不整合面型铀矿流体系统数值模拟
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摘要
随着全球气候变化的加剧,核能受到越来越多的重视。当前,加拿大和澳大利亚的古元古代的沉积盆地中发育的不整合面型铀矿占据全球铀市场份额的30%多,但是他们的成矿机制却依然不是十分清楚。盆地中成矿流体的运移模式是什么?铀源是什么?流体运移的驱动力是什么?这些问题都需要进一步的研究。数值模拟可以整合已有的大量的地质、地球物理和地球化学数据,从而提供新的认识。在本论文中,作者利用有限元和有限差分技术,设计了大量的数值模拟实验来研究与不整合面型铀矿有关的成矿流体系统。首先,基于来自Athabasca盆地,Thelon盆地和Kombolgie盆地的地质、地球物理及地球化学数据,建立了一系列的概念模型。以这些概念模型为基础,进行了大量的数值实验来揭示流体流动、热传输、地形起伏和构造变形等过程的相互作用及其对成矿的影响。FEFLOW和FLAC被用来求解与这些过程相关的控制方程,比如质量守恒方程,动量守恒方程,和能量守恒方程等。根据本研究的需要,作者也对FEFLOW和FLAC的功能做了相应的扩展和改进。论文取得的主要研究结果如下：
1.热液对流在砂岩层中广泛发育。在典型的水文地质条件下,模拟了地热梯度介于25到35度/千米之间的流体流动,发现热液对流在有效孔隙度相对较高的砂岩层中广泛出现。热液对流对温度场扰动明显,最高可达40度,在上升流附近,温度升高,而在下降流附近,温度降低。具体的流体形态和流体速度受水文地质属性,地热梯度,地层几何特征及砂岩层厚度等的影响。较高的地热梯度会加速流体运移,但是盆地规模的基本对流模式不变。在盆地最边缘砂岩层低于1千米的地方,没有热液对流发育。空隙介质厚度是雷诺数重要的控制参数,当厚度变小时,雷诺数会降低,当其降低超过临界值时,对流便不会产生。在同一个对流环内部,流体的流动速度由外向内逐渐降低。高透水砂岩和盖层及基底之间的转换带为流体快速运移区,从而有利于矿体发育,这种特点与大部分矿床发育于基底不整合面是一致的。此外,有些研究者认为砂岩层被相对低透水单元的分隔会限制自由对流的产生,而根据本论文研究,当高透水的砂岩层被较薄的低透水单元隔离时,虽然流体运移速度会降低,但是自由对流依然发育。
2.地形起伏对盆地流体系统的运移模式影响明显,但它不是不整合面型铀矿流体系统的主要驱动力。当潜水面坡度较小时,流体流动被自由热对流所控制,但是随着坡度的加大,流体流动逐渐会被地形起伏控制。在坡度低于0.001时,整个流体系统会显示出混合对流的特点,在盆地中部,透水性砂岩厚的地方依然被自由热对流所控制,而盆地边缘却以地形驱动流为主。当地形起伏变为主要的流体驱动机制时,流体的属性(温度,压强,组分)通常会在流体流动方向上展现渐变和不对称的特征。比如,补给带的温度会降低,而泄水区的温度会升高。如果地形起伏是第一驱动力,那么矿床通常只在盆地的一侧发育。美国科罗拉多高原的板状铀矿(Tabular uranium deposits)便是在这种成矿流体作用下形成的。但是,对于不整合面型铀矿而言,矿体在盆地边缘成辐射状分布,没有明显的非对称特征。因此,地形起伏应该不是不整合面型铀矿系统中主要的流体驱动机制。
3.在不考虑机械变形对流体压力影响的前提下,断层对流体运移的影响主要取决于不同断层之间的连通性和断层是否出露地表。当三条相互孤立的宽400米的盲断层被加入到盆地尺度的概念模型中时,盆地规模的流体流动没有明显的变化。但是,断层的加入会打破已有的压力平衡,从而提高流体运移速度,但是经过10万年左右的时间,这种扰动会逐渐消失。当这些断层贯穿盖层并且被高透水性的砂岩连通时,对流模式将发生明显变化,断层一般会成为不同对流环的边界,从而成为优先的上升和下降流通道。地表流体能够沿着断层进入盆地流体系统,盆地流体也能够沿着断层溢出至盆地浅部。
4.基底不整合面(带)为氧化还原界面和典型的高速流体运移区。基底不整合面(带)的厚度从几厘米到几百米不等。由于盆地规模模型网格精度的限制,比较薄的基底不整合面(带)无法模拟。当一个厚250米的基底不整合面(带)被加入概念模型时,对200米/年,400米/年和1000米/年的水平导水率分别进行了敏感度测试。当独立的高透水率的基底不整合面(带)被加入概念模型时,盆地规模的自由热对流仍然发育,但是新加入的不整合面(带)为流体流动速度最高和流体通量最大区域。
5.构造运动中发生的机械变形会导致流体压力场变化,进而引发混合对流；在应力变化强烈的区域,变形驱动流为主,而在应力变化比较弱的区域,自由热对流依旧是主要的流体运移模式,具体的流体形态取决于应变速率及其各水文地质单元的属性。在相同的应力场下,不同地层表现出不同的压力场的演化,进而引发存在于不同层组之间的压力梯度。当断层或者其它的构造连接这些这些不同的水文地质单元时,跨越不同单元的流体流动将产生。在伸展变形过程中,整个系统的流体压力会降低,但是基底中压力降低的速度要比其它水文地质单元要快,所以盆地中的氧化性流体会被“吮吸”到基底中,从而有助于形成在基底中发育的矿体。挤压变形中,基底中的压力上升速度比上覆地层要快,基底中的还原性流体将被挤压到上面的砂岩层中,这种流体运移模式有助于在砂岩层中发育矿体。这种构造背景和矿床发育位置之间的对应关系被大部分已经发现的矿体所支持。澳大利亚的Kombolgie盆地形成后,经历了一些列的伸展变形构造,而在此盆地中的大部分矿体是发育在基底中的。加拿大Althabasca盆地的情况相对复杂,66个相对研究程度比较高的矿床中,32个是在基底中发现的,其它的34个跨越基底或者在离基底不整合面附近的砂岩里面,这也许是这些盆地经历了相对更复杂的构造过程的结果。
6.当盐度变化和溶质迁移被耦合进系统后,盆地规模流体运移模式和热液自由对流相似,对流环广泛发育于高透水砂岩层中。但是,借助FEFLOW6里面新的数据可视化技术,发现了跨越基底不整合面的流体运移。砂岩和基底中典型的流体运移速度分别为3.5米/年和2.5×10-6米/年,虽然流体流动速度相差若干数量级,但是这种现象为从基底中析出铀提供了一种可能的机制。通过溶质运移模拟发现,伴随着热盐对流,铀元素能够从基底通过平流(advection),离子扩散(ion diffusion)和机械散布(mechanical dispersion)慢慢迁移到盆地。主要的迁移方式为伴随流体流动的平流。
7.当没有强烈的构造运动时,在典型的水文地质条件下,热盐对流可以穿透到基底不整合面1-2千米以下。假设在基底中部有一个铀源,铀元素能够在热盐对流的作用下逐步迁移到沉积盆地中去。反之,如果初始铀源区被放在高渗透性的砂岩中,经过500万年铀元素也可以慢慢迁移到基底不整合面以下2千米以内。铀源区的相对位置对铀传输的效率也有很大影响。在盆地边缘,基底不整合面坡度较大的地方,铀迁移的效率和速度要比铀源区在盆地中间的情况下高,因为不整合面坡度的增加会提高流体流动速度。基于这些结果,在含有不整合面型铀矿的这些古元古代的盆地里面,热盐对流可以引起跨越基底不整合面的广泛的流-流交互和流-岩交互,并且热盐对流可以从基底中提取足够的铀,从而为形成大规模的不整合面型铀矿提供铀源。
8.从水动力学角度来看,基底可以作为铀源区。对于不整合面型铀矿铀源的争议,已经持续了几十年。根据当前广泛认可的成岩热液模型,矿床形成需要氧化性的盆地流体与还原性的基底流体或矿物在不整合面附近进行交互。铀元素必须由氧化性的盆地流体从盆地充填物或者基底中的副矿物(accessory minerals)或者以前形成的铀矿物里萃取。如上所述,高透水的砂岩中自由对流发育,如果有足够的副矿物,例如锆石和独居石,那么在合适的物理化学条件下,从盆地中萃取大量的铀元素是有可能的。同时,这些古元古代砂岩中缺少有机质和Fe2+,所以流体的氧化性可以很好的维持。但是,好多研究者认为从锆石中提取铀矿物的条件并不满足,而独居石含量又不够,所以铀源应该在其它区域。另一方面,基底中的太古代的花岗岩,淡色花岗岩,伟晶岩等铀矿物含量很高,并且易于萃取。但是,以前的认识认为,由于基底极低透水性的影响,从基底中萃取大量铀元素是不可能的。而我们的模拟结果说明,从水动力学角度来看,盆地流体可以渗入到盆地基底中并且返回盆地,所以基底是有可能作为铀源区的。
Although the unconformity-related uranium deposits hosted by Paleoproterozoic sedimentary basins in Canada and Australia currently supply more than30percent of global uranium, their genetic models are still uncertain. A series of numerical experiments based on the finite element and finite difference modeling have been carried to investigate ore-forming fluid system related to uranium mineralization. We constructed conceptual models by integrating important hydrogeological features shared by the Athabasca, Thelon and Kombolgie basins. Based on these conceptual models, various numerical scenarios were designed to investigate the interaction among fluid flow, heat transport, topographic relief and tectonic deformation. Equations governing these processes were solved by FEFLOW and FLAC.
The modeling suggests that buoyancy-driven thermohaline convection develops in the thick sandstone sequence at any geothermal gradient of25-35℃/km during periods of tectonic quiescence. Thermohaline convection may penetrate into the basement for up to1-2km below the basal unconformity when typical hydrological parameters for these Proterozoic hydrogeological units are used. Fluid flow velocities in the sandstone sequence are several orders of magnitude larger than those in the basement. If a uranium source (a pore fluid with500mg/1U) is assumed to be located in the center of the basin below the unconformity, uranium is able to gradually spreads into the sandstone aquifer through thermohaline convection. If the uranium source is initially located at the centre of the aquifer, a uranium plume develops and percolates down to2km below the unconformity at5m.y.. The location of the uranium source also affects the solute transport efficiency. A uranium source located around the sloping basal unconformity, either in the basin fill or basement, close to the basin margin, leads to a wider uranium plume than if it is located near the center of the basin. Given appropriate hydrological conditions, thermohaline convection could have caused widespread interaction of basinal brines with basement rocks or basement-derived fluids in uranium-bearing Proterozoic basins, and that enough uranium could have been leached from the uranium-rich basement to form large, high-grade unconformity-related uranium deposits.
Reactivating of preexisting basement structures and the generating of new faults suppress free convection and led to deformation-dominated fluid flow or mixed convection, depending on strain rates. During compressive deformation, reduced brines in the basement may be forced out along fractured zones and encounter uranium-bearing fluids in the clastic sequence to form sandstone-hosted deposits. By contrast, basement-hosted deposits are likely to form during extension, when oxidized basinal brines flow into faulted structures to interact with reduced minerals or fluids in the basement. The rate of pressure accumulation and dissipation is different in various geological units depending on their hydrogeological properties and strain rates, and this different cause fluid migration across adjacent sequences. Thus, the combined effect of thermohaline convection and tectonic deformation leads to the development of unconformity-related uranium deposits at interactions of the basal unconformity with faults or sheared zones.
1.热液对流在砂岩层中广泛发育。在典型的水文地质条件下,模拟了地热梯度介于25到35度/千米之间的流体流动,发现热液对流在有效孔隙度相对较高的砂岩层中广泛出现。热液对流对温度场扰动明显,最高可达40度,在上升流附近,温度升高,而在下降流附近,温度降低。具体的流体形态和流体速度受水文地质属性,地热梯度,地层几何特征及砂岩层厚度等的影响。较高的地热梯度会加速流体运移,但是盆地规模的基本对流模式不变。在盆地最边缘砂岩层低于1千米的地方,没有热液对流发育。空隙介质厚度是雷诺数重要的控制参数,当厚度变小时,雷诺数会降低,当其降低超过临界值时,对流便不会产生。在同一个对流环内部,流体的流动速度由外向内逐渐降低。高透水砂岩和盖层及基底之间的转换带为流体快速运移区,从而有利于矿体发育,这种特点与大部分矿床发育于基底不整合面是一致的。此外,有些研究者认为砂岩层被相对低透水单元的分隔会限制自由对流的产生,而根据本论文研究,当高透水的砂岩层被较薄的低透水单元隔离时,虽然流体运移速度会降低,但是自由对流依然发育。
2.地形起伏对盆地流体系统的运移模式影响明显,但它不是不整合面型铀矿流体系统的主要驱动力。当潜水面坡度较小时,流体流动被自由热对流所控制,但是随着坡度的加大,流体流动逐渐会被地形起伏控制。在坡度低于0.001时,整个流体系统会显示出混合对流的特点,在盆地中部,透水性砂岩厚的地方依然被自由热对流所控制,而盆地边缘却以地形驱动流为主。当地形起伏变为主要的流体驱动机制时,流体的属性(温度,压强,组分)通常会在流体流动方向上展现渐变和不对称的特征。比如,补给带的温度会降低,而泄水区的温度会升高。如果地形起伏是第一驱动力,那么矿床通常只在盆地的一侧发育。美国科罗拉多高原的板状铀矿(Tabular uranium deposits)便是在这种成矿流体作用下形成的。但是,对于不整合面型铀矿而言,矿体在盆地边缘成辐射状分布,没有明显的非对称特征。因此,地形起伏应该不是不整合面型铀矿系统中主要的流体驱动机制。
3.在不考虑机械变形对流体压力影响的前提下,断层对流体运移的影响主要取决于不同断层之间的连通性和断层是否出露地表。当三条相互孤立的宽400米的盲断层被加入到盆地尺度的概念模型中时,盆地规模的流体流动没有明显的变化。但是,断层的加入会打破已有的压力平衡,从而提高流体运移速度,但是经过10万年左右的时间,这种扰动会逐渐消失。当这些断层贯穿盖层并且被高透水性的砂岩连通时,对流模式将发生明显变化,断层一般会成为不同对流环的边界,从而成为优先的上升和下降流通道。地表流体能够沿着断层进入盆地流体系统,盆地流体也能够沿着断层溢出至盆地浅部。
4.基底不整合面(带)为氧化还原界面和典型的高速流体运移区。基底不整合面(带)的厚度从几厘米到几百米不等。由于盆地规模模型网格精度的限制,比较薄的基底不整合面(带)无法模拟。当一个厚250米的基底不整合面(带)被加入概念模型时,对200米/年,400米/年和1000米/年的水平导水率分别进行了敏感度测试。当独立的高透水率的基底不整合面(带)被加入概念模型时,盆地规模的自由热对流仍然发育,但是新加入的不整合面(带)为流体流动速度最高和流体通量最大区域。
5.构造运动中发生的机械变形会导致流体压力场变化,进而引发混合对流；在应力变化强烈的区域,变形驱动流为主,而在应力变化比较弱的区域,自由热对流依旧是主要的流体运移模式,具体的流体形态取决于应变速率及其各水文地质单元的属性。在相同的应力场下,不同地层表现出不同的压力场的演化,进而引发存在于不同层组之间的压力梯度。当断层或者其它的构造连接这些这些不同的水文地质单元时,跨越不同单元的流体流动将产生。在伸展变形过程中,整个系统的流体压力会降低,但是基底中压力降低的速度要比其它水文地质单元要快,所以盆地中的氧化性流体会被“吮吸”到基底中,从而有助于形成在基底中发育的矿体。挤压变形中,基底中的压力上升速度比上覆地层要快,基底中的还原性流体将被挤压到上面的砂岩层中,这种流体运移模式有助于在砂岩层中发育矿体。这种构造背景和矿床发育位置之间的对应关系被大部分已经发现的矿体所支持。澳大利亚的Kombolgie盆地形成后,经历了一些列的伸展变形构造,而在此盆地中的大部分矿体是发育在基底中的。加拿大Althabasca盆地的情况相对复杂,66个相对研究程度比较高的矿床中,32个是在基底中发现的,其它的34个跨越基底或者在离基底不整合面附近的砂岩里面,这也许是这些盆地经历了相对更复杂的构造过程的结果。
6.当盐度变化和溶质迁移被耦合进系统后,盆地规模流体运移模式和热液自由对流相似,对流环广泛发育于高透水砂岩层中。但是,借助FEFLOW6里面新的数据可视化技术,发现了跨越基底不整合面的流体运移。砂岩和基底中典型的流体运移速度分别为3.5米/年和2.5×10-6米/年,虽然流体流动速度相差若干数量级,但是这种现象为从基底中析出铀提供了一种可能的机制。通过溶质运移模拟发现,伴随着热盐对流,铀元素能够从基底通过平流(advection),离子扩散(ion diffusion)和机械散布(mechanical dispersion)慢慢迁移到盆地。主要的迁移方式为伴随流体流动的平流。
7.当没有强烈的构造运动时,在典型的水文地质条件下,热盐对流可以穿透到基底不整合面1-2千米以下。假设在基底中部有一个铀源,铀元素能够在热盐对流的作用下逐步迁移到沉积盆地中去。反之,如果初始铀源区被放在高渗透性的砂岩中,经过500万年铀元素也可以慢慢迁移到基底不整合面以下2千米以内。铀源区的相对位置对铀传输的效率也有很大影响。在盆地边缘,基底不整合面坡度较大的地方,铀迁移的效率和速度要比铀源区在盆地中间的情况下高,因为不整合面坡度的增加会提高流体流动速度。基于这些结果,在含有不整合面型铀矿的这些古元古代的盆地里面,热盐对流可以引起跨越基底不整合面的广泛的流-流交互和流-岩交互,并且热盐对流可以从基底中提取足够的铀,从而为形成大规模的不整合面型铀矿提供铀源。
8.从水动力学角度来看,基底可以作为铀源区。对于不整合面型铀矿铀源的争议,已经持续了几十年。根据当前广泛认可的成岩热液模型,矿床形成需要氧化性的盆地流体与还原性的基底流体或矿物在不整合面附近进行交互。铀元素必须由氧化性的盆地流体从盆地充填物或者基底中的副矿物(accessory minerals)或者以前形成的铀矿物里萃取。如上所述,高透水的砂岩中自由对流发育,如果有足够的副矿物,例如锆石和独居石,那么在合适的物理化学条件下,从盆地中萃取大量的铀元素是有可能的。同时,这些古元古代砂岩中缺少有机质和Fe2+,所以流体的氧化性可以很好的维持。但是,好多研究者认为从锆石中提取铀矿物的条件并不满足,而独居石含量又不够,所以铀源应该在其它区域。另一方面,基底中的太古代的花岗岩,淡色花岗岩,伟晶岩等铀矿物含量很高,并且易于萃取。但是,以前的认识认为,由于基底极低透水性的影响,从基底中萃取大量铀元素是不可能的。而我们的模拟结果说明,从水动力学角度来看,盆地流体可以渗入到盆地基底中并且返回盆地,所以基底是有可能作为铀源区的。
Although the unconformity-related uranium deposits hosted by Paleoproterozoic sedimentary basins in Canada and Australia currently supply more than30percent of global uranium, their genetic models are still uncertain. A series of numerical experiments based on the finite element and finite difference modeling have been carried to investigate ore-forming fluid system related to uranium mineralization. We constructed conceptual models by integrating important hydrogeological features shared by the Athabasca, Thelon and Kombolgie basins. Based on these conceptual models, various numerical scenarios were designed to investigate the interaction among fluid flow, heat transport, topographic relief and tectonic deformation. Equations governing these processes were solved by FEFLOW and FLAC.
The modeling suggests that buoyancy-driven thermohaline convection develops in the thick sandstone sequence at any geothermal gradient of25-35℃/km during periods of tectonic quiescence. Thermohaline convection may penetrate into the basement for up to1-2km below the basal unconformity when typical hydrological parameters for these Proterozoic hydrogeological units are used. Fluid flow velocities in the sandstone sequence are several orders of magnitude larger than those in the basement. If a uranium source (a pore fluid with500mg/1U) is assumed to be located in the center of the basin below the unconformity, uranium is able to gradually spreads into the sandstone aquifer through thermohaline convection. If the uranium source is initially located at the centre of the aquifer, a uranium plume develops and percolates down to2km below the unconformity at5m.y.. The location of the uranium source also affects the solute transport efficiency. A uranium source located around the sloping basal unconformity, either in the basin fill or basement, close to the basin margin, leads to a wider uranium plume than if it is located near the center of the basin. Given appropriate hydrological conditions, thermohaline convection could have caused widespread interaction of basinal brines with basement rocks or basement-derived fluids in uranium-bearing Proterozoic basins, and that enough uranium could have been leached from the uranium-rich basement to form large, high-grade unconformity-related uranium deposits.
Reactivating of preexisting basement structures and the generating of new faults suppress free convection and led to deformation-dominated fluid flow or mixed convection, depending on strain rates. During compressive deformation, reduced brines in the basement may be forced out along fractured zones and encounter uranium-bearing fluids in the clastic sequence to form sandstone-hosted deposits. By contrast, basement-hosted deposits are likely to form during extension, when oxidized basinal brines flow into faulted structures to interact with reduced minerals or fluids in the basement. The rate of pressure accumulation and dissipation is different in various geological units depending on their hydrogeological properties and strain rates, and this different cause fluid migration across adjacent sequences. Thus, the combined effect of thermohaline convection and tectonic deformation leads to the development of unconformity-related uranium deposits at interactions of the basal unconformity with faults or sheared zones.
引文
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