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第324页。
⑤有关奥古斯都之后的皇帝管理邮驿的措施,参见Cornelis van Tilburg, Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire, New York: Routledge, 2007, pp. 60-65。
⑥参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 68. 6。
⑦Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p.16.
⑧参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 423。
①有关皇帝骑兵卫队的营地在罗马的具体位置参见M. Alexander Speidel, Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’Horse Guards,p. 44。
②另外,奥古斯都组建的专门负责皇帝安全的“日耳曼卫队”(Germani Corporis Custodes),于公元69年内战中解散(参见Suetonius , The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Galba, 12. 2)。
①转引自莱茵诺德在《外族营内驻扎的士兵》一文中对帕里伯尼观点的述评(B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 171)。
⑤Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, p. 290.
⑥CIL. 6. 3340.
⑦CIL. 6. 3351.
①AE. 1992. 1871.
②B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 177.
③M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 738.
④参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 205-206。
⑤见本章第二节中有关外族营长职位级别的讨论。
⑥参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 87-89。
⑦参见Brian Campbell, The Roman Army 31B.C.-A.D.337, pp. 9-10; Jonathan Roth,“The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Lgion”, Zeitschrift fur Alte Geschichte, vol.43(1994). pp. 346-362。
⑧CIL. 2. 4154.
⑨CIL. 3. 433.
⑩AE. 1993. 1577.
11 CIL. 6. 232.
①CIL. 2. 4154.
②Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.X, p. 1193.
③CIL. 6. 3360.
④参见A.N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, p. 496。
⑤Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 11.
⑥CIL. 6. 3336.
⑦参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 20-21。
⑧CIL. 3. 1474.
⑨参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 38-39。
①有关军团士兵的训练问题,参见G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, pp. 54-72; S. E. Stoutt,“Training Soldiers for the Roman Legion”, The Classical Journal, vol.16 (1921), pp. 423-431。
②辛尼根简要指出,“弗鲁曼塔里伊主要从军团的精英士兵中选拔”(William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 67)。
③CIL. 8. 1322.
④B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 173.
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 11.
①Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 116.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 39.
③有关罗马帝国时期交通运输中使用的畜力情况,参见莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第340-344页。
④密森努姆船队的重要任务之一是负责运送来往地中海的人员,它在罗马城有独立的营地。有关密森努姆船队的记载,参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第96页。
⑤CIL. 3. 1980.
⑥CIL. 3. 433.
⑦见本文附录2的相关统计。
⑧据现有铭文提供的信息,有7名弗鲁曼塔里伊去世时的年龄不到30岁(CIL. 2. 6088; CIL. 3. 1074; CIL. 3. 6084; CIL. 6. 3328; CIL. 6. 3326; CIL. 6. 3342; CIL. 10. 6095)。这7名弗鲁曼塔里伊中,去世时年龄最小的是一位是15岁。
⑨罗马城内驻军的士兵偶尔因工作需要会被派到意大利或行省工作。参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第164页;Edward Echols,“The Provincial Urban Cohorts”, The Classical Journal, vol.57 (1961), pp. 25-28。
①CIL. 6. 1110.
②CIL. 6. 32415.有关维斯塔贞尼问题,参见王悦:《古罗马的维斯塔贞尼》,《世界宗教文化》,2007年第4期,第45-46页。
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 176.
④有关军团军官的出身问题,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 89-91。
①RIB. 1462.
②RIB. 1234.
③N. B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, p. 243.
④N.B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, p. 248.塞维鲁于公元208年发动进一步征服不列颠的战争,经过这次战争,他巩固了罗马帝国在对哈德良长墙沿线的防御。公元210年,他成功地将罗马在不列颠的边境拓至菲尔兹(morar firth)海峡一带(参见Herodian, History, 3. 14)。
⑤Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 14.
⑥Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
⑦Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 4.
⑧Herodian, History, 4. 4.
⑨Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
①《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆,1995年版,第1149页。
②张晓军、李耐国:《军事情报学》,北京:军事科学出版社,2001年,第3页。
③司马迁:《史记》,第一册,北京:中华书局,1989年,第148页。
④参见Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, pp. 250-252; Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, pp. 200-204。
⑤参见Adams Colin and Ray Laruence, Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire, London: Routledge, 2001, pp. 106-137; Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army,插图XI。
①Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, from 30.B.C.-A.D.138 , p. 303.
②有学者认为,“哈德良的巡游与其喜好猎奇的性格有关,他在一定程度上希望通过巡游深入了解罗马世界的风土人情,另外,其巡游劳民伤财,增加了那些接待他的城市的财政负担”(Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, from 30.B.C.-A.D.138, p. 304)。
③Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Hadrianus, 7. 5.科尔波认为,“每名邮驿长管理2—3个行省中的驿站和道路交通设施”(Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, p. 163)。
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 7. 12.
①Herodian, History, 4. 12.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 4.
③麦特尼安努斯之所以向卡拉卡拉报告马克里尼乌斯有反叛皇帝的野心,很可能是通过弗鲁曼塔里伊等情报人员探查到有关其反叛皇帝的情报。
④据狄奥、希罗狄安的上述记载分析,在很大程度上图拉真、哈德良不再罗马时,应是利用弗鲁曼塔里伊保持与中央政府之间的联系。
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 10.
⑥参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 8-9。
⑦参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 1。
①R. Boak在“Two Petitions from Karanis”一文中引用了这篇诉状的原文(R. Boak,“Two Petitions from Karanis”, Aegyptus, vol.31(1951), pp. 317-326)。
②腓力一世之子,时任共治皇帝。
③CIL. 3. 14191.
④B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 176.
⑤Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 15.
①Cicero, Orations, Pro Roscio Amerino, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1930, 7. 19.
②参见塔西佗:《历史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,北京:商务印书馆,1985年,第48页。
③Pliny, the Elder, The Nature History, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006, 7. 84.
④参见莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第340页。
⑤N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 1032.
⑥张晓军、李耐国:《军事情报学》,第41页。
⑦李耐国:《军事情报研究》,北京:军事科学出版社,2001年,第44-45页。
②参见Livy, The History of Rome, vol. I, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1919, 2. 4。
③参见Livy, The History of Rome, vol. II, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984, 4. 45。
④有关罗马共和时期的告密者问题,参见Frankin Weeks Jones, The Origin of the Roman Delator, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1942。
⑤参见阿比安:罗马史(下卷),谢德风译,北京:商务印书馆,1976年,第105-106页;科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第514页。
①Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 13.
②Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 7.
③Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 69. 3-4.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 11.
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 16.
⑥Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 72. 31-32; Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 23.
⑦有关五贤帝时期国内政策,参见M. Cary, H. H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 427-433; Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, London: Methuen& CO.LTD., pp. 268-332;科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第671页。
⑧Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
①Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 2.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
③Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcinus, 12. 1.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcinus, 12. 4-5.
⑤美塞娅(塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁的皇后)在军队的支持下把年仅14岁的塞维鲁·亚历山大扶上皇位并把持朝政,她死后,朝政继续为亚历山大的母亲马米娅操控。美塞娅和马米娅母女二人开创了罗马帝国史上鲜有的妇女主政局面。
⑥Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander, 23. 2.
⑦这一记载中提到的“不为他人所知的人”,有可能是一些告密者或是塞维鲁·亚历山大的其他心腹等。
⑧参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Claudius, 17. 1。
⑨此人来自比泰尼亚,是康茂德的宠臣,主管皇帝内廷事务。
⑩Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Commodus, 4.
①Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Pescennius Niger, 2. 4.
②Herodian, History, 2. 12.
③Herodian, History, 2. 10. 1.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Elagbalus, 6. 7.
⑤例如,埃拉加巴鲁斯蔑称元老院是“穿着托架的奴隶”,他对农民和骑士等级之人也不屑一顾(Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Elagbalus, 20. 1)。
①有关罗马共和时期的国内情报活动问题,参见Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, pp. 11-40。
②Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, p. 96.
③参见Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Lirary, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1953, 4. 17; Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Lirary, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1953, 6. 41。
④Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
①Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, 6. 40.
②St. Cyprian of Carthage: Selected Letters, Translated by Brent Allen, NewYork: St.Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2007, p. 255.
③“分遣队”一词拉丁语写作“vexillationes”,它是军团派出的到驻地以外执行临时任务的小规模武装部队,最初一般在百人左右。公元3世纪以后,为了应对边境以及国内危机,各地都出现了不同规模的分遣队,这些分遣队开始固定驻扎在他们被派往的地区。作为应对各种危机的机动部队,分遣队具有突击性和灵活性的特点。有关分遣队问题,参见S.A.Cook, F.E.Adcock, M.P.Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 214-215; Nic Fields, The Roman Army of the Principate 27B.C.-A.D.117, New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009, pp. 13-15。
④CIL. 3. 1980.
⑤莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第113-114页。
⑥参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205。
⑦N.B. Rankov,“Frumenatrii, The Castra Peregrina and the Provincial Officia”, p. 177.
⑧第二图拉真军团是由图拉真在公元101年组建,自组建后驻防在埃及(参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205)。
①军团中的密探士兵负责侦查军事情报,详见本文第四章中的讨论。
②CIL. 3. 3524.
③参见执政官年表http://www.info-antike.de/consules2.htm。
④Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205.
⑤塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁之子。
⑥奥古斯塔(Augusta)最初是奥古斯都的妻子李维娅的尊号,奥古斯都以后皇帝的妻子多享有这一尊号。这里指塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁的妻子朱里娅·多姆娜(Julia Domna)。
⑦CIL. 11. 1322.
⑧参见http://www.info-antike.de/consules2.htm。
⑨第二意大利军团驻防在诺里库姆行省(参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205)。
⑩William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 69.
①参见Livy, History of Rome, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1984, 4.32. 10。
②参见Livy, History of Rome, 4. 46. 9。
③参见Livy, History of Rome, 21. 53。
④参见Caesar, Civil Wars, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1914, 3. 44。
⑤M. Gichon,“Military Intelligence in the Roman Army”, Historia, vol.60(1989), p. 157.
①阿尔米尼乌斯生于公元前17年,为日耳曼人部落首领,曾于罗马军团中效力。公元9年他率领部落战士打败瓦鲁斯所率领的军团,被视为日耳曼人的英雄。公元21年,阿尔米尼乌斯败于日耳曼尼乌斯,不久为叛徒所杀。
②塔西佗:《编年史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,第76页。
③参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1935, 14. 2. 15。
④参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 24. 3. 1。
⑤参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 21. 7. 7。
⑥N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 59.
⑦Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p. 167.
⑧N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 154.
⑨CIL. 3. 3524.
⑩Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1939, 24. 1. 2.
①参见A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, pp. 44-45。
②RIB. 19.
③参见M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p.738; MacMullen, Soldier and Civilian in the Later Roman Empire, NewYork: Havard University Press,1963, p.52;“Singulares Llegati Legionis,a Problem in the Iinterpretation of the Ti.Claudius Maximus Inscription from Philippi”, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik vol.103 (1994), p. 168. A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, pp. 44-45; Anthony Richard Birley, The Roman Government of Britain, 10-12。
④参见Macmullen, Soldier and Civilian, pp. 52-53。
⑤参见N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 191。
⑥CIL. 8. 2586.
⑦CIL. 2. 4122.
⑧CIL 2. 3524.
⑨CIL 3. 4452.
⑩N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 156.
11有关努米底亚、塔拉戈-西班牙、上潘诺尼亚、下潘诺尼亚这4个行省中驻扎的军团数及番号,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 205-206。
①参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第266页。
②参见Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Galba, 18。
③参见M. Alexander Speidel, Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’Horse Guard, p. 34; Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p.165; A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service (Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 44-45。
④N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 165.
①参见Tacitus, The Histories, vol.III, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1931. 4. 48。
②参见Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol.116(1997), p. 273。
③Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 226.
④Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 276.
⑤CIL. 12. 2602.
⑥CIL. 5. 48.
⑦CIL. 8. 27854.
⑧Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 277.
⑨Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 280.
⑩同上。
11 A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 45.
①参见A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 44。
②Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 227.
③CIL. 2. 4122.
④AE. 1984. 1571.
⑤AE. 1918. 57.
⑥AE. 1992. 231.
⑦CIL. 3. 12895.
⑧CIL. 3. 6601.
⑨Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, The Ancient History Bulletin, vol.9(1995), p. 4.
⑩N.J.E. Austin, N.B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 153.
11参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第82页。
①参见Cornelis van Tilburg, Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire, p. 67-69; Robert L. Dise,“Variation in Roman Administrative Practice:The Assignments of Beneficiarii Consularis”, pp. 294-299; Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, pp. 240-251。
②转引自Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, 1990, p. 329。
③R.W. Davies,“The Investigation of Some Crimes in Roman Egypt”, Ancient Socity, vol.4(1973), p. 212.
④Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, The Ancient History Bulletin, vol.9(1995), p. 9.
⑤N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, pp. 202-203.
⑥Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 6.
①有关行省免役士兵转运军粮的职能问题,参见Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, pp. 271-278。
②Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 5.
③参见Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 5; Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 235。
④Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 14.
⑤CIL. 6. 36775.
⑥AE. 1993. 1577.
①前文谈到,图拉真时期行省政府中供职的免役士兵尚未统一采用“beneficiarii consularis”(行省免役士兵)这一称号。
②参见The Younger Pliny, The Letters and Panegyricus, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969, 10. 21。
③参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 430。最初,出于国家防御和兼顾元老贵族利益的考虑,奥古斯都把罗马帝国行省划分为元首行省和元老院行省,另外,埃及行省比较特殊,它被视为皇帝私人产业,由其直接任命的埃及总督治理,一般来讲,元老院行省总督由元老院任命,元首行省总督则由皇帝任命。有关奥古斯都行省改革问题,参见Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, pp. 76-81。
④参见E. Ritterling,“Military Forces in the Senatorial Provinces”, The Journal of Roman Studies, vol.17(1927), p. 28。
⑤M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 643.狄兹认为,“图
①Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
②同上。
③Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
④Eusebius, Ecclesicsstical History, 6. 40.
⑤Brian Campbell在< The Roman Army, 31B.C.-A.D.337>一书中引用了这一草纸文献的原文,参见Brian Campbell, The Roman Army, 31B.C.-A.D.337, p. 178。
⑥W.H.D. Frend在“A Third Century Inscription Relating to angareia in Phrygia”一文中引用了这一草纸文献的原文。参见W.H.D. Frend,“A Third Century Inscription Relating to angareia in Phrygia”, Journal of Roman Studies, vol.46(1956), pp. 46-56。
①M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 412.
②M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 411.
③M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 738.
④Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
①Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 27.
②Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Macrinus, 12.
③转引自M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 574。
④参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15。
⑤参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5. 8。
⑥CIL. 10. 6657.
①转引自M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 413。
②转引自David Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor, NewYork: Princeton University, 1950, p. 1548。
③罗斯托洛夫采夫在《罗马帝国社会经济史》一书中多处谈到公元3世纪中军队在行省滥用职权的行为。参见M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, pp.453-455; 458; 465; 488-497。
④公元14年,日耳曼行省驻军的部分士兵发生骚乱,后经提比略继子日耳曼尼乌斯的整治方告平息。
⑤格兰特:《罗马史》,王乃新、郝际陶译,第227页。
①有关公元68-69年的内战问题,参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 402-408; Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, pp. 198-210。
②塔西佗:《历史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,第4页。
③有关弗拉维王朝及五贤帝国内政策问题,参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 409-434。
④M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 433.
⑤M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 408.
⑥据奥略留·维克多记载,“弗拉维王朝的皇帝重视在全国范围内遴选元老院元老,而非仅仅局限在意大利地区”(Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 12)。据哈蒙德的统计,韦伯乡时代意大利出身的元老占元老元比率的80%,到塞维鲁时代保持在50%左右(参见M. Hammond,“The Composition of the Senate A.D.68-235”, The Journal of Roman Studies, vol.47(1957), pp. 73-81)。
①科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第750页。
②有学者认为,“罗马帝国初期,皇权的统治基础主要是意大利的市民阶级和中产阶级;公元1世纪以后,随着意大利经济的衰退,行省力量开始崛起;公元3世纪,行省出身的人普遍担任中央政府主要官职”(Marcelle Glay, Jean Louis Vision, A History of Rome, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005, pp. 463-464)。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 35.
④Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 27.
⑤参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 74. 14; 76. 14。
①参见Herodian, History, 3. 8; A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 31。
②参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 212。
③有关元首制时期皇帝赏赐士兵的次数、赏赐数额问题,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 215-217。
④有关罗马帝国时期的钱币,参见http://www.romancoins.info/Soldatenkaiser.html。
①吉本认为,“戴克里先是新帝国的奠基人、出色的政治家”(爱德华·吉本,《罗马帝国衰亡史》,上册,黄宜思、黄雨石译,北京:商务印书馆,2004年,第204页);布克哈特认为“戴克里先是罗马最伟大的君主之一,帝国和文化的挽救者”(J. Burckhardt, The Age of Constantine The Great, Translated by Moses Hadas, Los Angeles: University of Califomia Press, 1983, p. 245)。
②Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
③辛尼根在谈到弗鲁曼塔里伊解散原因问题时,转述了奥略留·维克多这一观点(William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 66);谢尔敦在谈到弗鲁曼塔里伊解散的原因问题时指出,“戴克里先解散弗鲁曼塔里伊的原因是因为他不断地收到民众的上诉,抱怨弗鲁曼塔里伊滥用职权的行为”(Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p. 257);莱茵诺德谈及弗鲁曼塔里伊解散原因问题时写到,“他们普遍从事的秘密工作遭致人们的憎恶,以致戴克里先最终将其解散”( The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum, p. 181)。
④有关戴克里先改革措施,参见S.A. Cook, F.E. Adcock, M.P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 383-408; A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 37-76; Stephen
①有关四帝共治体制问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 38-42; S.A.Cook, F.E. Adcock, M.P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 383。
②科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第812页。
③科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第813页。
④有关戴克里先的中央机构改革问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 48, 525; George Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 142-143。
①有关戴克里先的行省改革问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 391-396。
②科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第814页。
③科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第815页。
①Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 238.
②Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert, Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999, pp. 278-279; Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p. 108.
③N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 26.
④徐家玲:《早期拜占庭执事官职能探析》,《史学集刊》,2003年第4期,第56页。
⑤有关稽查使的职位等级问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 578-579。
⑥Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World, p. 36.
⑦Codex Theodosianus, 6. 27. 3. (本文利用的是《狄奥多西法典》的电子资源:http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/theodosius.html)
⑧Codex Iustinianus, 12. 20. 3.
⑨A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 578.
⑩A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 579.
11 N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 26.
12 CIL. 6. 32875.
13 CIL. 8. 989.
①Codex Theodosianus, 8. 5. 7.
②Codex Theodosianus, 12. 20. 1.
③Procopius, Secret History, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1936, 30.
④A.H.M.Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 369.
⑤参见Codex Theodosianus , 6. 29. 1; 6. 2. 8。
⑥参见Codex Theodosianus, 6. 29. 2。
⑦Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1935, 16. 8. 9.
⑧Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 15. 3. 7-9.
⑨Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 14. 11. 19.
⑩Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 15. 3. 9.
11 Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 14. 11. 19.
12 Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 242.
①Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 238.
①Eutropius, Breviarium, p. 62.
②A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 49.戴克里先军政分离的改革在君士坦丁时期全面完成(A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 565)。
③参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 49-51。
④A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 44.
⑤Matthew Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p. 175.
⑥科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第814页。
①N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 152.
②为提高军队战斗力、巩固国防,戴克里先重组军团并增加士兵数量。他将军团数扩编到70余支,由于当时行省的居民已经不能完全满足国家大规模征兵的需要,戴克里先招募大量的蛮族人入伍,其统治时期全国的总兵力增加到60余万。此外,戴克里先重组船队,增强罗马帝国的海上防御能力,并重点防御意大利海域和黑海海域。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 40.
④T. Mommsen, A History of Rome Under the Emperors, Translated by Clare Krojzl, London: Routledge, 1999. p. 400.
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[5]张晓校:《罗马军队与帝位嬗递》,北京:社会科学出版社,2004年。
[6]张晓军:《军事情报学》,北京:军事科学出版社,2001年。
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②B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 186.
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 187.
④William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, The Classical Journal, vol.57(1961), pp. 65-72.
⑤William G. Sinnigen,“The Origins of the Frumentarii”, Memoirs of the American Academy in Rome, vol.27(1962), p. 214.
⑥N.B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, Britannia, vol.18(1987), p. 249.
⑦N.B. Rankov,“Frumenatrii, The Castra Peregrina and the Provincial Officia”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol.80(1990), p. 182.
①J.C. Mann,“The Organization of Frumentarii”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol. 74 (1988), p. 150.
②Francis Dvornik, Orgins of Intelligence Services, New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1974, p. 107.
③N.J.E. Austin, N.B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, London: Routledge, 1995.
④Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, Berlin: Hubert&Co.Gottingen, 2000, pp. 290-295.
⑤Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, New York: Frank Cass, 2005, pp. 250-260.
①参见Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1957; G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, New York: Cornell University Press, 1982; Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, 1998; Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, Norman: University of Oklahoman Press, 1998。
②Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World, London: Cambridge University Press, 2007, p. 36.
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, pp. 183-187.
①罗马帝国时期的密探士兵按其直接隶属关系可划分为如下三类:近卫军中的密探士兵、军团中的密探士兵、约在2世纪后作为行省政府工作人员的密探士兵。
②本文中谈及的公元3世纪,指公元192年康茂德被杀至公元284年戴克里先上台前的这一段历史时期。在这一历史时期内,罗马帝国的内政和外交经历了不同程度的动荡,其中尤以公元238—284年严重。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
①有关罗马军团中士兵类型、等级问题,参见G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, pp. 75-86; Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, pp. 116-120。
①苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第97页。
②N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 869.
③冯定雄:《中国汉晋与罗马帝国时代的邮驿》,《历史教学》2007年第5期。
④莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第324页。
⑤有关奥古斯都之后的皇帝管理邮驿的措施,参见Cornelis van Tilburg, Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire, New York: Routledge, 2007, pp. 60-65。
⑥参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 68. 6。
⑦Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p.16.
⑧参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 423。
①有关皇帝骑兵卫队的营地在罗马的具体位置参见M. Alexander Speidel, Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’Horse Guards,p. 44。
②另外,奥古斯都组建的专门负责皇帝安全的“日耳曼卫队”(Germani Corporis Custodes),于公元69年内战中解散(参见Suetonius , The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Galba, 12. 2)。
①转引自莱茵诺德在《外族营内驻扎的士兵》一文中对帕里伯尼观点的述评(B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 171)。
⑤Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, p. 290.
⑥CIL. 6. 3340.
⑦CIL. 6. 3351.
①AE. 1992. 1871.
②B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 177.
③M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 738.
④参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 205-206。
⑤见本章第二节中有关外族营长职位级别的讨论。
⑥参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 87-89。
⑦参见Brian Campbell, The Roman Army 31B.C.-A.D.337, pp. 9-10; Jonathan Roth,“The Size and Organization of the Roman Imperial Lgion”, Zeitschrift fur Alte Geschichte, vol.43(1994). pp. 346-362。
⑧CIL. 2. 4154.
⑨CIL. 3. 433.
⑩AE. 1993. 1577.
11 CIL. 6. 232.
①CIL. 2. 4154.
②Alan K. Bowman, Edward Champlin, Andrew Lintott, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.X, p. 1193.
③CIL. 6. 3360.
④参见A.N. Sherwin-White, The Roman Citizenship, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939, p. 496。
⑤Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 11.
⑥CIL. 6. 3336.
⑦参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 20-21。
⑧CIL. 3. 1474.
⑨参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 38-39。
①有关军团士兵的训练问题,参见G. R. Watson, The Roman Soldier, pp. 54-72; S. E. Stoutt,“Training Soldiers for the Roman Legion”, The Classical Journal, vol.16 (1921), pp. 423-431。
②辛尼根简要指出,“弗鲁曼塔里伊主要从军团的精英士兵中选拔”(William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 67)。
③CIL. 8. 1322.
④B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 173.
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Hadrian, 11.
①Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999, p. 116.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 39.
③有关罗马帝国时期交通运输中使用的畜力情况,参见莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第340-344页。
④密森努姆船队的重要任务之一是负责运送来往地中海的人员,它在罗马城有独立的营地。有关密森努姆船队的记载,参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第96页。
⑤CIL. 3. 1980.
⑥CIL. 3. 433.
⑦见本文附录2的相关统计。
⑧据现有铭文提供的信息,有7名弗鲁曼塔里伊去世时的年龄不到30岁(CIL. 2. 6088; CIL. 3. 1074; CIL. 3. 6084; CIL. 6. 3328; CIL. 6. 3326; CIL. 6. 3342; CIL. 10. 6095)。这7名弗鲁曼塔里伊中,去世时年龄最小的是一位是15岁。
⑨罗马城内驻军的士兵偶尔因工作需要会被派到意大利或行省工作。参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第164页;Edward Echols,“The Provincial Urban Cohorts”, The Classical Journal, vol.57 (1961), pp. 25-28。
①CIL. 6. 1110.
②CIL. 6. 32415.有关维斯塔贞尼问题,参见王悦:《古罗马的维斯塔贞尼》,《世界宗教文化》,2007年第4期,第45-46页。
③B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 176.
④有关军团军官的出身问题,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 89-91。
①RIB. 1462.
②RIB. 1234.
③N. B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, p. 243.
④N.B. Rankov,“M.Oclatinius Adventus in Britain”, p. 248.塞维鲁于公元208年发动进一步征服不列颠的战争,经过这次战争,他巩固了罗马帝国在对哈德良长墙沿线的防御。公元210年,他成功地将罗马在不列颠的边境拓至菲尔兹(morar firth)海峡一带(参见Herodian, History, 3. 14)。
⑤Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 14.
⑥Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
⑦Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 4.
⑧Herodian, History, 4. 4.
⑨Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
①《现代汉语词典》,商务印书馆,1995年版,第1149页。
②张晓军、李耐国:《军事情报学》,北京:军事科学出版社,2001年,第3页。
③司马迁:《史记》,第一册,北京:中华书局,1989年,第148页。
④参见Graham Webster, The Roman Imperial Army, pp. 250-252; Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, pp. 200-204。
⑤参见Adams Colin and Ray Laruence, Travel and Geography in the Roman Empire, London: Routledge, 2001, pp. 106-137; Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army,插图XI。
①Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, from 30.B.C.-A.D.138 , p. 303.
②有学者认为,“哈德良的巡游与其喜好猎奇的性格有关,他在一定程度上希望通过巡游深入了解罗马世界的风土人情,另外,其巡游劳民伤财,增加了那些接待他的城市的财政负担”(Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, from 30.B.C.-A.D.138, p. 304)。
③Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Hadrianus, 7. 5.科尔波认为,“每名邮驿长管理2—3个行省中的驿站和道路交通设施”(Anne Kolb, Transport und Nachrichtentransfer im Romischen Reich, p. 163)。
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 7. 12.
①Herodian, History, 4. 12.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 4.
③麦特尼安努斯之所以向卡拉卡拉报告马克里尼乌斯有反叛皇帝的野心,很可能是通过弗鲁曼塔里伊等情报人员探查到有关其反叛皇帝的情报。
④据狄奥、希罗狄安的上述记载分析,在很大程度上图拉真、哈德良不再罗马时,应是利用弗鲁曼塔里伊保持与中央政府之间的联系。
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 10.
⑥参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 8-9。
⑦参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Maximus and Balbinus, 1。
①R. Boak在“Two Petitions from Karanis”一文中引用了这篇诉状的原文(R. Boak,“Two Petitions from Karanis”, Aegyptus, vol.31(1951), pp. 317-326)。
②腓力一世之子,时任共治皇帝。
③CIL. 3. 14191.
④B. Reynolds,“The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum”, p. 176.
⑤Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 15.
①Cicero, Orations, Pro Roscio Amerino, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1930, 7. 19.
②参见塔西佗:《历史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,北京:商务印书馆,1985年,第48页。
③Pliny, the Elder, The Nature History, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2006, 7. 84.
④参见莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第340页。
⑤N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 1032.
⑥张晓军、李耐国:《军事情报学》,第41页。
⑦李耐国:《军事情报研究》,北京:军事科学出版社,2001年,第44-45页。
②参见Livy, The History of Rome, vol. I, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1919, 2. 4。
③参见Livy, The History of Rome, vol. II, The Loeb Classical Libray, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1984, 4. 45。
④有关罗马共和时期的告密者问题,参见Frankin Weeks Jones, The Origin of the Roman Delator, Evanston: Northwestern University Press, 1942。
⑤参见阿比安:罗马史(下卷),谢德风译,北京:商务印书馆,1976年,第105-106页;科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第514页。
①Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 13.
②Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Antonius Pius, 7.
③Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 69. 3-4.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 11.
⑤Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 16.
⑥Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 72. 31-32; Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcus Aurelius, 23.
⑦有关五贤帝时期国内政策,参见M. Cary, H. H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 427-433; Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, London: Methuen& CO.LTD., pp. 268-332;科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第671页。
⑧Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
①Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 2.
②Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15.
③Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcinus, 12. 1.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Marcinus, 12. 4-5.
⑤美塞娅(塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁的皇后)在军队的支持下把年仅14岁的塞维鲁·亚历山大扶上皇位并把持朝政,她死后,朝政继续为亚历山大的母亲马米娅操控。美塞娅和马米娅母女二人开创了罗马帝国史上鲜有的妇女主政局面。
⑥Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Severus Alexander, 23. 2.
⑦这一记载中提到的“不为他人所知的人”,有可能是一些告密者或是塞维鲁·亚历山大的其他心腹等。
⑧参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Claudius, 17. 1。
⑨此人来自比泰尼亚,是康茂德的宠臣,主管皇帝内廷事务。
⑩Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Commodus, 4.
①Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Pescennius Niger, 2. 4.
②Herodian, History, 2. 12.
③Herodian, History, 2. 10. 1.
④Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Elagbalus, 6. 7.
⑤例如,埃拉加巴鲁斯蔑称元老院是“穿着托架的奴隶”,他对农民和骑士等级之人也不屑一顾(Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Elagbalus, 20. 1)。
①有关罗马共和时期的国内情报活动问题,参见Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, pp. 11-40。
②Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, p. 96.
③参见Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Lirary, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1953, 4. 17; Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Lirary, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1953, 6. 41。
④Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
①Eusebius, Eccelesiastical History, 6. 40.
②St. Cyprian of Carthage: Selected Letters, Translated by Brent Allen, NewYork: St.Vladimir's Seminary Press, 2007, p. 255.
③“分遣队”一词拉丁语写作“vexillationes”,它是军团派出的到驻地以外执行临时任务的小规模武装部队,最初一般在百人左右。公元3世纪以后,为了应对边境以及国内危机,各地都出现了不同规模的分遣队,这些分遣队开始固定驻扎在他们被派往的地区。作为应对各种危机的机动部队,分遣队具有突击性和灵活性的特点。有关分遣队问题,参见S.A.Cook, F.E.Adcock, M.P.Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 214-215; Nic Fields, The Roman Army of the Principate 27B.C.-A.D.117, New York: Osprey Publishing, 2009, pp. 13-15。
④CIL. 3. 1980.
⑤莱斯莉·阿德金斯、罗伊·阿德金斯:《探寻古罗马文明》,张楠、王悦、范秀琳译,第113-114页。
⑥参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205。
⑦N.B. Rankov,“Frumenatrii, The Castra Peregrina and the Provincial Officia”, p. 177.
⑧第二图拉真军团是由图拉真在公元101年组建,自组建后驻防在埃及(参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205)。
①军团中的密探士兵负责侦查军事情报,详见本文第四章中的讨论。
②CIL. 3. 3524.
③参见执政官年表http://www.info-antike.de/consules2.htm。
④Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205.
⑤塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁之子。
⑥奥古斯塔(Augusta)最初是奥古斯都的妻子李维娅的尊号,奥古斯都以后皇帝的妻子多享有这一尊号。这里指塞普提姆斯·塞维鲁的妻子朱里娅·多姆娜(Julia Domna)。
⑦CIL. 11. 1322.
⑧参见http://www.info-antike.de/consules2.htm。
⑨第二意大利军团驻防在诺里库姆行省(参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 205)。
⑩William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 69.
①参见Livy, History of Rome, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1984, 4.32. 10。
②参见Livy, History of Rome, 4. 46. 9。
③参见Livy, History of Rome, 21. 53。
④参见Caesar, Civil Wars, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1914, 3. 44。
⑤M. Gichon,“Military Intelligence in the Roman Army”, Historia, vol.60(1989), p. 157.
①阿尔米尼乌斯生于公元前17年,为日耳曼人部落首领,曾于罗马军团中效力。公元9年他率领部落战士打败瓦鲁斯所率领的军团,被视为日耳曼人的英雄。公元21年,阿尔米尼乌斯败于日耳曼尼乌斯,不久为叛徒所杀。
②塔西佗:《编年史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,第76页。
③参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1935, 14. 2. 15。
④参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 24. 3. 1。
⑤参见Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 21. 7. 7。
⑥N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 59.
⑦Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p. 167.
⑧N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 154.
⑨CIL. 3. 3524.
⑩Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1939, 24. 1. 2.
①参见A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, pp. 44-45。
②RIB. 19.
③参见M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p.738; MacMullen, Soldier and Civilian in the Later Roman Empire, NewYork: Havard University Press,1963, p.52;“Singulares Llegati Legionis,a Problem in the Iinterpretation of the Ti.Claudius Maximus Inscription from Philippi”, Zeitschrift für Papyrologie und Epigraphik vol.103 (1994), p. 168. A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, pp. 44-45; Anthony Richard Birley, The Roman Government of Britain, 10-12。
④参见Macmullen, Soldier and Civilian, pp. 52-53。
⑤参见N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 191。
⑥CIL. 8. 2586.
⑦CIL. 2. 4122.
⑧CIL 2. 3524.
⑨CIL 3. 4452.
⑩N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 156.
11有关努米底亚、塔拉戈-西班牙、上潘诺尼亚、下潘诺尼亚这4个行省中驻扎的军团数及番号,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 205-206。
①参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第266页。
②参见Suetonius, The Lives of Twelve Caesars, Galba, 18。
③参见M. Alexander Speidel, Riding for Caesar: The Roman Emperors’Horse Guard, p. 34; Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p.165; A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service (Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 44-45。
④N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 165.
①参见Tacitus, The Histories, vol.III, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachustees: Harvard University Press, 1931. 4. 48。
②参见Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, Zeitschrift fur Papyrologie und Epigraphik, vol.116(1997), p. 273。
③Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 226.
④Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 276.
⑤CIL. 12. 2602.
⑥CIL. 5. 48.
⑦CIL. 8. 27854.
⑧Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 277.
⑨Robert L. Dise,“Trajan, The Antonines, and the Governor’s Staff”, p. 280.
⑩同上。
11 A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 45.
①参见A.H.M.Jones,“The Roman Civil Service(Clerical and Sub-Clerical Grades)”, p. 44。
②Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 227.
③CIL. 2. 4122.
④AE. 1984. 1571.
⑤AE. 1918. 57.
⑥AE. 1992. 231.
⑦CIL. 3. 12895.
⑧CIL. 3. 6601.
⑨Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, The Ancient History Bulletin, vol.9(1995), p. 4.
⑩N.J.E. Austin, N.B. Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 153.
11参见苏维托尼乌斯:《罗马十二帝王传》,王乃新、蒋平、张竹明译,第82页。
①参见Cornelis van Tilburg, Traffic and Congestion in the Roman Empire, p. 67-69; Robert L. Dise,“Variation in Roman Administrative Practice:The Assignments of Beneficiarii Consularis”, pp. 294-299; Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, pp. 240-251。
②转引自Benjamin Isaac, The Limits of Empire, 1990, p. 329。
③R.W. Davies,“The Investigation of Some Crimes in Roman Egypt”, Ancient Socity, vol.4(1973), p. 212.
④Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, The Ancient History Bulletin, vol.9(1995), p. 9.
⑤N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, pp. 202-203.
⑥Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 6.
①有关行省免役士兵转运军粮的职能问题,参见Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, pp. 271-278。
②Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 5.
③参见Robert L. Dise,“A Reassessment of the Functions of Beneficiarii Consularis”, p. 5; Christopher Felstead Thomas,“Feeding the Frontiers: Logistical Limitations of Roman Imperialism in the West”, p. 235。
④Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 14.
⑤CIL. 6. 36775.
⑥AE. 1993. 1577.
①前文谈到,图拉真时期行省政府中供职的免役士兵尚未统一采用“beneficiarii consularis”(行省免役士兵)这一称号。
②参见The Younger Pliny, The Letters and Panegyricus, vol.II, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1969, 10. 21。
③参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 430。最初,出于国家防御和兼顾元老贵族利益的考虑,奥古斯都把罗马帝国行省划分为元首行省和元老院行省,另外,埃及行省比较特殊,它被视为皇帝私人产业,由其直接任命的埃及总督治理,一般来讲,元老院行省总督由元老院任命,元首行省总督则由皇帝任命。有关奥古斯都行省改革问题,参见Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, pp. 76-81。
④参见E. Ritterling,“Military Forces in the Senatorial Provinces”, The Journal of Roman Studies, vol.17(1927), p. 28。
⑤M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 643.狄兹认为,“图
①Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
②同上。
③Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
④Eusebius, Ecclesicsstical History, 6. 40.
⑤Brian Campbell在< The Roman Army, 31B.C.-A.D.337>一书中引用了这一草纸文献的原文,参见Brian Campbell, The Roman Army, 31B.C.-A.D.337, p. 178。
⑥W.H.D. Frend在“A Third Century Inscription Relating to angareia in Phrygia”一文中引用了这一草纸文献的原文。参见W.H.D. Frend,“A Third Century Inscription Relating to angareia in Phrygia”, Journal of Roman Studies, vol.46(1956), pp. 46-56。
①M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 412.
②M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 411.
③M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 738.
④Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 78. 17.
①Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 27.
②Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Macrinus, 12.
③转引自M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 574。
④参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 79. 15。
⑤参见Aelius Spartianus, Historia Augusta, Didius Julianus, 5. 8。
⑥CIL. 10. 6657.
①转引自M. Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, p. 413。
②转引自David Magie, Roman Rule in Asia Minor, NewYork: Princeton University, 1950, p. 1548。
③罗斯托洛夫采夫在《罗马帝国社会经济史》一书中多处谈到公元3世纪中军队在行省滥用职权的行为。参见M.Rostovtzeff, The Social and Economic History of the Roman Empire, pp.453-455; 458; 465; 488-497。
④公元14年,日耳曼行省驻军的部分士兵发生骚乱,后经提比略继子日耳曼尼乌斯的整治方告平息。
⑤格兰特:《罗马史》,王乃新、郝际陶译,第227页。
①有关公元68-69年的内战问题,参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 402-408; Edward T. Salmon, A History of the Roman World, pp. 198-210。
②塔西佗:《历史》,王以铸、崔妙因译,第4页。
③有关弗拉维王朝及五贤帝国内政策问题,参见M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, pp. 409-434。
④M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 433.
⑤M. Cary, H.H. Scullard, A History of Rome Down to the Reign of Constantine, p. 408.
⑥据奥略留·维克多记载,“弗拉维王朝的皇帝重视在全国范围内遴选元老院元老,而非仅仅局限在意大利地区”(Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 12)。据哈蒙德的统计,韦伯乡时代意大利出身的元老占元老元比率的80%,到塞维鲁时代保持在50%左右(参见M. Hammond,“The Composition of the Senate A.D.68-235”, The Journal of Roman Studies, vol.47(1957), pp. 73-81)。
①科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第750页。
②有学者认为,“罗马帝国初期,皇权的统治基础主要是意大利的市民阶级和中产阶级;公元1世纪以后,随着意大利经济的衰退,行省力量开始崛起;公元3世纪,行省出身的人普遍担任中央政府主要官职”(Marcelle Glay, Jean Louis Vision, A History of Rome, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005, pp. 463-464)。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 35.
④Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 27.
⑤参见Cassius Dio, The Roman History, 74. 14; 76. 14。
①参见Herodian, History, 3. 8; A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 31。
②参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, p. 212。
③有关元首制时期皇帝赏赐士兵的次数、赏赐数额问题,参见Yann Le Bohec, The Imperial Roman Army, pp. 215-217。
④有关罗马帝国时期的钱币,参见http://www.romancoins.info/Soldatenkaiser.html。
①吉本认为,“戴克里先是新帝国的奠基人、出色的政治家”(爱德华·吉本,《罗马帝国衰亡史》,上册,黄宜思、黄雨石译,北京:商务印书馆,2004年,第204页);布克哈特认为“戴克里先是罗马最伟大的君主之一,帝国和文化的挽救者”(J. Burckhardt, The Age of Constantine The Great, Translated by Moses Hadas, Los Angeles: University of Califomia Press, 1983, p. 245)。
②Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 45.
③辛尼根在谈到弗鲁曼塔里伊解散原因问题时,转述了奥略留·维克多这一观点(William G. Sinnigen,“The Roman Secret Service”, p. 66);谢尔敦在谈到弗鲁曼塔里伊解散的原因问题时指出,“戴克里先解散弗鲁曼塔里伊的原因是因为他不断地收到民众的上诉,抱怨弗鲁曼塔里伊滥用职权的行为”(Rose Mary Sheldon, Intelligence Activities in Ancient Rome, p. 257);莱茵诺德谈及弗鲁曼塔里伊解散原因问题时写到,“他们普遍从事的秘密工作遭致人们的憎恶,以致戴克里先最终将其解散”( The Troops Quartered in The Castra Peregrinorum, p. 181)。
④有关戴克里先改革措施,参见S.A. Cook, F.E. Adcock, M.P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 383-408; A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 37-76; Stephen
①有关四帝共治体制问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 38-42; S.A.Cook, F.E. Adcock, M.P. Charlesworth, The Cambridge Ancient History, vol.XII, pp. 383。
②科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第812页。
③科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第813页。
④有关戴克里先的中央机构改革问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 48, 525; George Mousourakis, A Legal History of Rome, London: Routledge, 2007, pp. 142-143。
①有关戴克里先的行省改革问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 391-396。
②科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第814页。
③科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第815页。
①Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 238.
②Glen Warren Bowersock, Peter Robert, Late Antiquity: A Guide to the Postclassical World, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1999, pp. 278-279; Edward Luttwak, The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, p. 108.
③N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 26.
④徐家玲:《早期拜占庭执事官职能探析》,《史学集刊》,2003年第4期,第56页。
⑤有关稽查使的职位等级问题,参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 578-579。
⑥Adam J. Silverstein, Postal Systems in the Pre-Modern Islamic World, p. 36.
⑦Codex Theodosianus, 6. 27. 3. (本文利用的是《狄奥多西法典》的电子资源:http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/theodosius.html)
⑧Codex Iustinianus, 12. 20. 3.
⑨A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 578.
⑩A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 579.
11 N.G. Hammond, H.H. Scullard, The Oxford Classical Dictionary, p. 26.
12 CIL. 6. 32875.
13 CIL. 8. 989.
①Codex Theodosianus, 8. 5. 7.
②Codex Theodosianus, 12. 20. 1.
③Procopius, Secret History, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1936, 30.
④A.H.M.Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 369.
⑤参见Codex Theodosianus , 6. 29. 1; 6. 2. 8。
⑥参见Codex Theodosianus, 6. 29. 2。
⑦Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, vol.I, The Loeb Classical Library, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1935, 16. 8. 9.
⑧Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 15. 3. 7-9.
⑨Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 14. 11. 19.
⑩Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 15. 3. 9.
11 Ammianus Marcellinus, The Roman History, 14. 11. 19.
12 Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 242.
①Willian G. Sinnigen,“Two Branches of the Late Roman Secret Service”, p. 238.
①Eutropius, Breviarium, p. 62.
②A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 49.戴克里先军政分离的改革在君士坦丁时期全面完成(A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 565)。
③参见A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, pp. 49-51。
④A.H.M. Jones, The Later Roman Empire 284-602, p. 44.
⑤Matthew Bunson, Encyclopedia of the Roman Empire, p. 175.
⑥科瓦略夫:《古代罗马史》,王以铸译,第814页。
①N.J.E.Austin, N.B.Rankov, Exploratio: Military and Political Intelligence in the Roman World from the Second Punic War to the Battle of Adrianople, p. 152.
②为提高军队战斗力、巩固国防,戴克里先重组军团并增加士兵数量。他将军团数扩编到70余支,由于当时行省的居民已经不能完全满足国家大规模征兵的需要,戴克里先招募大量的蛮族人入伍,其统治时期全国的总兵力增加到60余万。此外,戴克里先重组船队,增强罗马帝国的海上防御能力,并重点防御意大利海域和黑海海域。
③Aurelius Victor, De Caesaribus, p. 40.
④T. Mommsen, A History of Rome Under the Emperors, Translated by Clare Krojzl, London: Routledge, 1999. p. 400.
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[6]恺撒:《高卢战记》,任炳湘译,北京:商务印书馆,1982年。
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[2]于贵信:《古代罗马史》,长春:吉林大学出版社,1988年。
[3]朱龙华:《罗马文化与古典传统》,杭州:浙江人民出版社,1993年。
[4]宫秀华:《罗马:从共和走向帝制》,北京:高等教育出版社,2002年。
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[8]爱德华·吉本:《罗马帝国衰亡史》,黄宜思、黄雨石译,北京:商务印书馆,1994年。
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