图式理论与听力教学
|
摘要
听力理解一直被认为是一种被动的过程。事实上，听力是一种积极主动的过程，它本身就是一种技巧。在听的过程中，听者想获得的是对说者所说内容的理解。要达到这种理解，听者要利用语境线索，背景知识和依靠许多学习策略。积极的听者会利用背景知识，带着目的去理解说话者的意思。
听力是非常重要的。在日常生活中它是被用的最为频繁的一种语言技巧。在外语学习中它也非常重要，是四种必须掌握的语言技巧之一。现在，听力教学已逐渐被重视。中国大学英语教学大纲对听力有着明确的要求。
目前，中国大学英语听力课并不让人满意，还存在着一些问题。王宗炎先生曾说：“教听力课时老师只管放录音，对学生不给半点提示点拨，也并非罕有现象，”在听力过程中，学生是被动的接受者，没有任何背景知识的提示。听完一两遍后，老师就对对答案，然后再让学生一句句的重复听。这样的听力教学并没有培养学生的听力技能，更像是在考学生的听力。
针对以上问题，这篇论文就图式理论指导听力教学为研究课题。图式理论的首倡者Bartlett(1932)和后来的Rumelhart(1980)都认为听者的背景知识对他理解新的文章起着关键作用，也就是说听者只有在利用以前所获得的知识时才会理解新的课文。听者以前所获得的知识就是听者的背景知识，背景知识包括听者以前所学的各种知识，如语言知识、社会知识、文化背景、生活常识等等。这些背景知识的结构就被叫做图式。图式知识一般分为两类：形式图式和内容图式。根据图式理论，在理解课文时有一种互动模式，即自上而下和自下而上两种相结合的互动模式。根据这种模式，在听力过程中不能只重视语言因素而忽视相关的背景知识，理解一篇课文就是听者的背景知识和所听课文相互作用
的过程。因此，图式理论对听力教学有着指导意义。在听力过程中，听者应该
激活自己的背景知识，并利用它们来理解新的课文。
因此，听力理解就好比在旧知识和新知识之间搭一座桥，听者要联系旧知
识去理解新知识。旧知识对新知识的影响称为知识迁移，听者对新课文的理解
在很大成度上取块于是否激活了相关的背景知识。对内容不熟悉的文章，知识
迁移难些，这时教师应采取不同方法提供给学生相应的背景知识，这样学生会
利用它们去预测和解释下文，最终理解大意。
根据以上的理论，有一些教学原则可以来指导听力教学。如听大意和选听
相结合；在听之前教师和学生都要做充分的准备；对不同的听力材料有不同的
任务；听力课文应和学生的生活相关；听力课应采取一些策略来教，而不是考；
听者是积极主动的；有意识的听力策略应被培养。
在这篇文章里，对所听的文章分成两类：内容熟悉的文章和内容不熟悉的
文章。对内容熟悉的文章，学生已建立了文章大意，教师应引导学生掌握语言
知识。例如：如何根据语言特征预测下文；如何猜新单词及其意义：辨认有重
要信息的重读单词，以及通过解释”重复来巩固句型结构词组等。这样学生的语
言知识结构发生了变化。对内容不熟悉的文章，教师应设法去激活学生相关的
背景知识，让他们听懂大意，从而达到意义的重构。例如：教师可提供相关的
背景知识；依据关联词听大意；选听获得重要细节。这样，学生在听的时候是
积极主动的，在听不同材料时也达到了不同目的。
Listening comprehension has traditionally been regarded as a passive process. However, it is an active process, and listening itself is a skill in its own right. In the listening process, what the listener wants to get is an adequate understanding of what the speaker said and what the speaker meant. To attain this purpose, listeners should utilize contextual clues, background knowledge and depend on many learning strategies. Active listeners will understand what the speaker said with relevant background knowledge and their particular purpose.
Listening is very important. It is used for more than any other single language skill in normal daily life. Also, it is important hi foreign language teaching. It is one of the four basic language skills. Teaching listening comprehension as a part of teaching a second language is gradually drawn attention by some educators. In China, there exist some problems hi college English listening class. Professor Wang Zhongyan said, "hi listening classes, It is not unusual that teachers just play records without offering any hints." In the listening process, listeners are only viewed as passive receiver without any hints. After listeners listen one or two tunes, teachers check the answers, and then play the tape sentence by sentence. This kind of teaching of listening is far from developing students' competence. It seems much like testing listening. In view of this kind of problem, this paper takes up the guidance of schema theory to the teaching of listening as its topic to study. Schema theory holds the view that listeners' background knowledge plays a key role in understanding a new text. Bartlett (1932) is the first psychologist to use the term schema. Rumelhart (1980) holds the view that "the role of background knowledge hi language comprehension has been formalized as schema theory." According to
schema theory, a listener can understand a new text only when he utilizes previously acquired knowledge. The previously acquired knowledge is the listeners' background knowledge, and the previously acquired knowledge structures are schemata. Therefore, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the listener's background knowledge and the text.
Background knowledge involves all the knowledge the listener learned before, such as linguistic knowledge, social knowledge, cultural knowledge, common sense, etc. To understand the action of background knowledge well, schematic knowledge is thought to be two types: content schemata and formal schemata. And according to schema theory, there is an interactive model in the process of comprehending a text; bottom-up process and top-down process. The two processes interact, so listeners can make use of them to understand the new text compensatory. In the listening process, listeners should make their background knowledge active and use them to interpret the new text. Due to the theory and research, schema theory can guide the teaching of listening.
Listening comprehension is like building bridges between the new and the known. Listeners should relate what is known to interpret the new information. That the previous background knowledge affects the new knowledge is called knowledge transfer. Whether listeners can understand a new text depends to a large degree on how much background knowledge they have activated. To a familiar content text, knowledge transfer is easy, so linguistic features should be paid more attention to. To an unfamiliar content text, knowledge transfer is difficult, so teachers should provide students with relevant background knowledge in many ways in order that students can use them to predict, interpret the incoming information, and finally understand the main idea.
The above theory and research imply that some pedagogical principles can be
employed in the teaching of listening. For example, global and selective listening should be both used; preparation is vital, different listening materials demand different listening task; listening texts should be relevant; listening comprehension lessons
听力是非常重要的。在日常生活中它是被用的最为频繁的一种语言技巧。在外语学习中它也非常重要，是四种必须掌握的语言技巧之一。现在，听力教学已逐渐被重视。中国大学英语教学大纲对听力有着明确的要求。
目前，中国大学英语听力课并不让人满意，还存在着一些问题。王宗炎先生曾说：“教听力课时老师只管放录音，对学生不给半点提示点拨，也并非罕有现象，”在听力过程中，学生是被动的接受者，没有任何背景知识的提示。听完一两遍后，老师就对对答案，然后再让学生一句句的重复听。这样的听力教学并没有培养学生的听力技能，更像是在考学生的听力。
针对以上问题，这篇论文就图式理论指导听力教学为研究课题。图式理论的首倡者Bartlett(1932)和后来的Rumelhart(1980)都认为听者的背景知识对他理解新的文章起着关键作用，也就是说听者只有在利用以前所获得的知识时才会理解新的课文。听者以前所获得的知识就是听者的背景知识，背景知识包括听者以前所学的各种知识，如语言知识、社会知识、文化背景、生活常识等等。这些背景知识的结构就被叫做图式。图式知识一般分为两类：形式图式和内容图式。根据图式理论，在理解课文时有一种互动模式，即自上而下和自下而上两种相结合的互动模式。根据这种模式，在听力过程中不能只重视语言因素而忽视相关的背景知识，理解一篇课文就是听者的背景知识和所听课文相互作用
的过程。因此，图式理论对听力教学有着指导意义。在听力过程中，听者应该
激活自己的背景知识，并利用它们来理解新的课文。
因此，听力理解就好比在旧知识和新知识之间搭一座桥，听者要联系旧知
识去理解新知识。旧知识对新知识的影响称为知识迁移，听者对新课文的理解
在很大成度上取块于是否激活了相关的背景知识。对内容不熟悉的文章，知识
迁移难些，这时教师应采取不同方法提供给学生相应的背景知识，这样学生会
利用它们去预测和解释下文，最终理解大意。
根据以上的理论，有一些教学原则可以来指导听力教学。如听大意和选听
相结合；在听之前教师和学生都要做充分的准备；对不同的听力材料有不同的
任务；听力课文应和学生的生活相关；听力课应采取一些策略来教，而不是考；
听者是积极主动的；有意识的听力策略应被培养。
在这篇文章里，对所听的文章分成两类：内容熟悉的文章和内容不熟悉的
文章。对内容熟悉的文章，学生已建立了文章大意，教师应引导学生掌握语言
知识。例如：如何根据语言特征预测下文；如何猜新单词及其意义：辨认有重
要信息的重读单词，以及通过解释”重复来巩固句型结构词组等。这样学生的语
言知识结构发生了变化。对内容不熟悉的文章，教师应设法去激活学生相关的
背景知识，让他们听懂大意，从而达到意义的重构。例如：教师可提供相关的
背景知识；依据关联词听大意；选听获得重要细节。这样，学生在听的时候是
积极主动的，在听不同材料时也达到了不同目的。
Listening comprehension has traditionally been regarded as a passive process. However, it is an active process, and listening itself is a skill in its own right. In the listening process, what the listener wants to get is an adequate understanding of what the speaker said and what the speaker meant. To attain this purpose, listeners should utilize contextual clues, background knowledge and depend on many learning strategies. Active listeners will understand what the speaker said with relevant background knowledge and their particular purpose.
Listening is very important. It is used for more than any other single language skill in normal daily life. Also, it is important hi foreign language teaching. It is one of the four basic language skills. Teaching listening comprehension as a part of teaching a second language is gradually drawn attention by some educators. In China, there exist some problems hi college English listening class. Professor Wang Zhongyan said, "hi listening classes, It is not unusual that teachers just play records without offering any hints." In the listening process, listeners are only viewed as passive receiver without any hints. After listeners listen one or two tunes, teachers check the answers, and then play the tape sentence by sentence. This kind of teaching of listening is far from developing students' competence. It seems much like testing listening. In view of this kind of problem, this paper takes up the guidance of schema theory to the teaching of listening as its topic to study. Schema theory holds the view that listeners' background knowledge plays a key role in understanding a new text. Bartlett (1932) is the first psychologist to use the term schema. Rumelhart (1980) holds the view that "the role of background knowledge hi language comprehension has been formalized as schema theory." According to
schema theory, a listener can understand a new text only when he utilizes previously acquired knowledge. The previously acquired knowledge is the listeners' background knowledge, and the previously acquired knowledge structures are schemata. Therefore, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the listener's background knowledge and the text.
Background knowledge involves all the knowledge the listener learned before, such as linguistic knowledge, social knowledge, cultural knowledge, common sense, etc. To understand the action of background knowledge well, schematic knowledge is thought to be two types: content schemata and formal schemata. And according to schema theory, there is an interactive model in the process of comprehending a text; bottom-up process and top-down process. The two processes interact, so listeners can make use of them to understand the new text compensatory. In the listening process, listeners should make their background knowledge active and use them to interpret the new text. Due to the theory and research, schema theory can guide the teaching of listening.
Listening comprehension is like building bridges between the new and the known. Listeners should relate what is known to interpret the new information. That the previous background knowledge affects the new knowledge is called knowledge transfer. Whether listeners can understand a new text depends to a large degree on how much background knowledge they have activated. To a familiar content text, knowledge transfer is easy, so linguistic features should be paid more attention to. To an unfamiliar content text, knowledge transfer is difficult, so teachers should provide students with relevant background knowledge in many ways in order that students can use them to predict, interpret the incoming information, and finally understand the main idea.
The above theory and research imply that some pedagogical principles can be
employed in the teaching of listening. For example, global and selective listening should be both used; preparation is vital, different listening materials demand different listening task; listening texts should be relevant; listening comprehension lessons
引文
Anderson,A.& T.Lynch.1988． Listening.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Anderson,R.C.1977． The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise.In R.C.Anderson,R.J.Spiro & W.E.Montague (eds.) Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge.Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bartlett,F.C.1932． Remembering.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Belasco,S.1971． The feasibility of learning a second language in an artificial unicultural situation.In P.Pimsleur & T.Quinn (eds.) The Psychology of Second Language Learning Papers from the Second International Congress of AILA.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blakemore,D.1992． Understanding Utterances: An Introduction to Pragmatics.Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Brown,G.& G.Yule.2000． Discourse Analysis.Beijing: Cambridge University Press.
Brown,G.1990． Listening to Spoken English.New York: Longman
Brown,G.& G.Yule.1983． Teaching the Spoken Language.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press..
Carrell,P.L.& J.C.Eisterhold.1988． Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy.In P.L.Carrell,J.Devine & D.E.Eskey (eds.) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carrell,P.L.1983． Some issues in studying the role of schemata,or background knowledge,in second language comprehension.Paper presented at the 17th Annual TESOL Convention,Toronto,Canada,March,1983．
Celce-Murcia,M.1999． Discourse analysis and the teaching of listening.In G.
Cook & B.Seidlhofer (eds.) Principles and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Shanghai: Oxford University Press.
Clark,H.& E.Clark.1977． Psychology and Language.New York: Harcourt, Brace,Jovanovich.
Clarke,M.A.& S.Silberstein.1977． Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL reading class.Language Learning.27(1) :135-154．
Coady,James.1979． A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader.In R.Macka,B. Barkman,and R.R.Jordan (eds.) Reading in a Second Language.5-12． Rowley,MA: Newbury House Publishers.
Cook,V.2000． Second Language Learning and Language Teaching.Beijing: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited.
de Beaugrande,R.1980． Text,Discourse and Process.London: Longman.
Devine,T.G.1986． Teaching Reading Comprehension-From Theory to Practice. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon,Inc.
Dunkel,P.1988． Listening and note-taking: what is the effect of pre-training in note-taking? TESOL Newsletter.19,30-31．
Ellis,R.1985． Understanding Second Language Acquisition.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fillmore,C.J.1968． The case for case.In E.Bach & R.Harms (eds.) Universals in Linguistic Theory.New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston.
Halliday,M.& R.Hasan.1976． Cohesion in English.London: Longman.
Hoey,M.1991． Patterns of Lexis in Text.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huang Hui.2000． Teaching or testing: some considerations on teaching listening for non-English majors at college level.Teaching English in China.NO.2, 22-26
Johnson,P.1982． Effects on reading comprehension of building background
knowledge.TESOL Quarterly.16(4) : 503-516．
Kant,I.1963． Critique of Pure Reason.(1st ed.1781,2nd ed.1787,N.Kemp Smith,translator).London: MacMillan Publishing Co.
Kintsch,W.& D.Van.1978． Toward a model of text comprehension and production.Psychological Review.85(5) ,363-394
Krashen,S.D.& T.D.Terrell.1983． The Natural Approach.Oxford: Pergamon.
Mandler,J.M.1978． A code in the node: the use of a story schema in retrieval. Discourse Processes.1(1) : 14-35．
Meyer,B.J.F.& G.E.Rice.1982． The interaction of reader strategies and the organization of text.Text.2 (1-3) : 155-192
Minsky,M.1975． A framework for representing knowledge.In P.H.Winston (ed.) The Psychology of Computer Vision.New York: McGraw-Hill.
Morley,J.1991． Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction. In M.Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Massachusetts: Heinele and Heinle Publishers.
Newmark,G.& E.Diller.1964． Emphasizing the audio in the audio-lingual approach.Modern Language Journal.48(1) ,18-20
Nunan,D.1988． The Learner-centered Curriculum.New York: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan,D.1989． Communicative Task Design.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan,D.1991． Language Teaching Methodology.Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.
Peterson,P.W.1991． A synthesis of methods for interactive listening.In M. Cele-Murcia(ed.) Teaching English as a Second or foreign Language. Massachusetts: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Qin Xiubai.1999． Stylistic analysis and EFL teaching (Lecture handout at the National College Teaching and Research Seminar)
Richards,J.C.1985． The Contexts of Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richards,J.C.1983． Listening Comprehension: Approach,Design,Procedure. TESOL Quarterly.7(2) ,219-239．
Riesbeck,C.K.1975． Computational understanding.In R.C.Schank & B.L. Nash-Webber (eds.) Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing. Cambridge,Mass: Bolt,Beranek & Newman. '
Rivers,W.M.1966． Listening comprehension.Modern Language Journal.50 (4) , 196-204
Rivers,W.M.1981． Teaching Foreign-language Skills.Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Rosch,E.1973． Natural categories.Cognitive Psychology.4:328-50
Rost,M.1992． Listening in Language Learning.New York: Longman.
Rumelhart,D.E.& A.Ortony.1977． The representation of knowledge in memory. In R.C.Anderson,R.J.Spiro & W.E.Montague (eds.) Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge.Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Rumelhart,D.E.1980． Schemata: The building blocks of cognition.In Rand J.Spiro,Bertram C.Bruce,and William E.Brewer (eds.) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension.Hillsdate,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stanovich,K.1980． Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency.Reading Research Quarterly.16:32-71．
Tannen,D.1979． What's in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In Roy O.Freedle (ed.) New Directions in Discorse Processing.Norwood,NJ:
Ablex Publishing corporation.
Ur, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Widdowson, H. G. 1999. Aspects of Language Teaching. Shanghai: Oxford University Press.
Woods, H. B. 1979. Rhythm and Unstress. Hull, Canada: Canadian Government Publishing Center.
Wu Weiying. 2000. Using learning strategies to develop listening comprehension-a case study. Teaching English in China. NO. 1, 42-45.
王，长喜(1999)，《大学英语四级考试90分突破听力分册》，学苑出版社，北京。
刘，辰诞(1999)，《教学篇章语言学》，上海外语教育出版社，上海。
刘，绍龙(1994)，外语听力=声学信号的被动接收吗?《现代外语》，第3期，37-40页．
应，惠兰(1999)，《新编大学英语》，第三册，北京外语教学与研究出版社，北京。
李，星(2000)，《英语分级词汇学习指南》，武汉工业大学出版社，武汉。
黄，国文(1988)，《语篇分析概要》，湖南教育出版社，长沙。
Anderson,R.C.1977． The notion of schemata and the educational enterprise.In R.C.Anderson,R.J.Spiro & W.E.Montague (eds.) Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge.Hillsdale,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Bartlett,F.C.1932． Remembering.Cambridge:Cambridge University Press.
Belasco,S.1971． The feasibility of learning a second language in an artificial unicultural situation.In P.Pimsleur & T.Quinn (eds.) The Psychology of Second Language Learning Papers from the Second International Congress of AILA.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Blakemore,D.1992． Understanding Utterances: An Introduction to Pragmatics.Massachusetts: Blackwell.
Brown,G.& G.Yule.2000． Discourse Analysis.Beijing: Cambridge University Press.
Brown,G.1990． Listening to Spoken English.New York: Longman
Brown,G.& G.Yule.1983． Teaching the Spoken Language.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press..
Carrell,P.L.& J.C.Eisterhold.1988． Schema theory and ESL reading pedagogy.In P.L.Carrell,J.Devine & D.E.Eskey (eds.) Interactive Approaches to Second Language Reading.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Carrell,P.L.1983． Some issues in studying the role of schemata,or background knowledge,in second language comprehension.Paper presented at the 17th Annual TESOL Convention,Toronto,Canada,March,1983．
Celce-Murcia,M.1999． Discourse analysis and the teaching of listening.In G.
Cook & B.Seidlhofer (eds.) Principles and Practice in Applied Linguistics. Shanghai: Oxford University Press.
Clark,H.& E.Clark.1977． Psychology and Language.New York: Harcourt, Brace,Jovanovich.
Clarke,M.A.& S.Silberstein.1977． Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL reading class.Language Learning.27(1) :135-154．
Coady,James.1979． A psycholinguistic model of the ESL reader.In R.Macka,B. Barkman,and R.R.Jordan (eds.) Reading in a Second Language.5-12． Rowley,MA: Newbury House Publishers.
Cook,V.2000． Second Language Learning and Language Teaching.Beijing: Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited.
de Beaugrande,R.1980． Text,Discourse and Process.London: Longman.
Devine,T.G.1986． Teaching Reading Comprehension-From Theory to Practice. Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon,Inc.
Dunkel,P.1988． Listening and note-taking: what is the effect of pre-training in note-taking? TESOL Newsletter.19,30-31．
Ellis,R.1985． Understanding Second Language Acquisition.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Fillmore,C.J.1968． The case for case.In E.Bach & R.Harms (eds.) Universals in Linguistic Theory.New York: Holt,Rinehart & Winston.
Halliday,M.& R.Hasan.1976． Cohesion in English.London: Longman.
Hoey,M.1991． Patterns of Lexis in Text.Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Huang Hui.2000． Teaching or testing: some considerations on teaching listening for non-English majors at college level.Teaching English in China.NO.2, 22-26
Johnson,P.1982． Effects on reading comprehension of building background
knowledge.TESOL Quarterly.16(4) : 503-516．
Kant,I.1963． Critique of Pure Reason.(1st ed.1781,2nd ed.1787,N.Kemp Smith,translator).London: MacMillan Publishing Co.
Kintsch,W.& D.Van.1978． Toward a model of text comprehension and production.Psychological Review.85(5) ,363-394
Krashen,S.D.& T.D.Terrell.1983． The Natural Approach.Oxford: Pergamon.
Mandler,J.M.1978． A code in the node: the use of a story schema in retrieval. Discourse Processes.1(1) : 14-35．
Meyer,B.J.F.& G.E.Rice.1982． The interaction of reader strategies and the organization of text.Text.2 (1-3) : 155-192
Minsky,M.1975． A framework for representing knowledge.In P.H.Winston (ed.) The Psychology of Computer Vision.New York: McGraw-Hill.
Morley,J.1991． Listening comprehension in second/foreign language instruction. In M.Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Massachusetts: Heinele and Heinle Publishers.
Newmark,G.& E.Diller.1964． Emphasizing the audio in the audio-lingual approach.Modern Language Journal.48(1) ,18-20
Nunan,D.1988． The Learner-centered Curriculum.New York: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan,D.1989． Communicative Task Design.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Nunan,D.1991． Language Teaching Methodology.Hertfordshire: Prentice Hall International (UK) Ltd.
Peterson,P.W.1991． A synthesis of methods for interactive listening.In M. Cele-Murcia(ed.) Teaching English as a Second or foreign Language. Massachusetts: Heinle and Heinle Publishers.
Qin Xiubai.1999． Stylistic analysis and EFL teaching (Lecture handout at the National College Teaching and Research Seminar)
Richards,J.C.1985． The Contexts of Language Teaching.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
Richards,J.C.1983． Listening Comprehension: Approach,Design,Procedure. TESOL Quarterly.7(2) ,219-239．
Riesbeck,C.K.1975． Computational understanding.In R.C.Schank & B.L. Nash-Webber (eds.) Theoretical Issues in Natural Language Processing. Cambridge,Mass: Bolt,Beranek & Newman. '
Rivers,W.M.1966． Listening comprehension.Modern Language Journal.50 (4) , 196-204
Rivers,W.M.1981． Teaching Foreign-language Skills.Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Rosch,E.1973． Natural categories.Cognitive Psychology.4:328-50
Rost,M.1992． Listening in Language Learning.New York: Longman.
Rumelhart,D.E.& A.Ortony.1977． The representation of knowledge in memory. In R.C.Anderson,R.J.Spiro & W.E.Montague (eds.) Schooling and the Acquisition of Knowledge.Hillsdale,NJ: Erlbaum.
Rumelhart,D.E.1980． Schemata: The building blocks of cognition.In Rand J.Spiro,Bertram C.Bruce,and William E.Brewer (eds.) Theoretical Issues in Reading Comprehension.Hillsdate,NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Stanovich,K.1980． Toward an interactive-compensatory model of individual differences in the development of reading fluency.Reading Research Quarterly.16:32-71．
Tannen,D.1979． What's in a frame? Surface evidence for underlying expectations. In Roy O.Freedle (ed.) New Directions in Discorse Processing.Norwood,NJ:
Ablex Publishing corporation.
Ur, P. 1984. Teaching Listening Comprehension. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Widdowson, H. G. 1999. Aspects of Language Teaching. Shanghai: Oxford University Press.
Woods, H. B. 1979. Rhythm and Unstress. Hull, Canada: Canadian Government Publishing Center.
Wu Weiying. 2000. Using learning strategies to develop listening comprehension-a case study. Teaching English in China. NO. 1, 42-45.
王，长喜(1999)，《大学英语四级考试90分突破听力分册》，学苑出版社，北京。
刘，辰诞(1999)，《教学篇章语言学》，上海外语教育出版社，上海。
刘，绍龙(1994)，外语听力=声学信号的被动接收吗?《现代外语》，第3期，37-40页．
应，惠兰(1999)，《新编大学英语》，第三册，北京外语教学与研究出版社，北京。
李，星(2000)，《英语分级词汇学习指南》，武汉工业大学出版社，武汉。
黄，国文(1988)，《语篇分析概要》，湖南教育出版社，长沙。