人类表演理论视角下的对外汉语交际能力研究
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摘要
对外汉语教学事业近年蓬勃发展,很多学生虽然掌握了大量的词汇、语法知识,但他们的汉语交际能力却并不乐观。对外汉语教学的主要任务是使学生获得在真实的社会语境下使用汉语进行自然、得体、流利、有效地交际互动的能力。
关于“交际能力”的定义和内容,语言学界及语言教学界目前尚无明确、统一的认识和比较可靠的标准。传统的交际能力理论在教法、教材、考试和教学效果评估方面都表现出弱势。以往交际能力的定义过于片面,本文提出的人类交际能力是指人与人之间针对不同的交际对象和交际场景,通过调动全部感官及所有表现手段进行的即时、动态、全方位、立体化、多层面信息交流的综合能力。
从广泛的意义上说,人类的所有交际行为都可以视为人类的表演行为,表演是人类的基本生存方式。“表演与交往一样,处理和面对的都是人与人之间的关系。从过程来看,表演的过程,就是交往的过程,是表演者和观看者以角色为依据的交往行为。同时,交往的过程,也是表演的过程。”
语言交际能力从某种意义上说可理解为人的表演能力。将语言交际能力定义为表演能力,使语言交际更具真实性；有利于激发学习者的兴趣；对不同年龄人的语言能力获取过程进行模拟训练,全方位地进行语言交际能力训练,比传统教学要完整;合理的重复手段在情景中能更好、更科学地分配刺激量,安排语言学习的频率,有助于更好地掌握语言技能和交际能力；有利于解决人们长期以来关于交际能力的种种争议,将肢体语言、面部表情、眼神等纳入语言交际能力的训练范围,使交际能力的训练更为科学和完整。
结合人类表演理论的主要内容,我们认为人类表演理论视域下的对外汉语语言交际能力培养应集中于以下方面进行：
(一)交际中把握针对性原则,针对不同人物、不同场景能够随机应变；
(二)应把握交际的即时动态性特征;
(三)应能调动人类所有的感官和表现手段,全方位、立体化地进行信息交流。
实验结果表明,学生在表演理论指导下进行汉语学习对其交际能力的全面进步起着十分重要的作用,同时即时互动能力、针对性的把握和调动全部表现手段的能力也都随着表演能力的提高而获得提高,进一步证明了交际能力与表演能力的同质性。
In recent years, Teaching Chinese as a Second language (TCSL) has been developing rapidly. Although many foreign students have acquired good knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, their communicative competence are still unsatisfactory. The main task of TCSL is to enable the students to communicate naturally, appropriately, fluently and effectively in the Chinese language in real social context.
There has been no definite and common view, or a rather reliable criterion on the definition and content of communicative competence in the field of linguistic research as well as language teaching. The traditional theories on communicative competence are weak in teaching methods, teaching materials, examinations and evaluation of teaching effects. The author of this paper holds that the human communicative competence means the comprehensive abilities of real-time, dynamic and multi-dimensional information exchanges between people through all human senses and in all possible ways according to different people and situations.
In the broad sense, all the communicative actions of human beings can be seen as human performance. Performance is one of the basic ways of living for human beings."Both communication and performance are about interpersonal relations. The process of performance is a kind of communicative act of the performers and viewers in accordance with the roles."
In a sense, communicative competence can be seen as human performing capacity. This definition has many advantages. First, it makes verbal communication more authentic, as it is conducive to the simulation of human languages' acquisition process. Secondly, it is conducive to arousing learners' interest. Simulated training of the language competence acquisition process of different age groups multi-dimensionally is more complete than traditional teaching. Thirdly, reasonable repetitions make the distribution of stimulus more scientific and help students master the language skills and communicative competence. Finally, it is beneficial to resolving the various long-standing disputes on communicative competence, as the new concept of communicative competence encompasses body language, facial expressions and eye contact, making the training of communicative competence more scientific and complete.
According to the human performance theory, communicative competence training in TCSL should focus on the following aspects:(1) Pertinence Principle: playing to the score;(2) The fact that communication is real-time and dynamic;(3) Multi-dimensional information exchanges through all human senses and in all possible ways according to different people and situations. These have been proved by the experimental results in this paper. Communicative competence and performance capacity have the same nature.
关于“交际能力”的定义和内容,语言学界及语言教学界目前尚无明确、统一的认识和比较可靠的标准。传统的交际能力理论在教法、教材、考试和教学效果评估方面都表现出弱势。以往交际能力的定义过于片面,本文提出的人类交际能力是指人与人之间针对不同的交际对象和交际场景,通过调动全部感官及所有表现手段进行的即时、动态、全方位、立体化、多层面信息交流的综合能力。
从广泛的意义上说,人类的所有交际行为都可以视为人类的表演行为,表演是人类的基本生存方式。“表演与交往一样,处理和面对的都是人与人之间的关系。从过程来看,表演的过程,就是交往的过程,是表演者和观看者以角色为依据的交往行为。同时,交往的过程,也是表演的过程。”
语言交际能力从某种意义上说可理解为人的表演能力。将语言交际能力定义为表演能力,使语言交际更具真实性；有利于激发学习者的兴趣；对不同年龄人的语言能力获取过程进行模拟训练,全方位地进行语言交际能力训练,比传统教学要完整;合理的重复手段在情景中能更好、更科学地分配刺激量,安排语言学习的频率,有助于更好地掌握语言技能和交际能力；有利于解决人们长期以来关于交际能力的种种争议,将肢体语言、面部表情、眼神等纳入语言交际能力的训练范围,使交际能力的训练更为科学和完整。
结合人类表演理论的主要内容,我们认为人类表演理论视域下的对外汉语语言交际能力培养应集中于以下方面进行：
(一)交际中把握针对性原则,针对不同人物、不同场景能够随机应变；
(二)应把握交际的即时动态性特征;
(三)应能调动人类所有的感官和表现手段,全方位、立体化地进行信息交流。
实验结果表明,学生在表演理论指导下进行汉语学习对其交际能力的全面进步起着十分重要的作用,同时即时互动能力、针对性的把握和调动全部表现手段的能力也都随着表演能力的提高而获得提高,进一步证明了交际能力与表演能力的同质性。
In recent years, Teaching Chinese as a Second language (TCSL) has been developing rapidly. Although many foreign students have acquired good knowledge of vocabulary and grammar, their communicative competence are still unsatisfactory. The main task of TCSL is to enable the students to communicate naturally, appropriately, fluently and effectively in the Chinese language in real social context.
There has been no definite and common view, or a rather reliable criterion on the definition and content of communicative competence in the field of linguistic research as well as language teaching. The traditional theories on communicative competence are weak in teaching methods, teaching materials, examinations and evaluation of teaching effects. The author of this paper holds that the human communicative competence means the comprehensive abilities of real-time, dynamic and multi-dimensional information exchanges between people through all human senses and in all possible ways according to different people and situations.
In the broad sense, all the communicative actions of human beings can be seen as human performance. Performance is one of the basic ways of living for human beings."Both communication and performance are about interpersonal relations. The process of performance is a kind of communicative act of the performers and viewers in accordance with the roles."
In a sense, communicative competence can be seen as human performing capacity. This definition has many advantages. First, it makes verbal communication more authentic, as it is conducive to the simulation of human languages' acquisition process. Secondly, it is conducive to arousing learners' interest. Simulated training of the language competence acquisition process of different age groups multi-dimensionally is more complete than traditional teaching. Thirdly, reasonable repetitions make the distribution of stimulus more scientific and help students master the language skills and communicative competence. Finally, it is beneficial to resolving the various long-standing disputes on communicative competence, as the new concept of communicative competence encompasses body language, facial expressions and eye contact, making the training of communicative competence more scientific and complete.
According to the human performance theory, communicative competence training in TCSL should focus on the following aspects:(1) Pertinence Principle: playing to the score;(2) The fact that communication is real-time and dynamic;(3) Multi-dimensional information exchanges through all human senses and in all possible ways according to different people and situations. These have been proved by the experimental results in this paper. Communicative competence and performance capacity have the same nature.
引文
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② 本文所说的表演理论当中的“表演”,与“开发性戏剧”、“象征性戏剧”、“创造性戏剧”、“想象性戏剧”、“体验型戏剧”、“自由戏剧”、“拟剧法”均为同义词,其共同的核心理念都是通过一系列的区别于正式舞台戏剧演出的表演性活动来提高人的综合素质。本文的表演理论主要目的为提高留学生的汉语交际能力。
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① 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:182-187.
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:184-187.
③ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：129。
① Schewe, M.L.1993. Fremdsprache inszenierenfM]. Oldenburg:Carl von Ossietzky Universitat Oldenburg.
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:196-201.
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：146-149。
① 人物物质表现之设计参考了Hubert Heffner在Modern Theatre Practice中所列的四个层面特征来表现。参见Oscar G. Brockett. The Theatre, An Introduction.2nd ed. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.1969:34-35.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：139-140。
③ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：140-141。
① 参见/Adrian Pecknold. Mime, The Step Beyond Words. Revised ed. Toranto:NC Press Ltd.1989:90-150。
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：141。
① Nellie McCaslin. Shows on a Shoestring[M]. Rowayton, CT:New Plays Inc.1979:27.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：144。
① Andersen, M. Theatersport und Improtheater. Planegg:Impuls-Theater-Publications/Buschfunk Media.1996.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：144-145。
① Ruth Beall Heinig, Creative Drama for the Classroom Teacher[M].4th ed. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.1993:201.
② 本故事出自台湾小学国语课本第六册《多了十块钱》的内容(台北：“国立编译馆”1989年1月修订再版,50-54页)。
③ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：157。
④ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：161。
① Clive Barker. Theatre Games, A New Approach to Drama Training[M]. New Hampshire:Eyre Methuen Ltd.1994:89.
② Nellie McCaslion. Creative Drama in the Classroom[M]. fifth ed. New York:Longman Inc.1990:119-120.
③ Viola Spolin. Improvisation for the Theatre[M].Evanston, Illinois:Northwestern University Press.1985:3.
④ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：132-134,149-151。
① 参见Holden, S. Drama in Language Teaching[M]. Harlow, Essex:Longman Group Ltd.1981:46.
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：152。
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:207-209.
① 坐针毡(Hot seating),也叫热座,是一种锻炼即兴反应的训练方法,这里采用这种方法将所得信息组合成故事,是对“坐针毡”的灵活运用,实际上教师还可以开发出很多种灵活运用“坐针毡”的方式。参见Jonsthan Neelands. Structured Drama Work[A. A Handbook of Available Forms in Theatre and Drama, ed by Tony Goode[C]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993:28.
① 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:203-207.
② Stern, S. L. Drama in second language learning from a psycholinguistic perspective[J]. Language Learning.1981,30 (1):24.
① 音强,也叫音量、响度。
② 音色,也叫音质。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：39-41。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：103-104。
② (苏)斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基著,郑雪来等译.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基全集(第三卷)[M].中央编译出版社,2012：126。
③ 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：132-133。
① [苏]玛·阿·弗烈齐阿诺娃编.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基体系精华[M].中国电影出版社,1990：471。
② 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：116。
① 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：134。
② 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：135。
③ 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：117。
① 也有人将心理重音归为逻辑重音之列,考虑到对外汉语教学的需要,本篇论文将其单列。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：136-140。
③ 音高,由音波振动的频率来决定。频率高则音高：低则音低。音高是构成语音的要素之一。
④ 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：68。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000:70-71。
② 周殿福.艺术语言发声基础[M].中国社会科学出版社,1980：266。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010:141。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：71。
② 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：127。
① 加“|”表示停顿,加“| | |”表示停顿时间较长。参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：164-165。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：86-87。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：118。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：119-122。
① 徐文武.音响美学初探[M].中国广播电视出版社,1993：80。
② 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：150。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:313。
② 林涛、王理嘉.语音学教程[M].北京大学出版社,1992：80。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：199-200。
④ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010:176-179 。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：106-107。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：196。
① [苏]玛·阿·弗烈齐阿诺娃编.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基体系精华.中国电影出版社,1990：277。
② 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：115-116。
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：140-143。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：198。
③ 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：116-117。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：198。
② 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：119。
① 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：151。
② 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
③ 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:321。
④ 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:321。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
② 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：88。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：162-163。
① 此处前三个故事系选用台湾戏剧家张晓华先生的材料,并根据情况进行了调整。参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：100-102。
② 这个故事是夏威夷古老的神话,其中节奏明快,包含大量动作,选译自Nellie McCaslin. Creative Drama in the Intermediate Grades. New York:Longman Inc.1987:45-46.
① 亲自动手进行微调和修改时面临着男女有别的问题,因此这一点应慎重,在选择“材料”时应考虑到性别问题,在动手调整时也应主要考虑身体的“非敏感”部分,以免发生不必要的误解。
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:171-173.
③ 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:173-175.
① Richmond Shepard. Mime, The Technique of Silence[M]. New York:Drama Book Specialists Publishers,1971:4.
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:175-177.
① 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:177-179.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：130。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：143-144。
① 参见/Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:180-182.
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：224-244。
① Gumperz, J. J. Engager laconversation. Introduction a la sociolinguistique interactionelie. Paris:Minuit,1989:55.
② 郑立华.交际与面子博弈：互动社会语言学[M1.上海：上海外语教育出版社,2012；53.
③ Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:Learning, Teaching, Assessment[M]. Cambridge University Press,2001.
① Nellie McCaslin. Shows on a Shoestring[M]. Rowasyton, CT.:New Plays Inc.1979:39.
② 此处参考了张晓华先生的设计方案,并根据对外汉语的实际情况进行了补充和调整,具体参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：161-164。
① 徐子亮、吴仁甫.实用对外汉语教学法[M].北京大学出版社,2005：137.
② 徐子亮、吴仁甫.实用对外汉语教学法[M].北京大学出版社,2005：134.
。参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：158。
① 参见王淑琰、林通.影视演员表演技巧入门[M].中国广播电视出版社,2009：74-76。
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：153-155。
① Goffman, E. Engagement[J], in Y. Winkin(ed.) La nouvelle communication. Paris:Seuil,1981:269.
② 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010： 172。
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：140。
② Stewik, J. and C. Buge.1994. Dramatizing Literature in Whole Language Classrooms[M]. New York, NY/London:Teachers College Press. p105.
③ Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:170.
① Gumperz, J. J. Engager laconversation. Introduction a la sociolinguistique interactionelle. Paris:Minuit,1989:40-41.
① 具体音效可参考相关网站,多数网站提供免费下载,如http://www.yinxiao.com/(音效网),http://sc.chinaz.com/yinxiao/(素材网)。
① 语言输出能力这里指,即席演讲、连贯叙述、口头评论解说、会议发言等。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：35-41。
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)
① 参见Bc. Lenka Krivkova. Design of the Workshop:How to use Drama in an English Language Class? [D]. Brno:Masaryk University,2011:71.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：105.
① 坐针毡(Hot seating),也叫热座,是一种锻炼即兴反应的训练方法,这里采用这种方法将所得信息组合成故事,是对“坐针毡”的灵活运用,实际上教师还可以开发出很多种灵活运用“坐针毡”的方式。参见Jonsthan Neelands. Structured Drama Work[A. A Handbook of Available Forms in Theatre and Drama, ed by Tony Goode[C]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993:28.
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：158。
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发fJ].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)
② 参见韦爱诗编著,杨顺德、俞理明译.开发性戏剧与全方位使用大脑[M].华东师范大学出版社,2003：12-17。
③ 参见韦爱诗编著,杨顺德、俞理明译.开发性戏剧与全方位使用大脑[M].华东师范大学出版社,2003：11。
① 原文为:All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, and one man in his time plays many parts.
② Goffman Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life[M]. New York:Vintage Anchor Publishing,1959.
③ 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)：1-9。
③ Rike, E. K. Guided symbolic dramatic play as the root of literacy. In J. A. Wilkinson (Ed.) The symbolic dramatic play-literacy connection:Whole brain, whole body, whole learning. Needham Heights, MS:Ginn Press.1993:25-42.
④ Rike, E. K. Guided symbolic dramatic play as the root of literacy. In J. A. Wilkinson (Ed.) The symbolic dramatic play-literacy connection:Whole brain, whole body, whole learning. Needham Heights, MS:Ginn Press.1993:31.
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)：1-9。
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② 本文所说的表演理论当中的“表演”,与“开发性戏剧”、“象征性戏剧”、“创造性戏剧”、“想象性戏剧”、“体验型戏剧”、“自由戏剧”、“拟剧法”均为同义词,其共同的核心理念都是通过一系列的区别于正式舞台戏剧演出的表演性活动来提高人的综合素质。本文的表演理论主要目的为提高留学生的汉语交际能力。
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① 产婆术,即”苏格拉底方法”,包括讽刺(不断提出问题使对方陷入矛盾,迫使其承认自己无知)、助产(启发、引导学生,使学生通过自己思考得出结论)、归纳和定义(使学生逐步掌握明确的定义和概念)等步骤。由于苏格拉底把教师比喻为”知识的产婆”,因此,”苏格拉底方法”也被人们称为是”产婆术”
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① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：146-149。
① 人物物质表现之设计参考了Hubert Heffner在Modern Theatre Practice中所列的四个层面特征来表现。参见Oscar G. Brockett. The Theatre, An Introduction.2nd ed. New York:Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc.1969:34-35.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：139-140。
③ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：140-141。
① 参见/Adrian Pecknold. Mime, The Step Beyond Words. Revised ed. Toranto:NC Press Ltd.1989:90-150。
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：141。
① Nellie McCaslin. Shows on a Shoestring[M]. Rowayton, CT:New Plays Inc.1979:27.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：144。
① Andersen, M. Theatersport und Improtheater. Planegg:Impuls-Theater-Publications/Buschfunk Media.1996.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：144-145。
① Ruth Beall Heinig, Creative Drama for the Classroom Teacher[M].4th ed. New Jersey:Prentice-Hall, Inc.1993:201.
② 本故事出自台湾小学国语课本第六册《多了十块钱》的内容(台北：“国立编译馆”1989年1月修订再版,50-54页)。
③ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：157。
④ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：161。
① Clive Barker. Theatre Games, A New Approach to Drama Training[M]. New Hampshire:Eyre Methuen Ltd.1994:89.
② Nellie McCaslion. Creative Drama in the Classroom[M]. fifth ed. New York:Longman Inc.1990:119-120.
③ Viola Spolin. Improvisation for the Theatre[M].Evanston, Illinois:Northwestern University Press.1985:3.
④ 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：132-134,149-151。
① 参见Holden, S. Drama in Language Teaching[M]. Harlow, Essex:Longman Group Ltd.1981:46.
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：152。
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:207-209.
① 坐针毡(Hot seating),也叫热座,是一种锻炼即兴反应的训练方法,这里采用这种方法将所得信息组合成故事,是对“坐针毡”的灵活运用,实际上教师还可以开发出很多种灵活运用“坐针毡”的方式。参见Jonsthan Neelands. Structured Drama Work[A. A Handbook of Available Forms in Theatre and Drama, ed by Tony Goode[C]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993:28.
① 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:203-207.
② Stern, S. L. Drama in second language learning from a psycholinguistic perspective[J]. Language Learning.1981,30 (1):24.
① 音强,也叫音量、响度。
② 音色,也叫音质。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：39-41。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：103-104。
② (苏)斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基著,郑雪来等译.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基全集(第三卷)[M].中央编译出版社,2012：126。
③ 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：132-133。
① [苏]玛·阿·弗烈齐阿诺娃编.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基体系精华[M].中国电影出版社,1990：471。
② 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：116。
① 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：134。
② 张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：135。
③ 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：117。
① 也有人将心理重音归为逻辑重音之列,考虑到对外汉语教学的需要,本篇论文将其单列。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：136-140。
③ 音高,由音波振动的频率来决定。频率高则音高：低则音低。音高是构成语音的要素之一。
④ 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：68。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000:70-71。
② 周殿福.艺术语言发声基础[M].中国社会科学出版社,1980：266。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010:141。
① 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：71。
② 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：127。
① 加“|”表示停顿,加“| | |”表示停顿时间较长。参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：164-165。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：86-87。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：118。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：119-122。
① 徐文武.音响美学初探[M].中国广播电视出版社,1993：80。
② 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：150。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:313。
② 林涛、王理嘉.语音学教程[M].北京大学出版社,1992：80。
③ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：199-200。
④ 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010:176-179 。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：106-107。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：196。
① [苏]玛·阿·弗烈齐阿诺娃编.斯坦尼斯拉夫斯基体系精华.中国电影出版社,1990：277。
② 参见中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：115-116。
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：140-143。
② 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：198。
③ 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：116-117。
① 参见张华.语言艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：198。
② 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：119。
① 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010：151。
② 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
③ 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:321。
④ 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994:321。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
② 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
① 张颂.中国播音学[M].北京广播学院出版社,1994：321。
① 中央戏剧学院台词研究室.演员艺术语言基本技巧[M].文化艺术出版社,2000：88。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：162-163。
① 此处前三个故事系选用台湾戏剧家张晓华先生的材料,并根据情况进行了调整。参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：100-102。
② 这个故事是夏威夷古老的神话,其中节奏明快,包含大量动作,选译自Nellie McCaslin. Creative Drama in the Intermediate Grades. New York:Longman Inc.1987:45-46.
① 亲自动手进行微调和修改时面临着男女有别的问题,因此这一点应慎重,在选择“材料”时应考虑到性别问题,在动手调整时也应主要考虑身体的“非敏感”部分,以免发生不必要的误解。
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:171-173.
③ 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:173-175.
① Richmond Shepard. Mime, The Technique of Silence[M]. New York:Drama Book Specialists Publishers,1971:4.
② 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:175-177.
① 参见Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:177-179.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：130。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：143-144。
① 参见/Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:180-182.
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：224-244。
① Gumperz, J. J. Engager laconversation. Introduction a la sociolinguistique interactionelie. Paris:Minuit,1989:55.
② 郑立华.交际与面子博弈：互动社会语言学[M1.上海：上海外语教育出版社,2012；53.
③ Council of Europe. Common European Framework of Reference for Languages:Learning, Teaching, Assessment[M]. Cambridge University Press,2001.
① Nellie McCaslin. Shows on a Shoestring[M]. Rowasyton, CT.:New Plays Inc.1979:39.
② 此处参考了张晓华先生的设计方案,并根据对外汉语的实际情况进行了补充和调整,具体参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：161-164。
① 徐子亮、吴仁甫.实用对外汉语教学法[M].北京大学出版社,2005：137.
② 徐子亮、吴仁甫.实用对外汉语教学法[M].北京大学出版社,2005：134.
。参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：158。
① 参见王淑琰、林通.影视演员表演技巧入门[M].中国广播电视出版社,2009：74-76。
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：153-155。
① Goffman, E. Engagement[J], in Y. Winkin(ed.) La nouvelle communication. Paris:Seuil,1981:269.
② 参见胡爱民.台词—表演中台词阐释的艺术[M].中国电影出版社,2010： 172。
① 参见伍振国.影视表演语言技巧[M].中国广播电视出版社,2006：140。
② Stewik, J. and C. Buge.1994. Dramatizing Literature in Whole Language Classrooms[M]. New York, NY/London:Teachers College Press. p105.
③ Astrid Ronke. Wozu all das Theater? Drama and Theater as a Method for Foreign Language Teaching and Learning in Higher Education in the United States[D]. Technischen Universitat Berlin,2005:170.
① Gumperz, J. J. Engager laconversation. Introduction a la sociolinguistique interactionelle. Paris:Minuit,1989:40-41.
① 具体音效可参考相关网站,多数网站提供免费下载,如http://www.yinxiao.com/(音效网),http://sc.chinaz.com/yinxiao/(素材网)。
① 语言输出能力这里指,即席演讲、连贯叙述、口头评论解说、会议发言等。
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：35-41。
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)
① 参见Bc. Lenka Krivkova. Design of the Workshop:How to use Drama in an English Language Class? [D]. Brno:Masaryk University,2011:71.
② 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：105.
① 坐针毡(Hot seating),也叫热座,是一种锻炼即兴反应的训练方法,这里采用这种方法将所得信息组合成故事,是对“坐针毡”的灵活运用,实际上教师还可以开发出很多种灵活运用“坐针毡”的方式。参见Jonsthan Neelands. Structured Drama Work[A. A Handbook of Available Forms in Theatre and Drama, ed by Tony Goode[C]. Cambridge:Cambridge University Press, 1993:28.
① 参见张晓华.创作性戏剧教学原理与实作[M].上海书店出版社,2011：158。
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发fJ].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)
② 参见韦爱诗编著,杨顺德、俞理明译.开发性戏剧与全方位使用大脑[M].华东师范大学出版社,2003：12-17。
③ 参见韦爱诗编著,杨顺德、俞理明译.开发性戏剧与全方位使用大脑[M].华东师范大学出版社,2003：11。
① 原文为:All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players. They have their exits and their entrances, and one man in his time plays many parts.
② Goffman Erving. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life[M]. New York:Vintage Anchor Publishing,1959.
③ 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)：1-9。
③ Rike, E. K. Guided symbolic dramatic play as the root of literacy. In J. A. Wilkinson (Ed.) The symbolic dramatic play-literacy connection:Whole brain, whole body, whole learning. Needham Heights, MS:Ginn Press.1993:25-42.
④ Rike, E. K. Guided symbolic dramatic play as the root of literacy. In J. A. Wilkinson (Ed.) The symbolic dramatic play-literacy connection:Whole brain, whole body, whole learning. Needham Heights, MS:Ginn Press.1993:31.
① 郑通涛.以效果为基础的对外汉语国别化教材开发[J].国际汉语学报,2012,(2)：1-9。
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