美国青少年运动员培养模式研究
|
摘要
青少年运动员培养是竞技体育可持续发展的保障。美国之所以能够长期作为世界竞技体育头号强国,拥有庞大的青少年运动员后备人才梯队是主要原因。如何培养运动成绩卓越,文化学习成绩优良的青少年运动员一直是理论研究者与实践探索者关心的重要问题。因此,本文力求通过对美国青少年运动员培养分析,展现全面、清晰的美国青少年运动员培养脉络。
本研究以美国青少年运动员培养作为研究对象,采用文献资料、实地考察、专家访谈和问卷调查等方法对青少年运动员培养的相关法规与政策、组织机构、竞训特点,青少年游泳运动员管理机构、训练状况、竞赛状况、文化教育状况及竞训消费状况进行深入研究与调查,得出下列结论：
1美国有完整系统的青少年参与体育运动的法规,对青少年参与体育运动进行了系统规范。这些法规包括第九教育修正法案、美国残疾人法案及业余体育法。促进青少年运动员文化学习的教育法案及政策包括平等教育机会法案、不让一个孩子掉队法案及参训学业标准政策。
2美国青少年体育管理组织分为6大类：非营利性单项体育联盟、国家青少年组织、俱乐部性质体育组织、体育娱乐与休闲组织、校内和校际体育组织。
3青少年运动员学校训练特点分别为短周期、训练水平低,校外训练特点为长周期、训练水平高,共同特点为业余性。在美国青少年运动员培养上,校外青少年体育组织承担着更重要的角色。
4青少年游泳运动员训练时间特点：每周参与俱乐部训练时间为6小时以上。国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周训练时间可达12小时以上；高中生游泳运动员每周参与学校训练时间为5小时以上,国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周参与学校训练时间可达10小时以上；高中校际赛季内,大部分高中游泳运动员选择学校与俱乐部的“双重”训练,国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周训练时间可达20小时；总体表现为,运动水平越高,训练时间越长。
5美国青少年游泳运动员竞赛特点：运动水平越高,年参赛次数越多,大部分国家级赛事运动水平运动员年参赛次数在20次以上
6美国青少年运动员文化学习状况：90%以上青少年游泳运动员的文化成绩非常优秀；90%的家长认为参与游泳训练不影响文化学习成绩。
7美国青少年游泳运动员竞训消费状况：运动水平越高,竞训消费越高。大部分国家级赛事运动水平运动员竞训年消费在3500美元以上
Development of youth sport is very important for continuable development of sport. The number of youth athletes is basis of country that competition sport is very excellent. The main reason why US is the most excellent in the area of competition sport is that there are so many youth athletes in the US. What is important question that theorist and practitioner care is how to make youth athlete excellent on both sport and academic performance. The purpose of this article will shed light on the system of development of youth sport in the US.
Current research take development of youth sport in the United States as subject, by using of literature review, filed investigation, expert interview and questionnaire to explore youth sport policies, youth sport organization, features of training and competition, organization of youth swimming, training, competition, academic and consume of youth swimmer. Conclusion as follow:
1Policies that influence participation of youth sport include Title ix of the Educational Amendments of1972, American with disabilities act and Amateur Athletic Act of1978. Education policies that promote academic performance of youth athlete include Equal Educational Opportunities Act of1974, No Child Left Behind.
2Youth sport organization in the United States can be divided into six categories, namely, angecy-sponsored programs; national youth services organizations, club sports, recreation programs, intramural programs and interscholastic programs.
3Training features in high school is that short periodicity and low training level. Training features out of school is that long periodicity and high training level. The same feature between high school and out of school is amateur. Community sport organizations play important role in the process of youth sport development, school-program play secondaryrole in the process of youth sport development.
4Youth swimmers spend more than6hours on practicing per week with club team. Youth swimmers on national level spend more than12hours on practicing per week with club team. High school swimmers spend more than5hours on practicing per week with high school. High school swimmers spend more than10hours on practicing per week with high school. During high school season, most high school swimmers accept "double" training, high school swimmer on national level spend more than20hours on practicing per week. On the whole, the higher on skill level swimmers are1, the longer swimmers spend on practicing.
5Each year, USA Swimming provides many events on different level with youth swimmers. The higher on skill level swimmers are, the more swimmers participate in competition. Most youth swimmers on national level take more than20competitions each year.
660percent of youth swimmers'academic are excellent.90percent of parents think that participate in swimming don't affect academic performance.
7Swimming is a kind of noble sport. The higher on skill level swimmers are, the more money spends on swimming.
本研究以美国青少年运动员培养作为研究对象,采用文献资料、实地考察、专家访谈和问卷调查等方法对青少年运动员培养的相关法规与政策、组织机构、竞训特点,青少年游泳运动员管理机构、训练状况、竞赛状况、文化教育状况及竞训消费状况进行深入研究与调查,得出下列结论：
1美国有完整系统的青少年参与体育运动的法规,对青少年参与体育运动进行了系统规范。这些法规包括第九教育修正法案、美国残疾人法案及业余体育法。促进青少年运动员文化学习的教育法案及政策包括平等教育机会法案、不让一个孩子掉队法案及参训学业标准政策。
2美国青少年体育管理组织分为6大类：非营利性单项体育联盟、国家青少年组织、俱乐部性质体育组织、体育娱乐与休闲组织、校内和校际体育组织。
3青少年运动员学校训练特点分别为短周期、训练水平低,校外训练特点为长周期、训练水平高,共同特点为业余性。在美国青少年运动员培养上,校外青少年体育组织承担着更重要的角色。
4青少年游泳运动员训练时间特点：每周参与俱乐部训练时间为6小时以上。国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周训练时间可达12小时以上；高中生游泳运动员每周参与学校训练时间为5小时以上,国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周参与学校训练时间可达10小时以上；高中校际赛季内,大部分高中游泳运动员选择学校与俱乐部的“双重”训练,国家级赛事运动水平运动员每周训练时间可达20小时；总体表现为,运动水平越高,训练时间越长。
5美国青少年游泳运动员竞赛特点：运动水平越高,年参赛次数越多,大部分国家级赛事运动水平运动员年参赛次数在20次以上
6美国青少年运动员文化学习状况：90%以上青少年游泳运动员的文化成绩非常优秀；90%的家长认为参与游泳训练不影响文化学习成绩。
7美国青少年游泳运动员竞训消费状况：运动水平越高,竞训消费越高。大部分国家级赛事运动水平运动员竞训年消费在3500美元以上
Development of youth sport is very important for continuable development of sport. The number of youth athletes is basis of country that competition sport is very excellent. The main reason why US is the most excellent in the area of competition sport is that there are so many youth athletes in the US. What is important question that theorist and practitioner care is how to make youth athlete excellent on both sport and academic performance. The purpose of this article will shed light on the system of development of youth sport in the US.
Current research take development of youth sport in the United States as subject, by using of literature review, filed investigation, expert interview and questionnaire to explore youth sport policies, youth sport organization, features of training and competition, organization of youth swimming, training, competition, academic and consume of youth swimmer. Conclusion as follow:
1Policies that influence participation of youth sport include Title ix of the Educational Amendments of1972, American with disabilities act and Amateur Athletic Act of1978. Education policies that promote academic performance of youth athlete include Equal Educational Opportunities Act of1974, No Child Left Behind.
2Youth sport organization in the United States can be divided into six categories, namely, angecy-sponsored programs; national youth services organizations, club sports, recreation programs, intramural programs and interscholastic programs.
3Training features in high school is that short periodicity and low training level. Training features out of school is that long periodicity and high training level. The same feature between high school and out of school is amateur. Community sport organizations play important role in the process of youth sport development, school-program play secondaryrole in the process of youth sport development.
4Youth swimmers spend more than6hours on practicing per week with club team. Youth swimmers on national level spend more than12hours on practicing per week with club team. High school swimmers spend more than5hours on practicing per week with high school. High school swimmers spend more than10hours on practicing per week with high school. During high school season, most high school swimmers accept "double" training, high school swimmer on national level spend more than20hours on practicing per week. On the whole, the higher on skill level swimmers are1, the longer swimmers spend on practicing.
5Each year, USA Swimming provides many events on different level with youth swimmers. The higher on skill level swimmers are, the more swimmers participate in competition. Most youth swimmers on national level take more than20competitions each year.
660percent of youth swimmers'academic are excellent.90percent of parents think that participate in swimming don't affect academic performance.
7Swimming is a kind of noble sport. The higher on skill level swimmers are, the more money spends on swimming.
引文
1刘鹏.改革开放30年的中国体育[M].北京：人民体育出版社,2008,89.
http://www.sport.gov.cn/n16/n 1152/n2523/n377568/n377613/n377733/n 1101312.files/n 1101311.doc
3体育事业统计年鉴1990-2010
4兰馨.美国高校竞技体育发展模式及运行机制的研究[J].体育文化导刊,2006(7)：70-72.
5池建.美国大学竞技体育管理体系的研究[D].北京体育大学,2003,2.
6 2010-2011 High School Athletics Participation Survey Results http://www.nfhs.org
7 http://www.aausports.org/
8 http://www.aausports.org/
9 http://www.usyouthsoccer.org
10 http://www.littleleague.org
11王娟.河南省青少年田径业余训练现状及发展对策[D].河南大学,2008.
12赵传生.江苏省业余体校竞技体操后备人才培养的现状及对策研究[D].扬州大学,2008.
13张爱平.广东省体育后备人才培养现状及对策研究[J].北京体育大学学报,2006,29(11)：1477-1479.
14张辉.湖北省青少年业余体育训练现状与发展对策研究[D].华中师范大学,2004.
15刘青等.新时期四川省业余训练走向研究[J].体育科学,2010,30(7)：3-15.
16陈海军.安徽省县级青少年训练现状及对策研究[C].国家体育总局体育社会科学研究课题,2009.
17潘前.我国优秀运动员培养体制存在的主要问题及改革目标、原则、措施[J].上海体育学院学报,2006,30(6)：36-40.
18谭晓缨,杨再淮,杨烨.构建我国教育系统培养竞技体育后备人才体系的理论研究[J].上海体育学院学报,2007,31(2)：20-23.
19郭文庭,张西平,朱恺.主体教育理念下竞技体育后备人才培养[J].山东体育学院学报,2010,26(7)：23-26.
26邓民威.广东省“体教结合”运行现状及对策[J].安阳师范学院学报,2011,(2)：103-106.
27孙正,工建.安徽省“体教结合”培养竞技体育后备人才现状调查与对策研究[J].河北体育学院学报,2011.25(4)：69-73.
22吴建喜,邓世忠,连正茂等.湖北省体教结合发展现状与对策研究[J].体育文化导刊,2011,(6)：92-95.
23潘前.中美体育后备人才培养体制初探[J].西安体育学院学报,2003,20(7)：2325.
24吴有凯,潘前,曾秀瑞.中美两国青少年田径运动员培养体制比较[J].上海体育学院学报,2010,34(2)：81-84.
25董聪敏.中美竞技体育后备人才培养机制的对比研究[J].军事体育进修学院学报,2008,27(2)：19-21.
26胡乔.中美青少年体育后备人才培养机制的比较分析[J].通化师范学院学报2008,29(2)：57-59.
27张红忪,张锡庆.中美竞技体育后备人才培养的比较[J].广州体育学院学报,2003,23(6)：36-38.
28潘前.美国奥运优势项目青少年竞赛体制主要特点研究[J].福建体育科技,2009,28(5)：40-42.
29潘前.美国中学生田径运动发展的特点及其对我国的启示[J].体育学刊,2009,16(4)：85-89.
30潘前.美国少年儿童田径竞赛训练体制及特点分析[J].山东体育学院学报,2009,25(6)：50-53.
31潘前.美国中学生体育运动发展现状探析[J].上海体育学院学报,2009,33(3)：75-78.
32潘前.美国中学校际体育竞赛体制初探——以宾夕法尼亚州为例[J].成都体育学院学报,2009,35(6)：4549.
33潘前.美国青少年篮球竞赛体制主要特点初探——以德克萨斯州高中篮球联赛为例[J].体育科学研究,2010,14(1)：84-88.
34侯海波,李桂华等.国外竞技体育强国后备人才培养体制及启示[J].上海体育学院学报,2005,8(4)：1-5.
35金玉.北美青少年体育运动的发展及其启示[J].体育与科学,1998,19(1)：21-23.
36门丽,Hui. M. Clark,吴加利.美国青少年体育发展现状给我国学校体育带来的启示[J].沈阳体育学院学报,2006,25(3)：41-42.
37王雁.美国优秀竞技体操运动员多年训练过程研究[D].北京体育大学,2010.
38莫晓春.关于“青少年”年龄界定问题的思考[J].广西青年十部学院学报,2009,19(2)：38-40.
39中国体育科学学会编.体育科学词典[M].高等教育出版社,2000：425.
43 Seefeldt, V., Ewing, M., & Walk, S. (1992). Overview of youth sports programs in the United States. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
44 Malina, R.M., & Cumming, S.P. (2003). Current status and issues in youth sports. In R.M. Malina & M.A. Clark (Eds.), Youth sports: Perspectives for a new century. (pp.7-25). Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.
43 Jan,B., Doug,G, Thomas,H.M. What Sport Means in America: A Survey of Sport's Role in Society[C]. U.S Anti-Doping Agency.
46 Stegman, M., Stephens, L.J. Athletics and academics: Are They Compatible?[J].High School Magazine, 2000,7(6):36-39.
47 Nathan, B.W. The effects of Athletics Participation on Academic Achievement[D]. Marietta College,2005.
48 Lee, s.s. The effects of participation in Athletics on Academic performance among High School Sophomores and Juniors[D]. Liberty University,2008.
49 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States
50 Matthew.N.,Russell.H., Barrie.H. Participate in sport—international policy perspective[M].Routledge: New York,2011:256-257.
51 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX
60 Bowers.M.T., Chalip,L. & Green,B.C. Beyond the facade: youth sport development in the United States and illusion of synergy. In B. Houlihan & M. Green(eds)., Routledge handbook of sports development[M].Oxford: Routledge,2010:173.
61 Sparvero,E., Chalip,L., & Green, B.,C. United States. In H. Barrie & GMick(eds) Comparative Elite Sport Development: systems, structures and public policy[M]. Oxford: Elsevier,2008:251.
62 Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development:An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,110.
Seefeldt, V., Ewing,M Youth sports in Amercia:an overview[J].PCPFS Research Digest,1996,2(11).
77 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 5, Membership,2010,30.
78 http://aausports.org/MembershipMenu/MembershipFees.aspx
79 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics.2010.36.
80 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,35.
83 NFHS Handbook.Indianapolis,IN:National Federation of State High School Associations,2008,16.
84 http://www.nths.org/stateassociations.aspx
85 Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,129-130.
86 Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics: Champaign,2011,173-174.
88 Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics: Champaign,2011,171.
93 Judy,J. Curtis Ogren Peak Swimming[J].Swimming World,2011,5:36.
94 Judy,J. Becca Mann, Academy Bullets/Clearwater Aquatic Team[J].Swimming World,2011,4:35.
[1]刘鹏.改革开放30年的中国体育[M].北京：人民体育出版社,2008,89.
[2]http://www.sport.gov.cn/n16/n1152/n2523/n377568/n377613/n377733/n1101312.files/n11013 11.doc
[3]体育事业统计年鉴1990-2010.
[4]兰馨.美国高校竞技体育发展模式及运行机制的研究[J].体育文化导刊,2006(7)：70--72.
[5]池建.美国大学竞技体育管理体系的研究[D].北京体育大学,2003,2.
[6]2010-2011 High School Athletics Participation Survey Results http://www.nfhs.org
[7]http://www.aausports.org/
[8]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org
[9]http://www.littleleague.org
[10]http://www.popwarner.com
[11]王娟.河南省青少年田径业余训练现状及发展对策[D].河南大学,2008.
[12]赵传生.江苏省业余体校竞技体操后备人才培养的现状及对策研究[D].扬州大学,2008.
[13]张爱平.广东省体育后备人才培养现状及对策研究[J].北京体育大学学报,2006,29(11)：1477-1479.
[14]张辉.湖北省青少年业余体育训练现状与发展对策研究[D].华中师范大学,2004.
[15]刘青等.新时期四川省业余训练走向研究[J].体育科学,2010,30(7)：3-15.
[16]陈海军.安徽省县级青少年训练现状及对策研究[C].国家体育总局体育社会科学研究课题,2009.
[17]潘前.我国优秀运动员培养体制存在的主要问题及改革目标、原则、措施[J].上海体育学院学报,2006,30(6)：36-40.
[18]谭晓缨,杨再淮,杨烨.构建我国教育系统培养竞技体育后备人才体系的理论研究[J].上海体育学院学报2007,31(2)：20-23.
[19]郭文庭,张西平,朱恺.主体教育理念下竞技体育后备人才培养[J].山东体育学院学报,2010,26(7)：23-26.
[20]邓民威.广东省“体教结合”运行现状及对策[J].安阳师范学院学报,2011,(2)：103-106.
[21]孙正,王建.安徽省“体教结合”培养竞技体育后备人才现状调查与对策研究[J].河北体育学院学报,2011,25(4)：69-73.
[22]吴建喜,邓世忠,连正茂等.湖北省体教结合发展现状与对策研究[J].体育文化导刊,2011,(6)：92-95.
[23]潘前.中美体育后备人才培养体制初探[J].西安体育学院学报,2003,20(7)：23-25.
[24]吴有凯,潘前,曾秀瑞.中美两国青少年田径运动员培养体制比较[J].上海体育学院学报,2010,34(2)：81-84.
[25]董聪敏.中美竞技体育后备人才培养机制的对比研究[J].军事体育进修学院学报,2008,27(2)：19-21.
[26]胡乔.中美青少年体育后备人才培养机制的比较分析[J].通化师范学院学报2008,29(2)：57-59.
[27]张红松,张锡庆.中美竞技体育后备人才培养的比较[J].广州体育学院学报,2003,23(6)：36-38.
[28]潘前.美国奥运优势项目青少年竞赛体制主要特点研究[J].福建体育科技,2009,28(5)： 40-42.
[29]潘前.美国中学生田径运动发展的特点及其对我国的启示[J].体育学刊,2009,16(4)：85-89.
[30]潘前.美国少年儿童田径竞赛训练体制及特点分析[J].山东体育学院学报,2009,25(6)：50-53.
[31]潘前.美国中学生体育运动发展现状探析[J].上海体育学院学报,2009,33(3)：75-78.
[32]潘前.美国中学校际体育竞赛体制初探——以宾夕法尼亚州为例[J].成都体育学院学报,2009,35(6)：45-49.
[33]潘前.美国青少年篮球竞赛体制主要特点初探——以德克萨斯州高中篮球联赛为例[J].体育科学研究,2010,14(1)：84-88.
[34]侯海波,李桂华等.国外竞技体育强国后备人才培养体制及启示[J].上海体育学院学报,2005,8(4)：1-5.
[35]金玉.北美青少年体育运动的发展及其启示[J].体育与科学,1998,19(1)：21-23.
[36]门丽,Hui. M. Clark,吴加利.美国青少年体育发展现状给我国学校体育带来的启示[J].沈阳体育学院学报,2006,25(3)：41-42.
[37]王雁.美国优秀竞技体操运动员多年训练过程研究[D].北京体育大学,2010.
[38]莫晓春.关于“青少年”年龄界定问题的思考[]J].广西青年干部学院学报,2009,19(2)：38-40.
[39]中国体育科学学会编.体育科学词典[M].高等教育出版社,2000,425.
[40]data.http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032007/hhinc/new06_000.htm
[41]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_professional_sports_leagues_in_the_United_States_and_Canada#Traits_of_these_major_leagues
[42]http://sports.yahoo.com/nba/news?slug=ycn-10423863
[43]Seefeldt, V., Ewing, M., & Walk, S. (1992). Overview of youth sports programs in the United States. Washington, DC:Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
[44]Malina, R.M., & Cumming, S.P. (2003). Current status and issues in youth sports. In R.M. Malina & M.A. Clark (Eds.), Youth sports: Perspectives for a new century. (pp.7-25). Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.
[45]Jan,B., Doug,G, Thomas,H.M. What Sport Means in America: A Survey of Sport's Role in Society[C]. U.S Anti-Doping Agency.
[46]Stegman, M., Stephens, L.J. Athletics and academics:Are They Compatible?[J].High School Magazine,2000,7(6):36-39.
[47]Nathan, B.W. The effects of Athletics Participation on Academic Achievement[D].Marietta College,2005.
[48]Lee, s.s. The effects of participation in Athletics on Academic performance among High School Sophomores and Juniors[D]. Liberty University,2008.
[49]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States
[50]Matthew.N.,Russell.H., Barrie.H. Participate in sport—international policy perspective[M].Routledge: New York,2011:256-257.
[51]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX
[52]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990
[53]Chapter2205-United States Olympic committee http://www.soccerpark.com/TedStevens.pdf
[54]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_Educational_Opportunities_Act_of_1974
[55]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act
[56]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act
[57]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Pass_No_Play
[58]http.//www.ihsaa.org
[59]http://mb2.ecs.org/reports/Report.aspx?id=1541
[60]Bowers,M.T., Chalip,L. & Green,B.C. Beyond the facade: youth sport development in the United States and illusion of synergy. In B. Houlihan & M. Green(eds)., Routledge handbook of sports development[M].Oxford: Routledge,2010:173.
[61]Sparvero,E., Chalip,L., & Green, B.,C. United States. In H. Barrie & GMick(eds) Comparative Elite Sport Development: systems, structures and public policy[M]. Oxford: Elsevier,2008:251.
[62]Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore:Champaign,2008,110.
[63]Seefeldt, V.and Ewing,M Youth sports in Amercia:an overview[J].PCPFS Research Digest,1996,2(11).
[64]http://www.littleleague.org/learn/about/historyandmission/mission.htm
[65]http://www.littleleague.org/learn/about/structure.htm
[66]http://www.popwarner.com/aboutus/pop.asp
[67]http://www.popwarner.com/scholastics/pop.asp
[68]http://www.popwarner.com/scholastics/allamericanprogram.asp
[69]http://www.popwarner.com/aboutus/benefits.asp
[70]http://www.popwarner.com/superbowl/footballchampionships.asp
[71]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Youth_Soccer_Association
[72]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/aboutus/StateAssociationDirectory.asp
[73]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/aboutus/WhatIsYouthSoccer.asp
[74]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/programs/index.asp
[75]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA
[76]http://www.ymca.net/swim-sports-play
[77]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 5, Membership,2010,30.
[78]http://aausports.org/MembershipMenu/MembershipFees.aspx
[79]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,36.
[80]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,35.
[81]http://www.nrpa.org/whoweare.aspx
[82]Georgia High School Association,2010,www.ghsa.net/general
[83]NFHS Handbook.Indianapolis,IN:National Federation of State High School Associations,2008,16.
[84]http://www.nfhs.org/stateassociations.aspx
[85]Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,129-130.
[86]Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics:Champaign,2011,173-174.
[87]http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=4208
[88]Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics:Champaign,2011,171.
[89]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1412&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en-US
[90]http://www.ymcaswimminganddiving.org
[91]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1615&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[92]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1412&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en-US
[93]Judy,J. Curtis Ogren Peak Swimming[J].Swimming World,2011,5:36.
[94]Judy,J. Becca Mann, Academy Bullets/Clearwater Aquatic Team[J]. Swimming World,2011,4:35.
[95]http://www.usas wimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1584&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[96]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1583&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[97]http://www.usaswimming.org/ViewMiscArticle.aspx?TabId=1648&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=e n&mid=3809&ItemId=2963
[98]http://www.teamunify.com/Iscnes/_eventform_/168609_14_&_Under_info_2011%20meet%20announce ment.pdf
[99]http://www.teamunify.com/SubTabGeneric.jsp?team=lscnes&_stabid_=36737
[100]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(education)#United States
[101]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/_eventform_/168609_14_&_Under_info_2011%20me et%20announcement.pdf
[102]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/_eventfonn_/92366 Zones2010SwimmerApplication %20revised.pdf
[103]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/UserFiles/Image/Fonns/Govemance/Athlete%20Reimbur sement%20policy%20and%20request%20form%202010-11.pdf
http://www.sport.gov.cn/n16/n 1152/n2523/n377568/n377613/n377733/n 1101312.files/n 1101311.doc
3体育事业统计年鉴1990-2010
4兰馨.美国高校竞技体育发展模式及运行机制的研究[J].体育文化导刊,2006(7)：70-72.
5池建.美国大学竞技体育管理体系的研究[D].北京体育大学,2003,2.
6 2010-2011 High School Athletics Participation Survey Results http://www.nfhs.org
7 http://www.aausports.org/
8 http://www.aausports.org/
9 http://www.usyouthsoccer.org
10 http://www.littleleague.org
11王娟.河南省青少年田径业余训练现状及发展对策[D].河南大学,2008.
12赵传生.江苏省业余体校竞技体操后备人才培养的现状及对策研究[D].扬州大学,2008.
13张爱平.广东省体育后备人才培养现状及对策研究[J].北京体育大学学报,2006,29(11)：1477-1479.
14张辉.湖北省青少年业余体育训练现状与发展对策研究[D].华中师范大学,2004.
15刘青等.新时期四川省业余训练走向研究[J].体育科学,2010,30(7)：3-15.
16陈海军.安徽省县级青少年训练现状及对策研究[C].国家体育总局体育社会科学研究课题,2009.
17潘前.我国优秀运动员培养体制存在的主要问题及改革目标、原则、措施[J].上海体育学院学报,2006,30(6)：36-40.
18谭晓缨,杨再淮,杨烨.构建我国教育系统培养竞技体育后备人才体系的理论研究[J].上海体育学院学报,2007,31(2)：20-23.
19郭文庭,张西平,朱恺.主体教育理念下竞技体育后备人才培养[J].山东体育学院学报,2010,26(7)：23-26.
26邓民威.广东省“体教结合”运行现状及对策[J].安阳师范学院学报,2011,(2)：103-106.
27孙正,工建.安徽省“体教结合”培养竞技体育后备人才现状调查与对策研究[J].河北体育学院学报,2011.25(4)：69-73.
22吴建喜,邓世忠,连正茂等.湖北省体教结合发展现状与对策研究[J].体育文化导刊,2011,(6)：92-95.
23潘前.中美体育后备人才培养体制初探[J].西安体育学院学报,2003,20(7)：2325.
24吴有凯,潘前,曾秀瑞.中美两国青少年田径运动员培养体制比较[J].上海体育学院学报,2010,34(2)：81-84.
25董聪敏.中美竞技体育后备人才培养机制的对比研究[J].军事体育进修学院学报,2008,27(2)：19-21.
26胡乔.中美青少年体育后备人才培养机制的比较分析[J].通化师范学院学报2008,29(2)：57-59.
27张红忪,张锡庆.中美竞技体育后备人才培养的比较[J].广州体育学院学报,2003,23(6)：36-38.
28潘前.美国奥运优势项目青少年竞赛体制主要特点研究[J].福建体育科技,2009,28(5)：40-42.
29潘前.美国中学生田径运动发展的特点及其对我国的启示[J].体育学刊,2009,16(4)：85-89.
30潘前.美国少年儿童田径竞赛训练体制及特点分析[J].山东体育学院学报,2009,25(6)：50-53.
31潘前.美国中学生体育运动发展现状探析[J].上海体育学院学报,2009,33(3)：75-78.
32潘前.美国中学校际体育竞赛体制初探——以宾夕法尼亚州为例[J].成都体育学院学报,2009,35(6)：4549.
33潘前.美国青少年篮球竞赛体制主要特点初探——以德克萨斯州高中篮球联赛为例[J].体育科学研究,2010,14(1)：84-88.
34侯海波,李桂华等.国外竞技体育强国后备人才培养体制及启示[J].上海体育学院学报,2005,8(4)：1-5.
35金玉.北美青少年体育运动的发展及其启示[J].体育与科学,1998,19(1)：21-23.
36门丽,Hui. M. Clark,吴加利.美国青少年体育发展现状给我国学校体育带来的启示[J].沈阳体育学院学报,2006,25(3)：41-42.
37王雁.美国优秀竞技体操运动员多年训练过程研究[D].北京体育大学,2010.
38莫晓春.关于“青少年”年龄界定问题的思考[J].广西青年十部学院学报,2009,19(2)：38-40.
39中国体育科学学会编.体育科学词典[M].高等教育出版社,2000：425.
43 Seefeldt, V., Ewing, M., & Walk, S. (1992). Overview of youth sports programs in the United States. Washington, DC: Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
44 Malina, R.M., & Cumming, S.P. (2003). Current status and issues in youth sports. In R.M. Malina & M.A. Clark (Eds.), Youth sports: Perspectives for a new century. (pp.7-25). Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.
43 Jan,B., Doug,G, Thomas,H.M. What Sport Means in America: A Survey of Sport's Role in Society[C]. U.S Anti-Doping Agency.
46 Stegman, M., Stephens, L.J. Athletics and academics: Are They Compatible?[J].High School Magazine, 2000,7(6):36-39.
47 Nathan, B.W. The effects of Athletics Participation on Academic Achievement[D]. Marietta College,2005.
48 Lee, s.s. The effects of participation in Athletics on Academic performance among High School Sophomores and Juniors[D]. Liberty University,2008.
49 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States
50 Matthew.N.,Russell.H., Barrie.H. Participate in sport—international policy perspective[M].Routledge: New York,2011:256-257.
51 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX
60 Bowers.M.T., Chalip,L. & Green,B.C. Beyond the facade: youth sport development in the United States and illusion of synergy. In B. Houlihan & M. Green(eds)., Routledge handbook of sports development[M].Oxford: Routledge,2010:173.
61 Sparvero,E., Chalip,L., & Green, B.,C. United States. In H. Barrie & GMick(eds) Comparative Elite Sport Development: systems, structures and public policy[M]. Oxford: Elsevier,2008:251.
62 Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development:An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,110.
Seefeldt, V., Ewing,M Youth sports in Amercia:an overview[J].PCPFS Research Digest,1996,2(11).
77 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 5, Membership,2010,30.
78 http://aausports.org/MembershipMenu/MembershipFees.aspx
79 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics.2010.36.
80 2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,35.
83 NFHS Handbook.Indianapolis,IN:National Federation of State High School Associations,2008,16.
84 http://www.nths.org/stateassociations.aspx
85 Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,129-130.
86 Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics: Champaign,2011,173-174.
88 Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics: Champaign,2011,171.
93 Judy,J. Curtis Ogren Peak Swimming[J].Swimming World,2011,5:36.
94 Judy,J. Becca Mann, Academy Bullets/Clearwater Aquatic Team[J].Swimming World,2011,4:35.
[1]刘鹏.改革开放30年的中国体育[M].北京：人民体育出版社,2008,89.
[2]http://www.sport.gov.cn/n16/n1152/n2523/n377568/n377613/n377733/n1101312.files/n11013 11.doc
[3]体育事业统计年鉴1990-2010.
[4]兰馨.美国高校竞技体育发展模式及运行机制的研究[J].体育文化导刊,2006(7)：70--72.
[5]池建.美国大学竞技体育管理体系的研究[D].北京体育大学,2003,2.
[6]2010-2011 High School Athletics Participation Survey Results http://www.nfhs.org
[7]http://www.aausports.org/
[8]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org
[9]http://www.littleleague.org
[10]http://www.popwarner.com
[11]王娟.河南省青少年田径业余训练现状及发展对策[D].河南大学,2008.
[12]赵传生.江苏省业余体校竞技体操后备人才培养的现状及对策研究[D].扬州大学,2008.
[13]张爱平.广东省体育后备人才培养现状及对策研究[J].北京体育大学学报,2006,29(11)：1477-1479.
[14]张辉.湖北省青少年业余体育训练现状与发展对策研究[D].华中师范大学,2004.
[15]刘青等.新时期四川省业余训练走向研究[J].体育科学,2010,30(7)：3-15.
[16]陈海军.安徽省县级青少年训练现状及对策研究[C].国家体育总局体育社会科学研究课题,2009.
[17]潘前.我国优秀运动员培养体制存在的主要问题及改革目标、原则、措施[J].上海体育学院学报,2006,30(6)：36-40.
[18]谭晓缨,杨再淮,杨烨.构建我国教育系统培养竞技体育后备人才体系的理论研究[J].上海体育学院学报2007,31(2)：20-23.
[19]郭文庭,张西平,朱恺.主体教育理念下竞技体育后备人才培养[J].山东体育学院学报,2010,26(7)：23-26.
[20]邓民威.广东省“体教结合”运行现状及对策[J].安阳师范学院学报,2011,(2)：103-106.
[21]孙正,王建.安徽省“体教结合”培养竞技体育后备人才现状调查与对策研究[J].河北体育学院学报,2011,25(4)：69-73.
[22]吴建喜,邓世忠,连正茂等.湖北省体教结合发展现状与对策研究[J].体育文化导刊,2011,(6)：92-95.
[23]潘前.中美体育后备人才培养体制初探[J].西安体育学院学报,2003,20(7)：23-25.
[24]吴有凯,潘前,曾秀瑞.中美两国青少年田径运动员培养体制比较[J].上海体育学院学报,2010,34(2)：81-84.
[25]董聪敏.中美竞技体育后备人才培养机制的对比研究[J].军事体育进修学院学报,2008,27(2)：19-21.
[26]胡乔.中美青少年体育后备人才培养机制的比较分析[J].通化师范学院学报2008,29(2)：57-59.
[27]张红松,张锡庆.中美竞技体育后备人才培养的比较[J].广州体育学院学报,2003,23(6)：36-38.
[28]潘前.美国奥运优势项目青少年竞赛体制主要特点研究[J].福建体育科技,2009,28(5)： 40-42.
[29]潘前.美国中学生田径运动发展的特点及其对我国的启示[J].体育学刊,2009,16(4)：85-89.
[30]潘前.美国少年儿童田径竞赛训练体制及特点分析[J].山东体育学院学报,2009,25(6)：50-53.
[31]潘前.美国中学生体育运动发展现状探析[J].上海体育学院学报,2009,33(3)：75-78.
[32]潘前.美国中学校际体育竞赛体制初探——以宾夕法尼亚州为例[J].成都体育学院学报,2009,35(6)：45-49.
[33]潘前.美国青少年篮球竞赛体制主要特点初探——以德克萨斯州高中篮球联赛为例[J].体育科学研究,2010,14(1)：84-88.
[34]侯海波,李桂华等.国外竞技体育强国后备人才培养体制及启示[J].上海体育学院学报,2005,8(4)：1-5.
[35]金玉.北美青少年体育运动的发展及其启示[J].体育与科学,1998,19(1)：21-23.
[36]门丽,Hui. M. Clark,吴加利.美国青少年体育发展现状给我国学校体育带来的启示[J].沈阳体育学院学报,2006,25(3)：41-42.
[37]王雁.美国优秀竞技体操运动员多年训练过程研究[D].北京体育大学,2010.
[38]莫晓春.关于“青少年”年龄界定问题的思考[]J].广西青年干部学院学报,2009,19(2)：38-40.
[39]中国体育科学学会编.体育科学词典[M].高等教育出版社,2000,425.
[40]data.http://pubdb3.census.gov/macro/032007/hhinc/new06_000.htm
[41]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Major_professional_sports_leagues_in_the_United_States_and_Canada#Traits_of_these_major_leagues
[42]http://sports.yahoo.com/nba/news?slug=ycn-10423863
[43]Seefeldt, V., Ewing, M., & Walk, S. (1992). Overview of youth sports programs in the United States. Washington, DC:Carnegie Council on Adolescent Development.
[44]Malina, R.M., & Cumming, S.P. (2003). Current status and issues in youth sports. In R.M. Malina & M.A. Clark (Eds.), Youth sports: Perspectives for a new century. (pp.7-25). Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.
[45]Jan,B., Doug,G, Thomas,H.M. What Sport Means in America: A Survey of Sport's Role in Society[C]. U.S Anti-Doping Agency.
[46]Stegman, M., Stephens, L.J. Athletics and academics:Are They Compatible?[J].High School Magazine,2000,7(6):36-39.
[47]Nathan, B.W. The effects of Athletics Participation on Academic Achievement[D].Marietta College,2005.
[48]Lee, s.s. The effects of participation in Athletics on Academic performance among High School Sophomores and Juniors[D]. Liberty University,2008.
[49]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/College_admissions_in_the_United_States
[50]Matthew.N.,Russell.H., Barrie.H. Participate in sport—international policy perspective[M].Routledge: New York,2011:256-257.
[51]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_IX
[52]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americans_with_Disabilities_Act_of_1990
[53]Chapter2205-United States Olympic committee http://www.soccerpark.com/TedStevens.pdf
[54]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equal_Educational_Opportunities_Act_of_1974
[55]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Child_Left_Behind_Act
[56]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_and_Secondary_Education_Act
[57]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Pass_No_Play
[58]http.//www.ihsaa.org
[59]http://mb2.ecs.org/reports/Report.aspx?id=1541
[60]Bowers,M.T., Chalip,L. & Green,B.C. Beyond the facade: youth sport development in the United States and illusion of synergy. In B. Houlihan & M. Green(eds)., Routledge handbook of sports development[M].Oxford: Routledge,2010:173.
[61]Sparvero,E., Chalip,L., & Green, B.,C. United States. In H. Barrie & GMick(eds) Comparative Elite Sport Development: systems, structures and public policy[M]. Oxford: Elsevier,2008:251.
[62]Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore:Champaign,2008,110.
[63]Seefeldt, V.and Ewing,M Youth sports in Amercia:an overview[J].PCPFS Research Digest,1996,2(11).
[64]http://www.littleleague.org/learn/about/historyandmission/mission.htm
[65]http://www.littleleague.org/learn/about/structure.htm
[66]http://www.popwarner.com/aboutus/pop.asp
[67]http://www.popwarner.com/scholastics/pop.asp
[68]http://www.popwarner.com/scholastics/allamericanprogram.asp
[69]http://www.popwarner.com/aboutus/benefits.asp
[70]http://www.popwarner.com/superbowl/footballchampionships.asp
[71]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Youth_Soccer_Association
[72]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/aboutus/StateAssociationDirectory.asp
[73]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/aboutus/WhatIsYouthSoccer.asp
[74]http://www.usyouthsoccer.org/programs/index.asp
[75]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YMCA
[76]http://www.ymca.net/swim-sports-play
[77]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 5, Membership,2010,30.
[78]http://aausports.org/MembershipMenu/MembershipFees.aspx
[79]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,36.
[80]2010 AAU Membership Growth by Sport. [R]. A Guide to AAU leadership from local to national, Section 7, Event Statistics,2010,35.
[81]http://www.nrpa.org/whoweare.aspx
[82]Georgia High School Association,2010,www.ghsa.net/general
[83]NFHS Handbook.Indianapolis,IN:National Federation of State High School Associations,2008,16.
[84]http://www.nfhs.org/stateassociations.aspx
[85]Thomas, H. S., Kimberly, J.B., Lawrence, W.J. Sport Governance and Policy Development: An Ethical Approach to Managing Sport in the 21st[M]. Sagamore: Champaign,2008,129-130.
[86]Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics:Champaign,2011,173-174.
[87]http://www.nfhs.org/content.aspx?id=4208
[88]Paul, M.P., Janet, B.P., Jerome, Q., Lucie, T. Contemporary Sport Management[M]. Human Kinetics:Champaign,2011,171.
[89]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1412&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en-US
[90]http://www.ymcaswimminganddiving.org
[91]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1615&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[92]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1412&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en-US
[93]Judy,J. Curtis Ogren Peak Swimming[J].Swimming World,2011,5:36.
[94]Judy,J. Becca Mann, Academy Bullets/Clearwater Aquatic Team[J]. Swimming World,2011,4:35.
[95]http://www.usas wimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1584&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[96]http://www.usaswimming.org/DesktopDefault.aspx?TabId=1583&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=en
[97]http://www.usaswimming.org/ViewMiscArticle.aspx?TabId=1648&Alias=Rainbow&Lang=e n&mid=3809&ItemId=2963
[98]http://www.teamunify.com/Iscnes/_eventform_/168609_14_&_Under_info_2011%20meet%20announce ment.pdf
[99]http://www.teamunify.com/SubTabGeneric.jsp?team=lscnes&_stabid_=36737
[100]http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grade_(education)#United States
[101]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/_eventform_/168609_14_&_Under_info_2011%20me et%20announcement.pdf
[102]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/_eventfonn_/92366 Zones2010SwimmerApplication %20revised.pdf
[103]http://www.teamunify.com/lscnes/UserFiles/Image/Fonns/Govemance/Athlete%20Reimbur sement%20policy%20and%20request%20form%202010-11.pdf