协同学习系统的建构与应用研究
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摘要
无论是从教育变革与学习创新的当代需求,还是从教学目标和学习结果的时代取向,教育者和研究者都强调学习的整体品质和学习者的协调发展。然而现有学习系统的局限性难以支持和关注学习情境中的文化变量和认知变量,从而无法支持知识时代的学习变革。本研究将学习的多维要素引入场动力学视野,提出了协同学习系统(SLS:Synergistic Learning System)这一概念框架,这一新框架以系统协同思想和知识创新建构为基础,对传统学习系统进行了整体论、知识观、个体-群体维度、认知加工维度上的重构与拓展,从整观与协同的思维关注知识创新和协调发展,以适应当前网络时代社会结构和技术要求,满足社会变革和学习创新需要。
协同学习系统定位为知识时代的学习系统新框架,是一个由社会要素和技术要素相互作用构成的、以达成个体协调发展与群体有序互动的有机整体和框架。基于学习系统中的认知加工的深度和认知主体的属性,协同学习系统建立了从文化变量、认知变量到学习技术系统构量之间的映射关系,主张在全人发展学习环境中进行协同汇聚、合作创新,其目标在于促进手脑并用、知行合一、培养情智一体的人。这一新框架的构建与应用无疑是一个复杂的过程。借鉴目前日渐兴起的设计研究范式(DBR:Design-based Research),经过四年多的系统研究,本文初步系统地构建协同学习系统的理论模型与框架、协同学习原理与机制、协同学习设计与应用框架,并通过实证分析来检验和完善协同学习系统模型及其框架,为学习系统变革及教学改革提供了一种理论模型与实践框架。
具体研究思路为,以构建协同学习系统为基本框架,考量新框架的现实意义,选择知识建构作为其应用的核心展开设计研究。在理论—技术—实践—评价反思的交互中精致循环迭代,不断充实研究框架和研究制品。全文共分四个部分:
第一部分为境脉问题分析。包括引言和第一章。通过文献分析、理论阐释与实践观察,分别从知识观、个体-群体维度、学习隐喻和整体观四个层面对学习系统的境脉进行系统的梳理和探析,以回应知识时代学习的李约瑟难题:知识时代在丰富的信息技术条件中个体的知识建构和自身发展反而是成为不能适应时代的发展和需求。本部分主要阐述了问题的提出和研究的意义及必要性,并对相关学习系统框架进行了多层次、多视角的探析。
第二部分为理论建构与模型开发。包括第二章和第三章。在境脉问题分析的基础上,基于教育、心理、课程与教学、教育技术学、信息科学、管理科学等诸多领域众多专家的充实的研究成果,尤其是得益于祝智庭教授的原创性思维,本部分系统地提出了“协同学习系统”这一概念框架,采用理论构建和结构化思维的方法,系统构建了协同学习系统元模型、场域模型及其动力学,分析了协同学习系统的理论框架和实践维度,提炼了支持知识建构的协同学习机制与原理,分别从五个大的原则及二十条推论进行系统建构,分别是深度互动、汇聚共享、集体思维、合作建构及多场协调,为协同学习的实践设计提供了指南。
第三部分为实践设计与应用框架。包括第四章。本部分协同学习设计(Designof Synergistic Learning)一词来表述协同学习系统框架内的学习活动的开发方法,并开发了协同学习设计模型来构建灵活的活动体系和技术环境,以支持协同学习的实现和实践。同时,从协同学习系统元模型及学习原理出发,结合技术的必要隐喻,设计了知识标注工具、集体思维工具以及知识建构工具,并从技术上得以实现,为支持知识建构的协同学习的实践应用提供了支持。通过建构协同学习设计模型,可以建立一种在理论上更加一致的方法来关联不同的模式与学习的期望特征,在教学设计中映射到相关的活动、工具和资源(包括人力和技术的)来支持它。本章首先建构了协同学习设计模型,同时描述这一模式的实践框架,包括活动设计、场域构建、技术设计和知识建构应用框架。
第四部分为扩展评价与实证分析。包括第五章和结语。本研究采用实验研究,以协同学习工具套件为技术系统支持协同学习环境构建实验情境,进行协同学习效果分析和知识建构使能机制研究。研究采用问卷调查、口语报告分析、内容分析等方法进行实证研究。研究支持了协同学习元模型及其知识建构模型的合理性,描述了在学习过程中的知识建构机制,实证了协同学习工具在支持学习者知识建构过程中的作用与效果。在扩展评价部分,以国内有影响力的教改案例作为境脉扩展的依据回馈协同学习的基本框架,进一步论证协同学习系统的合理性与支持知识建构的可行性。结语部分对本研究的主要观点、创新之进行了研究总结,对本研究中的理论建构、技术设计、应用框架以及方法论方面进行了系统审视和反思,并提出了未来研究的取向。
Whether considering from the present demand for the educational reform and learning innovation or the contemporary focus of the instructional objectives and learning results, educators and researchers emphasize the overall quality of learning and the harmonious development of the learners. However, since the limitations of existing learning system make it difficult to support the learning environment and noticing the cultural variables and cognitive variables, it can not support the learning reform emerging in the knowledge era.. This study which introduces the multi-dimensional elements of learning into the dynamics perspective puts forward the conceptual framework of SLS ( Synergistic Learning System ) . As a knowledge-oriented learning system framework based on systematical synergistic thinking and knowledge innovation, SLS expands and reconstructs traditional theories in the aspect of holism, epistemology, ontology and cognitive processing. It focuses on knowledge innovation and harmonious development from the dimension of holistic and synergetic thinking in order to adapt to the current social structure and technical requirements of the network age and to meet the demands for social reform and learning innovation.
Synergistic Learning System is a new framework for the knowledge era, and an element of society and technology which constitutes the elements of interaction in order to achieve coordinated development of individuals and groups in an orderly and interactive framework. Based on the depth of cognitive processing and the feature of the cognitive subject of the learning system, SLS sets up a mapping relationship which advocates synergistic aggregation and cooperative innovation in the learning environment among cultural variables and cognitive variables and learning technological system variables for the sake of a whole person development. Construction and application of this new framework and is a complex process. On the grounds of the current theory of DBR ( Design-based Research ) and more than four years of systematic research, this article initially builds a theoretic model and framework of SLS systematically, mechanisms and principles of synergistic learning, synergistic learning technology system design and its application framework, which are tested and improved by empirical analyses so as to provide a theoretical model and practical framework for the reform of learning system and instruction.
Taking a SLS as the basic framework, the author develops the designed-based research by examining the practical significance of the new framework and selecting knowledge building as part of its core design and furthermore, the framework is gradually refined and enriched and research products are improved in the iterative interaction of theory - technology - practice - reflection The paper is divided into four parts:
The first part is the contextual problem analysis, including Introduction and Chapter I. Through literature analysis, theoretical interpretation and practical observation, from the perspectives of epistemology, ontology, cognitive theory, metaphor and systematic study of four levels of learning system context, the part tries to explain the Needham Puzzle: At the age of knowledge, the individual's knowledge building and self-development can not meet the requirements of the age under the condition of rich information and technology. This section focuses on the puzzle and studies the significance and necessity of the research from the multi-level perspectives.
The second part is divided into theory building and model development, including Chapters II and III. Based on the analysis of the contextual problem and a multitudinous of research results by many experts from the fields such as education, psychology, curriculum and instruction, educational technology, information science and management science, in particular thanks to Professor Zhu Zhiting's original thought, the study systematically puts forward the conceptual framework of "synergistic learning system " , adopting the methods of theoretic construction and structured thinking to establish a meta-model of synergistic learning system, a field model and its dynamics, and analyzes the theoretical framework and its practical dimensions of the synergistic learning system. Meanwhile, the paper refines the synergistic learning mechanisms and principles respectively from the five major principles, which refer to the deep interaction, convergence and sharing, collective thinking, collaborative building and multi-field coordination,and 20 inferences so as to provide a guide to synergistic learning practical design.
Part III is divided into the practice of design and framework application, including Chapter Four. The term of Design of Synergistic Learning is used to describe the methods of development of learning activities carried out in the framework of synergistic learning system, by which a synergistic learning design model is developed to build flexible activity systems and technology environment to in support of the implementation of synergistic learning and practice. Starting from the meta-model of synergistic learning system and synergistic learning principles, combined with the necessary technical metaphor, this part designs and develops the synergistic learning technology system including knowledge annotation tool, collective thinking tools and knowledge building tools for the applications of synergistic learning. As a new framework, SLS is full of flexibility. Therefore, through the construction of the synergistic learning design model, we can set up a more consistent theoretical approach in theory which is associated with the various models and the expectations the characteristics of learning and is mapped to the learning-related activities, tools and resources (including human and technology) in instructional design. This approach reflects the aim to support the theory of practice. This chapter first constructs a model of synergistic learning design, meanwhile describes the practical framework of the model including the design of activities, fields construction, technology design and the application framework of knowledge building.
Part IV aims at the expansion evaluation with the empirical analysis, including Chapter V and Conclusion. Taking the experimental study as the methods and the synergistic learning tools as the technical system to support the construction of the synergistic learning environment, the part intends to analyze the effect of synergistic learning and to study knowledge construction mechanisms. Many others methods of empirical research are used such as a questionnaire survey, oral report analysis, content analysis and other. The study first supports the meta-model of synergistic learning and the rationality of the model of synergistic knowledge building, and then describes the synergistic learning mechanisms. Finally it testifies the function and effect of synergistic learning tools in supporting learners to construct knowledge. The part of expansion evaluation, taking the domestic influential educational reform cases, as the basis of contextual expansion, confirms further the reasonability of the synergistic learning system and feasibility of this new framework. In the part of Conclusion, a summary of study main points is provided, ended with systematic reflection on theoretic construction, technical design, and application framework and methodology aspects. And the further orientations associated with this study.
协同学习系统定位为知识时代的学习系统新框架,是一个由社会要素和技术要素相互作用构成的、以达成个体协调发展与群体有序互动的有机整体和框架。基于学习系统中的认知加工的深度和认知主体的属性,协同学习系统建立了从文化变量、认知变量到学习技术系统构量之间的映射关系,主张在全人发展学习环境中进行协同汇聚、合作创新,其目标在于促进手脑并用、知行合一、培养情智一体的人。这一新框架的构建与应用无疑是一个复杂的过程。借鉴目前日渐兴起的设计研究范式(DBR:Design-based Research),经过四年多的系统研究,本文初步系统地构建协同学习系统的理论模型与框架、协同学习原理与机制、协同学习设计与应用框架,并通过实证分析来检验和完善协同学习系统模型及其框架,为学习系统变革及教学改革提供了一种理论模型与实践框架。
具体研究思路为,以构建协同学习系统为基本框架,考量新框架的现实意义,选择知识建构作为其应用的核心展开设计研究。在理论—技术—实践—评价反思的交互中精致循环迭代,不断充实研究框架和研究制品。全文共分四个部分:
第一部分为境脉问题分析。包括引言和第一章。通过文献分析、理论阐释与实践观察,分别从知识观、个体-群体维度、学习隐喻和整体观四个层面对学习系统的境脉进行系统的梳理和探析,以回应知识时代学习的李约瑟难题:知识时代在丰富的信息技术条件中个体的知识建构和自身发展反而是成为不能适应时代的发展和需求。本部分主要阐述了问题的提出和研究的意义及必要性,并对相关学习系统框架进行了多层次、多视角的探析。
第二部分为理论建构与模型开发。包括第二章和第三章。在境脉问题分析的基础上,基于教育、心理、课程与教学、教育技术学、信息科学、管理科学等诸多领域众多专家的充实的研究成果,尤其是得益于祝智庭教授的原创性思维,本部分系统地提出了“协同学习系统”这一概念框架,采用理论构建和结构化思维的方法,系统构建了协同学习系统元模型、场域模型及其动力学,分析了协同学习系统的理论框架和实践维度,提炼了支持知识建构的协同学习机制与原理,分别从五个大的原则及二十条推论进行系统建构,分别是深度互动、汇聚共享、集体思维、合作建构及多场协调,为协同学习的实践设计提供了指南。
第三部分为实践设计与应用框架。包括第四章。本部分协同学习设计(Designof Synergistic Learning)一词来表述协同学习系统框架内的学习活动的开发方法,并开发了协同学习设计模型来构建灵活的活动体系和技术环境,以支持协同学习的实现和实践。同时,从协同学习系统元模型及学习原理出发,结合技术的必要隐喻,设计了知识标注工具、集体思维工具以及知识建构工具,并从技术上得以实现,为支持知识建构的协同学习的实践应用提供了支持。通过建构协同学习设计模型,可以建立一种在理论上更加一致的方法来关联不同的模式与学习的期望特征,在教学设计中映射到相关的活动、工具和资源(包括人力和技术的)来支持它。本章首先建构了协同学习设计模型,同时描述这一模式的实践框架,包括活动设计、场域构建、技术设计和知识建构应用框架。
第四部分为扩展评价与实证分析。包括第五章和结语。本研究采用实验研究,以协同学习工具套件为技术系统支持协同学习环境构建实验情境,进行协同学习效果分析和知识建构使能机制研究。研究采用问卷调查、口语报告分析、内容分析等方法进行实证研究。研究支持了协同学习元模型及其知识建构模型的合理性,描述了在学习过程中的知识建构机制,实证了协同学习工具在支持学习者知识建构过程中的作用与效果。在扩展评价部分,以国内有影响力的教改案例作为境脉扩展的依据回馈协同学习的基本框架,进一步论证协同学习系统的合理性与支持知识建构的可行性。结语部分对本研究的主要观点、创新之进行了研究总结,对本研究中的理论建构、技术设计、应用框架以及方法论方面进行了系统审视和反思,并提出了未来研究的取向。
Whether considering from the present demand for the educational reform and learning innovation or the contemporary focus of the instructional objectives and learning results, educators and researchers emphasize the overall quality of learning and the harmonious development of the learners. However, since the limitations of existing learning system make it difficult to support the learning environment and noticing the cultural variables and cognitive variables, it can not support the learning reform emerging in the knowledge era.. This study which introduces the multi-dimensional elements of learning into the dynamics perspective puts forward the conceptual framework of SLS ( Synergistic Learning System ) . As a knowledge-oriented learning system framework based on systematical synergistic thinking and knowledge innovation, SLS expands and reconstructs traditional theories in the aspect of holism, epistemology, ontology and cognitive processing. It focuses on knowledge innovation and harmonious development from the dimension of holistic and synergetic thinking in order to adapt to the current social structure and technical requirements of the network age and to meet the demands for social reform and learning innovation.
Synergistic Learning System is a new framework for the knowledge era, and an element of society and technology which constitutes the elements of interaction in order to achieve coordinated development of individuals and groups in an orderly and interactive framework. Based on the depth of cognitive processing and the feature of the cognitive subject of the learning system, SLS sets up a mapping relationship which advocates synergistic aggregation and cooperative innovation in the learning environment among cultural variables and cognitive variables and learning technological system variables for the sake of a whole person development. Construction and application of this new framework and is a complex process. On the grounds of the current theory of DBR ( Design-based Research ) and more than four years of systematic research, this article initially builds a theoretic model and framework of SLS systematically, mechanisms and principles of synergistic learning, synergistic learning technology system design and its application framework, which are tested and improved by empirical analyses so as to provide a theoretical model and practical framework for the reform of learning system and instruction.
Taking a SLS as the basic framework, the author develops the designed-based research by examining the practical significance of the new framework and selecting knowledge building as part of its core design and furthermore, the framework is gradually refined and enriched and research products are improved in the iterative interaction of theory - technology - practice - reflection The paper is divided into four parts:
The first part is the contextual problem analysis, including Introduction and Chapter I. Through literature analysis, theoretical interpretation and practical observation, from the perspectives of epistemology, ontology, cognitive theory, metaphor and systematic study of four levels of learning system context, the part tries to explain the Needham Puzzle: At the age of knowledge, the individual's knowledge building and self-development can not meet the requirements of the age under the condition of rich information and technology. This section focuses on the puzzle and studies the significance and necessity of the research from the multi-level perspectives.
The second part is divided into theory building and model development, including Chapters II and III. Based on the analysis of the contextual problem and a multitudinous of research results by many experts from the fields such as education, psychology, curriculum and instruction, educational technology, information science and management science, in particular thanks to Professor Zhu Zhiting's original thought, the study systematically puts forward the conceptual framework of "synergistic learning system " , adopting the methods of theoretic construction and structured thinking to establish a meta-model of synergistic learning system, a field model and its dynamics, and analyzes the theoretical framework and its practical dimensions of the synergistic learning system. Meanwhile, the paper refines the synergistic learning mechanisms and principles respectively from the five major principles, which refer to the deep interaction, convergence and sharing, collective thinking, collaborative building and multi-field coordination,and 20 inferences so as to provide a guide to synergistic learning practical design.
Part III is divided into the practice of design and framework application, including Chapter Four. The term of Design of Synergistic Learning is used to describe the methods of development of learning activities carried out in the framework of synergistic learning system, by which a synergistic learning design model is developed to build flexible activity systems and technology environment to in support of the implementation of synergistic learning and practice. Starting from the meta-model of synergistic learning system and synergistic learning principles, combined with the necessary technical metaphor, this part designs and develops the synergistic learning technology system including knowledge annotation tool, collective thinking tools and knowledge building tools for the applications of synergistic learning. As a new framework, SLS is full of flexibility. Therefore, through the construction of the synergistic learning design model, we can set up a more consistent theoretical approach in theory which is associated with the various models and the expectations the characteristics of learning and is mapped to the learning-related activities, tools and resources (including human and technology) in instructional design. This approach reflects the aim to support the theory of practice. This chapter first constructs a model of synergistic learning design, meanwhile describes the practical framework of the model including the design of activities, fields construction, technology design and the application framework of knowledge building.
Part IV aims at the expansion evaluation with the empirical analysis, including Chapter V and Conclusion. Taking the experimental study as the methods and the synergistic learning tools as the technical system to support the construction of the synergistic learning environment, the part intends to analyze the effect of synergistic learning and to study knowledge construction mechanisms. Many others methods of empirical research are used such as a questionnaire survey, oral report analysis, content analysis and other. The study first supports the meta-model of synergistic learning and the rationality of the model of synergistic knowledge building, and then describes the synergistic learning mechanisms. Finally it testifies the function and effect of synergistic learning tools in supporting learners to construct knowledge. The part of expansion evaluation, taking the domestic influential educational reform cases, as the basis of contextual expansion, confirms further the reasonability of the synergistic learning system and feasibility of this new framework. In the part of Conclusion, a summary of study main points is provided, ended with systematic reflection on theoretic construction, technical design, and application framework and methodology aspects. And the further orientations associated with this study.
引文
[1]茅卫东,李炳亭.杜郎口中学的非典型教改[N].中国教师报,2006-03-22
[1]王红艳.隋唐文化[CD].杜郎口中学课堂实录,2006.03.03
[1]教育学现象学(pedagoyg+phenomenology)是新兴的一个教育学领域,倡导教育本质是我们与处在教育关系中的儿童、青年或长者之间的生活方式。范梅南是这一领域的开创者之一。参见:马克斯·范梅南.《教育的机制——教育智慧的意蕴》[M].钟启泉,张华主编,李树英主译.北京:教育科学出版社,2001:18
[2]如今的信息时代,学校场所中知识的掌握与素质的提升恰似成为一种悖论.英国著名诗人托马斯·斯特尔那斯·艾略特在《岩石》(The Rock)的首段写道:“知识中的智慧我们在那里丢失?资讯中的知识我们在那里丢失?”(Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?/Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?)。其实,作者以诗一般的语言道出了当今知识管理界和教学领域的一个重要问题,即数据-信息-知识-智慧的转变问题,也就是DIKW体系,一般认为,当中每一层比下一层赋予某些特质。数据层是最基本的.信息层加入内容。知识层加入“如何去使用”,智慧层加入“什么时候才用”.DIKW体系常用于信息科学及知识管理。这个模型可以追溯于哈蓝·克利夫兰,基于1982年12月在《未来主义者》杂志中的文章“资讯有如资源”构建此体系。后来这个体系得到米兰·瑟兰尼(Milan Zeleny)及罗素·艾可夫(Russell.L.Ackoff)不断的扩展。当前教学和教师教育领域对此体系的关注也成为热点,这个问题在后续有关知识建构的章节中会得到详细的论述。
[3]关于整体性学习,参见The holistic learning and spirituality in education network,http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/field/miller-ased.html。国内学者系统研究了整体性课程,参见:安桂清.整体课程论[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2007
[4]从语义比较的视角来看,知识建构是一个含糊的词汇,既可对应“Knowledge Construction”一词,强调知识的建构特征;也可翻译为“Knowledge Building”,强调知识的创新特质。作为一种较为系统的学习观点,本文“知识建构”如无特指,均为“Knowledge Building”,也即加拿大学者Marlene Scardamalia & Carl Belier(1992、2002)所创建的关于学习的一种隐喻.在本文第一章有详细的阐述.
[1]安迪·哈格里夫斯.知识社会中的教学[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2007:1
[1]王厥轩.素质教育与民族创新精神培养[J].教育发展研究.1999(9):15-20
[2]马斯洛.人性能达的境界[M].昆明:云南人民出版,1987:97
[1]祝智庭教授多次在不同场合阐述此思想,并在多种著述中系统地论述了这一观点。协同学习系统的架构本身也重点关注这一要义。详见:祝智庭.教育信息化:教育技术的新高地[J].中国电化教育,2001(1);祝智庭.关于教育信息化的技术哲学观透视[J].华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1999(2);Zhu Z.T.(1996).Cross-Cultural Portability of Educational Software:A Communication-OrientedApproach,98-166.University of Twente,Netherlands.
[2]关于新课程改革中“知识与素质”的争论,可以参考如下文献:刘硕.“重建知识概念”辨.教育学报,2006(1):48-53;钟启泉.概念重建与基础教育课程改革[J].北京大学教育评论,2004(4);钟启泉,有宝华.发霉的奶酪[J].教育发展研究,2004(10);刘硕.传授知识是教师的神圣职责——试论知识传授的作用与价值[J].中国教育学刊,2004(5);王策三.认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮——再评“应试教育”向素质教育转轨提法[J].北京大学教育评论,2004(3)
[1]与通约性相对的是不可通约性(incommensurability),“不可通约性”观点是库恩在其著作《科学革命的结构》中提出来的。库恩认为在一门科学形成之前必然要经历一段杂乱无章的前科学时期,直到某一规范得到某一科学团体坚持,并将其发扬广大,得到社会认可时才进入到一个常规科学时期,科学共同体的主要任务是扩大范式的范围和精确性,他们通过各种观察和试验来验证和发展常规科学确立的规范。参见:托马斯·库恩.科学革命的结构[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2003
[2]祝智庭教授曾经在国际上提出信息化教育信息的文化分类模型,分别从个体主义-集体主义/客观主义-主观主义对现有24种信息化教育系统进行了分类。从这一分类中可以看出,这里所界定的信息化教育系统也并非指技术系统或者技术平台,而是一种学习系统的泛称。此处所指信息化教育系统是指包含一定教学模式的社会-技术整体。参见:祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰编著,现代教育技术——走进信息化教育[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005:157
[1][德]赫尔曼·哈肯.协同学——大自然构成的奥秘[M].上海:上海译文出版社,2001.2.
[2]Roger T.Johnson & David W.Jhonson.Differences Between Collaborative and CooperativeLearning[DB/OL].http://www.id.ucsb.edu/IC/Resources/Collab-L/xxx.html.2009-02-15
[1]2005年底至2006年初,导师祝智庭教授多次指导本人采用设计研究方法来展开协同学习研究,尤其是广州TCL博士后流动站的一次研究事务中(2006.1)与本人彻夜长谈关于设计研究与协同学习之整合,使本人深受启发。此后,除了身体力行采用设计研究推进协同学习研发工作,祝智庭教授不遗余力地推动设计研究在国内的传播和应用,以提升教育技术研究品质.主要活动有(1)推介了荷兰特温特大学Janvanden Akker教授编著的《Educational Design Resesrch》一书,(2)并于2006.12月召开了教育设计研究国际高级研修班,聘请了国际设计研究领域知名学者进行讲习和指导,极大推动了设计研究在国内的传播.
[2]祝智庭.设计研究作为教育技术的创新研究范式[J].电化教育研究,2008(10):30-31;
[3]Wang,F.,& Hannafin,M.J.Design-Based Research and Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments.Educational Technology Research and Development,2005(53)4,5-23.
[1]祝智庭.设计研究作为教育技术的创新研究范式[J].电化教育研究,2008(10):30-31;
[2]何云峰.从意见表达转向科学式探究.社会科学报[N].2004年2月26日,第六版.
[3]朱志勇.教育研究方法论范式与方法的反思[J].教育研究与实验,2005(1):7-12
[4]吴康宁.教育研究应研究什么样的‘问题':兼谈‘真'问题的判断标准[J].教育研究,2002(11):8-11
[5]关于设计研究(design-based research),也称为基于设计的研究,本研究认为,与其说是一种研究方法,更不如说它是一种方法论,一种研究观或者是一种研究框架.设计研究源于20世纪90年代布朗(Brown,1992)和柯林斯(Collins,1992)在重新反思教育研究的定位、思路和方法的基础上,提出的“设计实验”和“设计型研究”.而在荷兰的传统中,更多的称为发展性研究(developmental research),源于课程开发和改革领域的一种形成性研究思路.不管是欧洲传统还是美国传统,基于设计的研究目的在于通过形成行研究过程来检验和改进基于有关原理和先期研究而得出的教育设计.一般都采用“逐步改进”的设计和工程领域的方法,把最初的设计付诸实施,看其效果如何,根据来自实践的反馈不断改进,直至排除缺陷,形成一种更为可靠而有效的设计,从中我们可以看出,基于设计的研究的目的不是简单地改进实践,它承担着改进实践和完善理论的双重使命(Allan et al,2004).设计研究需要在现实的学习情境中(如学校和课堂)进行干预设计和实施,其中涉及各种制约因素,研究者不是努力控制各种干扰变量,而是在自然情境中考察设计和干预方案中各个要素的实施状况,尽量使设计最优化.从上述解释中我们可以看出,基于设计的研究其实是一种学习型的研究范型,是软系统方法论中的一种,倡导采用工程设计的思路来改进教学实践,提倡理论和技术的创新传播和扩散.因此,它本身不是一种方法,没有严格的研究程序和原则,仅仅为教育研究者提供一种研究观和展开框架.基于设计的研究20世纪90年代末期左右随着学习科学的提出在欧美一些刊物中曾经集中讨论.比如,Kurt D.Squire也认为,基于设计的研究是一个从事教育技术学研究的功能强大的范式.此外,需要说明的是,本文作为博士研究论文,并没有采用设计研究的流程行文,一是目前国际上并无统一和成熟的设计研究流程,二是考虑博士论文应该是“研究论文”,而不是“研究报告”.因此,这里展示的是设计研究的迭代结果,而流程隐含其中.具体的流程见接下来的“研究架构”部分内容.
[1]参见如下文献:Rust,V.D.(2003).“Method snd Methodology in Comparative Education(editorial),”Comparative Education Review,Vol.47,No.3;Metz,M.H.(2000).Sociology and Qualitative Methodologies in Educational Research.Harvard Educational Review,Vol.70,No.1,pp.60-74;Pawaon,R.(1990).Methodology.In Steve Taylor(ed.).Sociology:Issues sad Debates,London:Macmillan.
[1]戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群译,高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:2
[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.Instructional technology & distance learning,January 2005,Vol.2.No.1:3-10
[2]会议概况参见ISTE,NETS·S-2007,http://www.iste.org
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文.2005.6.在该博士论文的《第三章:促进学习者发展;知识时代教学设计的主旨》,系统综述了知识时代的典型特征及其对教育的影响,可以参照.
[2]新华网巴黎2003年9月29日电(记者杨骏王敬诚).
[3]不同领域的学者对于信息社会和知识社会的理解和观点不一.本文比较认同:信息社会和知识社会均属于后工业社会,是一个高度工业化的社会,社会的发展高度依赖的不是物质,而是智力资源,大多数人的工作不是生产商品,而是从事信息工作,价值的增加主要靠知识,它是使人类智能和创造能力普遍开发的一种社会.知识社会的核心是“为了创造和应用人类发展所必需的知识而确定、生产、处理、转化、传播和使用信息的能力.正如教科文组织在信息社会世界首脑会议第一阶段会议上所强调指出的那样,知识社会的概念比技术和连接概念更加丰富,更加有利于自主化,尽管技术和连接概念常常是人们在讨论信息社会中的中心问题.参见联合国教科文组织世界报告系列.从信息社会迈向知识社会:建设知识共享的二十一世纪,http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/education/knowledgesooiety/1.html,2009-3-3
[1]Trilling,B.,Hood,P.(1999),“Learning,Technology,and Education Reform in the Knowledge Age or‘We're Wired,Webbed,And Windowed,Now What?'”,Educational Technology,39(5-6):17-18
[2]英国著名生物化学家李约瑟,曾因胚胎发育的生化研究而取得巨大成就,后来他又以中国科技史研究的杰出贡献成为权威,并在其编著的15卷《中国科学技术史》中正式提出了著名的“李约瑟难题”:“如果我的中国朋友们在智力上和我完全一样,那为什么像伽利略、拓利拆利、斯蒂文、牛顿这样的伟大人物都是欧洲人,而不是中国人或印度人呢?为什么近代科学和科学革命只产生在欧洲呢?……为什么直到中世纪中国还比欧洲先进,后来却会让欧洲人领先了呢?怎么会产生这样的转变呢?”其实李约瑟一直强调其问题是把双刃的剑。此处作为一种两难问题的隐喻。即在时代变革中教育的发展反而不能适应知识时代对人才和教育的基本需求。
[3]引自祝智庭.网络核心课程与项目的发展[R].海南三亚.2008.2.25
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文.2004.6
[2]桑标,贡晔.网络依赖与心理的关系.当代青年研究,2001(5):31-35.此症也称为“筑波病”,发现于日本筑波,蔓延于全球.适用人群包括科技工作者与脑力劳动者,症状包括寂寞、心理压抑、烦躁不安、恍惚、忧虑、性格孤僻、喜怒无常、思维及判断力下降等,又称“信息消化不良”、“信息过剩综合症”或“信息污染综合症”.
[3]关于强调人的整体发展的教育思潮,大致包括整观教育(holistic education)、全人教育(whole-person education)、整体性教育(wholistic education)、全方位教育(Life-Wide Learning)等等,有几个相近的词汇需要澄清和理解.不同的术语处于不同的研究立场和重点,但都强调学习的整体性和整观思维的指导.整观思维(holistic thinking)是全人教育共同的思维——整全观(holism),整全观(holism)基本上主张每一样东西都以关系网络互相连结,任何一样变动都会导致连锁反应,无论其变动多么微小,因此应该从[整体]上去追求个人[精神的感性与平和],而不是片面、零碎的.整体的(wholistic)与全人有关——身体、心智和精神——整体大于部分之和的观念有关.整观的(Holistic)是包含整体的(Wholistic)以及本体是一个相互连接的整体的观念——整体论。实际上关于这样一个概念能否以及是否应该被定义或者以这种方式包含其中也存在争议.可参照John Heron,.Model of Holistic Learning[DB/OL].http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/holist.html,2009-3-24。目前还没有一个关于整体教育的定义。本研究使用整观教育来指称。详见本章第五节的阐述。
[1]世界学前教育组织(OMEP)和国际儿童教育协会(ACEI)在1999年召开的“21世纪国际幼儿教育研讨会”上,通过了《全球幼儿教育大纲》。
[2]Andrew Zolli,Creativity and Innovation[ED/OB],http://center.uoregon.edu/ISTE/NECC2007,2008-10-11
[1]21st Century Skill:Literacy in the Digital Age,http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/12/12/2008.
[2]祝智庭.信息技术与创新教育:技术哲学观的透视.见:丁钢主编.创新:新世纪教育使命[M].北京:教育科学出版社,1999
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文,2004.6
[2]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文,2004.6
[1]Bob Pearlman,Designing and Making:The New American High School[ED/OB]http:/www.newtechfoundation.org/press_articles/02_03_Technos.pdf,2008-09-22
[2]Kenschner,P.,van Vilsteren,P.,Hummel,H & Wigman,M.(1997),The Design of a Study Environment for Acquiring Academic and Professional Competence,Studies in Higher Education,22(2):151-172,Taylor & FrancisLtd.http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals[ED/OB],2008-10-11
[1]Knowledge is experience.Everything else is just information.转引自Richard McDermott(2002).Knowing is a human act.Informatik/Informatique,2002(1)
[2]Hill,J.& M.Hannafin(2001).Teaching and learning in digital environments:the resurgence of resource-based learning ETR&D Vol.49(3),38
[1]钟启泉.概念重建与我国课程创新——与《认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮》作者商榷[J].北京大学教育评论.2005(1)
[1]对知识的不同理解和不同分类方法,构成了我们理解现在世界的一种方式.按照亚里士多德的分类方法,他把知识分为:理论的知识(数学、自然科学、形而上学)、实践的知识(伦理、政治、经济和修辞学)和创造的知识(诗学),这种分类方法假定了理论的知识是一切知识之源,这种分类方法,伴随着的重要思想包括:对文本的阐释、理解的传统。按照福柯的分类方法,他是把从文艺复兴到现代的知识类型分为了三个不同的阶段,并且这三个不同的阶段都发生了一定的断裂.比如文艺复兴时期是“神圣代码的时代”,任何事物彼此都存在着一种相似和呼应,知识是“上帝写下的一部大书”,到了古典时期,“测量表”时期出现了,比如各类周期表,比如我们观察到的各类地图,然后到了现代,“人”的时期到来了,人的功能取代了另两个时期.这些分类方法属于哲学和知识社会学层次,此暂不作讨论.
[2][美]L.斯特弗.高文.徐斌艳.程可拉等译.教育中的建构主义[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002.
[1]张燕,黄荣怀.教育目标分类学2001版对我国教学改革的启示[J].中国电化教育,2005(7):16-20
[1][美]多拉·豪维尔.王爽译.批判性思维和创造性思维——推动知识社会前进的主要动力[J].全球教育展望,2001,(12)
[1]A.Dean Hauenstein(1988).A conceptual framework for educational objectives:a holistic approach to traditional taxonomies,University Press of America.;96-100;转引马兰,盛群力.教育目标分类新架构——豪恩斯坦教学系统观与目标分类整合模式述评.中国电化教育.2005(7)
[2]A.Dean Hauenstein(1995).A conceptual framework for eduoationai objectives:a holistic approach to traditional taxonomies,University Press of America.;96-100;转引马兰、盛群力.教育目标分类新架构——豪恩斯坦教学系统观与目标分类整合模式述评.中国电化教育.2005(7)
[1][美)多拉·豪维尔.王爽译.批判性思维和创造性思维——推动知识社会前进的主要动力[J].全球教育展望.2001(12)
[2][美]R.Wurman 著,李银胜等译.信息饥渴——信息选取,表达与透析[M].北京:电子工业出版社.2001.35.
[1]钟启泉.概念重建与我国课程创新——与《认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮》作者商榷[M].北京大学教育评论.2005(1)
[1]冯小素,潘正权.行动中的知识——企业作为知识整合的中心[J],科学学与科学技术管理,2004,(6):28-30
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[1]顾自安.群体认知与行为模式[DB/OL].http://www.chinavalue.net/Article/Archive/2007/12/8/90959.html,2009-3-4
[1][美]Richard A.Schmuck & Patricia A.Schmuck著,廖珊.郭建鹏等译,班级中的群体化过程(第八版)[M],北京:中国轻工业出版社,2006:47
[2]祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰.现代教育技术——走进教育信息化[M].高等教育出版社,2005:94
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[1]祝智庭 顾小清 闫寒冰.现代教育技术:走向信息化教育[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005:140
[2]钟启泉.教学活动理论的考察[J].教育研究.2005(5)
[1]国内有学者对学习隐喻作了系统的梳理和译介,比如浙江大学盛群力教授在其著作《教学设计》一书中引用梅耶(Mayer)的观点,从隐喻的视角对学习类型进行了划分,三种隐喻分别为:(1)学习就是增加反映;(2)学习就是获得知识;(3)学习就是知识建构等;这种隐喻划分基本上是按照学习理论的发展脉络的,具有积极的参考价值。盛群力等编著.教学设计[M].北京:高等教育出版社.2005:166-168;任友群教授系统归纳了目前为止的各种隐喻.任友群.以学习者为中心的建构主义学习环境的建构[J].教育科学,2002,(4);戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群等译.高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:26-28
[1]董革非,颜晓川.论隐喻的基本语义特征所体现的人类思维方式[J].东北大学学报(社会科学版),2006,(2)
[2]束定芳.论隐喻产生的认知,心理和语言原因[J].外语学刊,2000,(2)
[1]邵志方.认知心理学——理论、实验和应用[M].上海:上海教育出版社.2006(12):116-230
[1]田也壮.张莉.方淑芬.组织记忆的多层次分布式构成[J].哈尔滨工业大学学报.2006(7):1059-1061
[2]Hunt,N.(2002).Review of Voices of Collective Remembering by James Wertsch.Human Nature Review.2:528-530.
[3]顾自安.群体认知与行为模式[DB/OL].http://www.chinavalue.net/Article/Archive/2007/12/8/90959.html,2009-3-4
[4]J.莱夫,E-温格著.王文静译.高文审校.情景学习:合法的边缘性参与[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2004
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架——促进学习者发展[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社,2006:128-156
[1]参见:学习系统设计:改进教学的途径(Learning System Design:An Approach to the Improvement to Instruction)原著/Robert H.Davis Lawrence T.Alexander Stephen L.Yelon(Michigan State University),出版/McGraw-Hill Book Company,1974.盛群力.褚献华编译.现代教学设计应用模式[M],杭州:浙江教育出版社,2002
[1][美]戴尔·H·申克著.韦小满等译.张斌贤审校.学习理论:教育的视角(第三版)[M].南京:江苏教育出版社,2003:3
[2][美]戴尔·H·申克著.韦小满等译.张斌贤审校.学习理论:教育的视角(第三版)[M].南京:江苏教育出版社,2003:1
[3]Rodney H.Clarken(2005,2003).A Model for Individual,Institutional and Community Development.Paper presented at the Social and Economic Development Conference,Orlando,FL,December 14-18,2005.Knowing,Loving and Willing:Basic Capacities for Developing Human Potential.Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Educational Research Association,Chicago,April 21-24,2003
[1]在2002年的一个报告中,作者使用的词为:creating,在后续的研究中采用conation.见Rodney H.Clarken.Developing Human Potential.School of Education Northern Michigan University
[2][美]H.Gardner.沈致隆.多元智能——哈佛大学当代心理教育名著[M].北京:新华出版社,1999
[3]Gardner的多元智力观与中国古代“六艺”中的智力观具有惊人的相似之处,“六艺”的内容:五礼、六乐、五射、五御、六书、九数。礼——人际智力,乐——音乐智力,射——身体运动智力,御——空间智力,书——语言智力,数——数学-逻辑智力。参见:林崇德.质疑加德纳”多元智力”--兼论多元智力与思维结构.科技文萃,2005(01)。林教授认为,重行为、重修炼,这是古代中国学习的优秀传统。王夫之说:“行焉,可以得知之效也;知焉,未可以得行之效也。”荀子说:“不闻不若闻之,闻之不若见之,见之不若知之,知之不若行之。”在学习的整个流程里,行处于至高无上的地位。只有靠实践,靠实行,才能真正改变了人,改变了人的素质。颜习斋也说:“读得书来,口会说,笔会做,都不济事,须是身上行出,才算学问。
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[2]可以认为,豪恩斯坦的教育目标分类“整合模式”是对布卢姆等人教育目标分类之“要素法”的一种大胆超越,体现了教育目标分类上的新视野。见马兰.盛群力.教育目标分类新架构——豪恩斯坦教学系统观与目标分类整合模式述评.中国电化教育.2005,(7)
[1]L.W.安德森.L.A.索斯尼克主编.谭晓玉.袁文辉等译.布卢姆教育目标分类--40年的回顾[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,1998:1-10.
[2]马兰.实现掌握知识和发展智能的统一——豪恩斯坦认知领域目标新架构及其启示,全球教育展望,2005(4)
[1]盛群力.李志强编著.现代教学设计论[M].杭州:浙江教育出版社.1998;马兰.盛群力.学习的维度要览[J].上海教育科研,2004(9)
[1]Reeves,T.C..Technology and the conative learning domain in undergraduate education.Invited presentation at EDUCAUSE ELI 2008,2008,January,San Antonio,TX.
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[1]Campbell & Cleveland Innes(2005),Emotional Presence in the Community of Inquiry Model:The Students'Viewpoint.ww.uwex.edu/disted/conference/Resource_library/handouts/05_2024P.pdf,2007-3-9
[1]Clark N.Quinn(2006).Making It Matter to the Learner:e-Motional e-Learning,The eLearning Guild's learning solutions:practical applications of technology for learning,April 3,2006
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[1]Renate.N.Caine,Geoffrey.Caine(1999).What we know about learning,Data Training.1999(9)
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[1]祝智庭.王佑镁.顾小清.协同学习——面向知识时代的学习技术系统新框架.中国电化教育.2006(2)
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[1]Roger T.Johnson & David W.Jhonson.Differences Between Collaborative and Cooperative Learning[DB/OL].http://www.id.ucsb.edu/IC/Resources/Collab-L/xxx.html.2009-3-8
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[3]J.莱夫,E·温格著,王文静译,高文审校,情景学习:合法的边缘性参与[M],上海:华东师范大学出版社,2004
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[1][美]]Morris L.Bigge,Samuel S.Shermis著.徐蕴.张军等译.郝京华审校.写给教师的学习心理学[M].中国轻工业出版社,2005:15
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[3]在情境理论中,心理学取向的情境理论十分关注改革学校情境下的学习,因此特别注意达到特定的学习目标和学会特定的内容,其研究重点是真实的学习活动中的情境化,中心问题就是创建实习场,在这个实习场中,学生遇到的问题和进行的实践与今后校外所遇到的是一致的。见戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群等译.高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:38-39
[1]Gjedde,L.(1998) Making Sense of Science:Experience as Cognition through the Use of Narrative in Popular Soience.Paper presented at:IAMCR,University of Glasgow.In the Beginning Was the Experience
[2]Gjedde,L.(1998) Making Sense of Soience:Experience as Cognition through the Use of Narrative in Popular Science.Paper presented at:IAMCR,University of Glasgow.In the Beginning Was the Experience
[1]情绪、情感、感情的含义。从语言比较角度分析,商务印书馆所编《辞海》和汉语大辞典出版社的《汉语大词典》对情绪的解释基本相同:情绪最初指缠绵的情意,对情感,虽所用表达词汇不同,但意义大致相似,都是外界刺激而引起的不同心理状态。《辞海》对情感所下定义为“有所触动而起的心理状态”;《汉语大词典》中,情感解释为受外界刺激而产生的心理反应“人受,如喜、怒、悲、恐、爱、憎等。但对“感情”一词,语言似乎不够清晰,有含糊之嫌。二本辞典都将“感情”解释为“触动情感”,《辞海》补充道“后称有外界事物的刺激而引起的喜怒哀乐等心理反应为感情”,《汉语大词典》补充的是“感情外界刺激所反映的心情”。结合情绪、情感、感情的中文内涵和“emotion”、“affect”、“feeling”之含义,可看来emotion 既可指情感,也可指情绪,感情可用英文feeling(s)表示。感谢罗红卫博士关于此语义的系统比较。(2008.12)
[2]Reeves,T.C.(2008).Technology and the conative learning domain in undergraduate education.Invited presentation at EDUCAUSE ELI 2008,January,San Antonio,TX.
[3]Citation:Huitt,W.,& Cain,S.(2005).An overview of the conative domain.Educational Psychology Interactive.Valdosta,GA:Valdosta State University.http://teach.valdosta.edu/whuitt/brilstar/chapters/conative.doc,2009-03-08
[1]波林.实验心理学史[M].北京:商务印书馆,1981,关于技能心理学还可以参照:Hearnshaw L.S.A short history of British psychology:1840—1940.London:Butler & Tanner Ltd..1964.Stout,G.F.Analytical psychology.London London University Press.1896.
[2]钟启泉.教学活动理论的考察[J].教育研究.2005(5)
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[1][英]乔治·旺·科鲁夫.L kujiro Nonaka and Toshihiro Nishiguchi著.北乔译.知识创新:价值的源泉[M],北京:经济管理出版社,2003:88
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[2]王佑镁.祝智庭.从联接主义到联通主义:学习理论新取向[J].中国电化教育.2006(2)
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[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.Instructional technology & distance learning.2005(1):3-9
[2]同上
[1]戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年.任友群译.高文审校,学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学,2002:113
[1]Q&A on connectivism,http://www2.wznc.zj.cn/physics/et/courselog/index.asp[ED/OB],2005-10-20
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[3]同上,139
[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age[J].Instructional technology & distance learning.2005(01)
[2]同上.
[3]莱斯利·P·斯特弗.里·盖尔主编.高文.徐斌燕.程可拉等译.教育中的建构主义[M],上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:127
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[3]制品(artifacts)一词源于考古学,表明考古过程中各种发现物,采用制品的表述表明对中介对象的过程性。Knowledge Artifacts借用于知识和教育领域便特指学习和思维过程中表征最佳实践或者过程的记录物(records of previous projects,emphasizing best practices and lessons learned)。如祝智庭在《教育技术的实践场分析》一文中提出,技术系统产生的结果是物化的技术制品(technological artifact)或称“硬制品”;软技术系统的操作对象为社会人文要素,产生的结果是非物化的概念制品(conceptual artifact)或行为制品(behavioral artifact),可称为“软制品”,参见祝智庭,王佑镁,顾小清.教育技术的实践场分析.电化教育研究,2005(11);赵国庆,黄荣怀,陆志坚在《知识可视化的理论与方法》一文中指出,知识制品是我们日常处理的对象,如我们写的报告、发送的邮件和阅读的书刊等;按照Newman(2003)的观点,知识制品具有双重含义:认知知识制品(cognitive Knowledge artifact)和物理知识制品(physical Knowledge artifact)。认知知识制品是指对真实物理世界的了解和理解,通常被简化为“知识”;物理知识制品则是指认知知识制品的表示法。认知知识制品侧重于内容,物理知识制品侧重于表现形式。参见赵国庆,黄荣怀,陆志坚.知识可视化的理论与方法.开放教育研究.2005(1)
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[2]值得一提的是,文献中深度学习的对立面表述多有两种表达方式,即surface leraning和shallow learning,从解释来看,两者都是作为深度学习的比较面而出现的,并无本质上的差异,在本文中统称为“浅表学习”。国家新课课程标准其实也蕴含深度学习思想。课程标准要求注重提高全体学生的科学素养;注重自主学习,让学生积极参与、乐于探究、勇于实验、勤于思考,提倡教学方式多样化;关注过程性评价,注意学生的个体差异,帮助学生认识自我、建立自信,促进学生在原有水平上发展,重视评价的内在激励功能和诊断功能;认为学习重心应该从过分强调知识的传承和积累向知识的探究过程转化;从学生被动接受知识向主动获取知识转化;培养学生的科学探究能力、实事求是的科学态度和敢于创新的探索精神。
[1]Carl Bereiter(2003).Bringing Classrooms Into the Knowledge Age.Lecture presented at the Conference on Reform Initiatives in Teaching and Learning,University of Macau,28 November 2003.The Ontario Institute of the University of Toronto
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[1]关于协同学习原理和机制的开发,主要借鉴Merrill关于“首要教学原理”的开发方法。在开发过程中,Merrill赞同Reigo|uth所谓的基本方法之说。Reigeluth(1999)提出有两类基本的教学方法,一类是“基本方法”,另一种是“变通方法”。参见:Charles M.Reigeluth(]999).Instructional Design Theories and Models:A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory.Vol.2,LEA publishers:52-55。Merrill之所以称之为教学的“首要原理”,是将“变通方法”看成是在课程方案和教学实践中灵活变通的方法。一项“原理”(基本方法)是一种关系,这种关系不管具体的课程方案或教学实践如何变化(变通方法),只要有适当的条件,它总是成立的。一项“实践”是指某一具体的教学活动。依据此,Merrill提出了各种设计理论和模式都共同体现的几条原理,他认为,无需去确定这些原理有哪些经验性实证结果。作者假设,一条教学原理就算没有经过充分的实证,但如果这么多不同的教学设计理论都聚焦于它,那么,这一教学原理要么是通过经验提炼出来的,要么是通过已有的研究确认的。Merrill,M.D(2002).First principles of instruction.Educational Technology Research and Development.50(3),43-59.盛群力,马兰节译.首要教学原理[J].远程教育杂志,2003(4)20-26.完整译文参见盛群力.马兰.首要教学原理.新认识.远程教育杂志.2005(4);http://www.ced.zju.edu.cn/id/index.asp,2009-3-26
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[1]Motta E,Vargas Vera M,et al.MnM:Ontology Driven Semi2Automatic and Automatic Support for Semantic Mark2up[A].Semantic Authoring,Annotation & Knowledge Markup Workshop[C].ECAI 2002,Lyon France,July 22-26,2002.
[1]Farber,D.;Baron,P.(1977).The convergence of computing and telecommunication systems,Science 195,March 18,1166--1170.
[2]最佳的译法当然是根据convergence一词不同语境下的不同涵义将其分别翻译成合并(如媒体所有权合并Convergence of Ownership)、联合(如媒体战术性联合Convergenoe of Media Tactics)、融合或整合(如媒体科技融合/整合Convergence in Media Technology),在教育与学习领域一般称之为汇聚,与此相近的一个词汇就是congregation及aggregation,一般翻为聚合。
[1]祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰.现代教育技术——走进教育信息化[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005.7:95
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[1]RSS有几个缩写源;A、Really Simple Syndication(真正简易的聚合);B、Rioh Site Summary(丰富的站点摘要);C、RDF Site Summary(RDF站点摘要)。这是一种站点与站点之间共享内容的简易方式,现在通常被用于订阅Blog。使用RSS,用户就可以发现,不但可以减少许多微内容的查找时间,而且连自己在互联网上的阅读习惯都可以改变。Tag(标签):这是一种灵活有趣的日志分类方式,使用者可以为每篇日志添加一个或多个标签,这其实是一种元数据的建立过程,元数据建立之后,就可以建立更多的与其他用户的联系和沟通。Tag体现了群体的力量,使得网络微内容之间的相关性和用户之间的交互性大大加强。
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[1]关于教学设计/教学系统设计的观点和立场,可以参照如下著述:盛群力.李志强.现代教学设计论[M].杭州:浙江教育出版社.1998;何克抗 郑永柏 谢幼如.教学系统设计[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社.2002;钟志贤,面向知识时代的教学设计框架——促进学习者发展[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社.2005
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[1]简要区分教学设计中的几个与场域相近的概念。学习场域是教学主体与教学信息互动所辐射和作用的时空整体;教学情境指的是具体的自然环境或者社会环境;教学环境与影响教学的各种因素的总和;教学系统则强调教学各要素的结构性特征与功能。应该说四个概念紧密相关但强调的重心不一。
[2][美]Donald A.Norman.付秋芳.程进三译.严正.傅小兰审校.情感化设计[M].北京:电子工业出版社,2005:6
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[4]同上.
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[1]钟启泉.“学习场”生成与教师角色[J].上海教育科研.2004(9):4-8
[1]社会学和人类学中解释文化与人的社会发展的互动与传递关系有涵化(aooulture)、濡化(enculture)、文化化(enculturation)等。“濡化”是指一种“主动态”,即用文化“化”他人,强调从文化中学习到价值与规划,其重要作用在于保持文化传递的连贯性。“涵化”是指一个群体如社会、国家、族群,尤其是一个部落因接触而接受另外一个群体的文化特征和社会模式的过程,强调外来文化的价值与规范,其重要作用在于保持文化传递的变迁性。此处的文化化也可表述为“浸化”。
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[2]协同思维工具目前正处于开发之中,不影响本研究的实施,协同学习系统本身就不是一个技术依赖性模型,而是具有高度选择性的学习系统。同时,对于学习这样一种社会性活动而言,活动+技术可能是合理的解决方案。
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[1]Gunawardena提出的交互分析模型是国际上应用较广的一个知识建构分析模型。这个模型基于建构主义学习理论,是专为评价网络环境中知识的社会建构而设计的方法。该模型将网络异步交互环境中学生间的社会性交互分为五个阶段:阶段1:第一个阶段是信息的分享和比较。在这一阶段,团体成员交流观点,相互提问,针对讨论的主题做出描述;阶段2:第二个阶段主要涉及发现、分析观点的差异和分歧。在这个阶段,团体成员试图找出观点中不一致的地方,提问并回答问题,进一步对主题进行阐述;阶段3:第三个阶段中,团体成员之间进行协商讨论,或者通过提出新的观点、整合各种观点,进行知识的共同建构;阶段4:在第四个阶段,成员通过个人经验、收集的信息对新建构的观点进行检验和修订;阶段5:第五阶段,成员达成共识、运用新建构的意义和知识。这五个阶段,一方面反映了社会性交互的完整过程;另一方面也反映了社会性交互的不同水平。我们运用这种模型作为标准,以协同学习为流程,逐条解析交互区中言语的内容,评价协同交互的水平,反映交互中学员之间社会知识建构的进程。Gunawardena,Lowe,&Anderson(1997).Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing.Journal of Educational Computing Research,17(4),397-431
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[1]教育学现象学(pedagoyg+phenomenology)是新兴的一个教育学领域,倡导教育本质是我们与处在教育关系中的儿童、青年或长者之间的生活方式。范梅南是这一领域的开创者之一。参见:马克斯·范梅南.《教育的机制——教育智慧的意蕴》[M].钟启泉,张华主编,李树英主译.北京:教育科学出版社,2001:18
[2]如今的信息时代,学校场所中知识的掌握与素质的提升恰似成为一种悖论.英国著名诗人托马斯·斯特尔那斯·艾略特在《岩石》(The Rock)的首段写道:“知识中的智慧我们在那里丢失?资讯中的知识我们在那里丢失?”(Where is the wisdom we have lost in knowledge?/Where is the knowledge we have lost in information?)。其实,作者以诗一般的语言道出了当今知识管理界和教学领域的一个重要问题,即数据-信息-知识-智慧的转变问题,也就是DIKW体系,一般认为,当中每一层比下一层赋予某些特质。数据层是最基本的.信息层加入内容。知识层加入“如何去使用”,智慧层加入“什么时候才用”.DIKW体系常用于信息科学及知识管理。这个模型可以追溯于哈蓝·克利夫兰,基于1982年12月在《未来主义者》杂志中的文章“资讯有如资源”构建此体系。后来这个体系得到米兰·瑟兰尼(Milan Zeleny)及罗素·艾可夫(Russell.L.Ackoff)不断的扩展。当前教学和教师教育领域对此体系的关注也成为热点,这个问题在后续有关知识建构的章节中会得到详细的论述。
[3]关于整体性学习,参见The holistic learning and spirituality in education network,http://www.oise.utoronto.ca/field/miller-ased.html。国内学者系统研究了整体性课程,参见:安桂清.整体课程论[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2007
[4]从语义比较的视角来看,知识建构是一个含糊的词汇,既可对应“Knowledge Construction”一词,强调知识的建构特征;也可翻译为“Knowledge Building”,强调知识的创新特质。作为一种较为系统的学习观点,本文“知识建构”如无特指,均为“Knowledge Building”,也即加拿大学者Marlene Scardamalia & Carl Belier(1992、2002)所创建的关于学习的一种隐喻.在本文第一章有详细的阐述.
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[1]祝智庭教授多次在不同场合阐述此思想,并在多种著述中系统地论述了这一观点。协同学习系统的架构本身也重点关注这一要义。详见:祝智庭.教育信息化:教育技术的新高地[J].中国电化教育,2001(1);祝智庭.关于教育信息化的技术哲学观透视[J].华东师范大学学报(教育科学版),1999(2);Zhu Z.T.(1996).Cross-Cultural Portability of Educational Software:A Communication-OrientedApproach,98-166.University of Twente,Netherlands.
[2]关于新课程改革中“知识与素质”的争论,可以参考如下文献:刘硕.“重建知识概念”辨.教育学报,2006(1):48-53;钟启泉.概念重建与基础教育课程改革[J].北京大学教育评论,2004(4);钟启泉,有宝华.发霉的奶酪[J].教育发展研究,2004(10);刘硕.传授知识是教师的神圣职责——试论知识传授的作用与价值[J].中国教育学刊,2004(5);王策三.认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮——再评“应试教育”向素质教育转轨提法[J].北京大学教育评论,2004(3)
[1]与通约性相对的是不可通约性(incommensurability),“不可通约性”观点是库恩在其著作《科学革命的结构》中提出来的。库恩认为在一门科学形成之前必然要经历一段杂乱无章的前科学时期,直到某一规范得到某一科学团体坚持,并将其发扬广大,得到社会认可时才进入到一个常规科学时期,科学共同体的主要任务是扩大范式的范围和精确性,他们通过各种观察和试验来验证和发展常规科学确立的规范。参见:托马斯·库恩.科学革命的结构[M].北京:北京大学出版社,2003
[2]祝智庭教授曾经在国际上提出信息化教育信息的文化分类模型,分别从个体主义-集体主义/客观主义-主观主义对现有24种信息化教育系统进行了分类。从这一分类中可以看出,这里所界定的信息化教育系统也并非指技术系统或者技术平台,而是一种学习系统的泛称。此处所指信息化教育系统是指包含一定教学模式的社会-技术整体。参见:祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰编著,现代教育技术——走进信息化教育[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005:157
[1][德]赫尔曼·哈肯.协同学——大自然构成的奥秘[M].上海:上海译文出版社,2001.2.
[2]Roger T.Johnson & David W.Jhonson.Differences Between Collaborative and CooperativeLearning[DB/OL].http://www.id.ucsb.edu/IC/Resources/Collab-L/xxx.html.2009-02-15
[1]2005年底至2006年初,导师祝智庭教授多次指导本人采用设计研究方法来展开协同学习研究,尤其是广州TCL博士后流动站的一次研究事务中(2006.1)与本人彻夜长谈关于设计研究与协同学习之整合,使本人深受启发。此后,除了身体力行采用设计研究推进协同学习研发工作,祝智庭教授不遗余力地推动设计研究在国内的传播和应用,以提升教育技术研究品质.主要活动有(1)推介了荷兰特温特大学Janvanden Akker教授编著的《Educational Design Resesrch》一书,(2)并于2006.12月召开了教育设计研究国际高级研修班,聘请了国际设计研究领域知名学者进行讲习和指导,极大推动了设计研究在国内的传播.
[2]祝智庭.设计研究作为教育技术的创新研究范式[J].电化教育研究,2008(10):30-31;
[3]Wang,F.,& Hannafin,M.J.Design-Based Research and Technology-Enhanced Learning Environments.Educational Technology Research and Development,2005(53)4,5-23.
[1]祝智庭.设计研究作为教育技术的创新研究范式[J].电化教育研究,2008(10):30-31;
[2]何云峰.从意见表达转向科学式探究.社会科学报[N].2004年2月26日,第六版.
[3]朱志勇.教育研究方法论范式与方法的反思[J].教育研究与实验,2005(1):7-12
[4]吴康宁.教育研究应研究什么样的‘问题':兼谈‘真'问题的判断标准[J].教育研究,2002(11):8-11
[5]关于设计研究(design-based research),也称为基于设计的研究,本研究认为,与其说是一种研究方法,更不如说它是一种方法论,一种研究观或者是一种研究框架.设计研究源于20世纪90年代布朗(Brown,1992)和柯林斯(Collins,1992)在重新反思教育研究的定位、思路和方法的基础上,提出的“设计实验”和“设计型研究”.而在荷兰的传统中,更多的称为发展性研究(developmental research),源于课程开发和改革领域的一种形成性研究思路.不管是欧洲传统还是美国传统,基于设计的研究目的在于通过形成行研究过程来检验和改进基于有关原理和先期研究而得出的教育设计.一般都采用“逐步改进”的设计和工程领域的方法,把最初的设计付诸实施,看其效果如何,根据来自实践的反馈不断改进,直至排除缺陷,形成一种更为可靠而有效的设计,从中我们可以看出,基于设计的研究的目的不是简单地改进实践,它承担着改进实践和完善理论的双重使命(Allan et al,2004).设计研究需要在现实的学习情境中(如学校和课堂)进行干预设计和实施,其中涉及各种制约因素,研究者不是努力控制各种干扰变量,而是在自然情境中考察设计和干预方案中各个要素的实施状况,尽量使设计最优化.从上述解释中我们可以看出,基于设计的研究其实是一种学习型的研究范型,是软系统方法论中的一种,倡导采用工程设计的思路来改进教学实践,提倡理论和技术的创新传播和扩散.因此,它本身不是一种方法,没有严格的研究程序和原则,仅仅为教育研究者提供一种研究观和展开框架.基于设计的研究20世纪90年代末期左右随着学习科学的提出在欧美一些刊物中曾经集中讨论.比如,Kurt D.Squire也认为,基于设计的研究是一个从事教育技术学研究的功能强大的范式.此外,需要说明的是,本文作为博士研究论文,并没有采用设计研究的流程行文,一是目前国际上并无统一和成熟的设计研究流程,二是考虑博士论文应该是“研究论文”,而不是“研究报告”.因此,这里展示的是设计研究的迭代结果,而流程隐含其中.具体的流程见接下来的“研究架构”部分内容.
[1]参见如下文献:Rust,V.D.(2003).“Method snd Methodology in Comparative Education(editorial),”Comparative Education Review,Vol.47,No.3;Metz,M.H.(2000).Sociology and Qualitative Methodologies in Educational Research.Harvard Educational Review,Vol.70,No.1,pp.60-74;Pawaon,R.(1990).Methodology.In Steve Taylor(ed.).Sociology:Issues sad Debates,London:Macmillan.
[1]戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群译,高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:2
[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.Instructional technology & distance learning,January 2005,Vol.2.No.1:3-10
[2]会议概况参见ISTE,NETS·S-2007,http://www.iste.org
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文.2005.6.在该博士论文的《第三章:促进学习者发展;知识时代教学设计的主旨》,系统综述了知识时代的典型特征及其对教育的影响,可以参照.
[2]新华网巴黎2003年9月29日电(记者杨骏王敬诚).
[3]不同领域的学者对于信息社会和知识社会的理解和观点不一.本文比较认同:信息社会和知识社会均属于后工业社会,是一个高度工业化的社会,社会的发展高度依赖的不是物质,而是智力资源,大多数人的工作不是生产商品,而是从事信息工作,价值的增加主要靠知识,它是使人类智能和创造能力普遍开发的一种社会.知识社会的核心是“为了创造和应用人类发展所必需的知识而确定、生产、处理、转化、传播和使用信息的能力.正如教科文组织在信息社会世界首脑会议第一阶段会议上所强调指出的那样,知识社会的概念比技术和连接概念更加丰富,更加有利于自主化,尽管技术和连接概念常常是人们在讨论信息社会中的中心问题.参见联合国教科文组织世界报告系列.从信息社会迈向知识社会:建设知识共享的二十一世纪,http://www.un.org/chinese/esa/education/knowledgesooiety/1.html,2009-3-3
[1]Trilling,B.,Hood,P.(1999),“Learning,Technology,and Education Reform in the Knowledge Age or‘We're Wired,Webbed,And Windowed,Now What?'”,Educational Technology,39(5-6):17-18
[2]英国著名生物化学家李约瑟,曾因胚胎发育的生化研究而取得巨大成就,后来他又以中国科技史研究的杰出贡献成为权威,并在其编著的15卷《中国科学技术史》中正式提出了著名的“李约瑟难题”:“如果我的中国朋友们在智力上和我完全一样,那为什么像伽利略、拓利拆利、斯蒂文、牛顿这样的伟大人物都是欧洲人,而不是中国人或印度人呢?为什么近代科学和科学革命只产生在欧洲呢?……为什么直到中世纪中国还比欧洲先进,后来却会让欧洲人领先了呢?怎么会产生这样的转变呢?”其实李约瑟一直强调其问题是把双刃的剑。此处作为一种两难问题的隐喻。即在时代变革中教育的发展反而不能适应知识时代对人才和教育的基本需求。
[3]引自祝智庭.网络核心课程与项目的发展[R].海南三亚.2008.2.25
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文.2004.6
[2]桑标,贡晔.网络依赖与心理的关系.当代青年研究,2001(5):31-35.此症也称为“筑波病”,发现于日本筑波,蔓延于全球.适用人群包括科技工作者与脑力劳动者,症状包括寂寞、心理压抑、烦躁不安、恍惚、忧虑、性格孤僻、喜怒无常、思维及判断力下降等,又称“信息消化不良”、“信息过剩综合症”或“信息污染综合症”.
[3]关于强调人的整体发展的教育思潮,大致包括整观教育(holistic education)、全人教育(whole-person education)、整体性教育(wholistic education)、全方位教育(Life-Wide Learning)等等,有几个相近的词汇需要澄清和理解.不同的术语处于不同的研究立场和重点,但都强调学习的整体性和整观思维的指导.整观思维(holistic thinking)是全人教育共同的思维——整全观(holism),整全观(holism)基本上主张每一样东西都以关系网络互相连结,任何一样变动都会导致连锁反应,无论其变动多么微小,因此应该从[整体]上去追求个人[精神的感性与平和],而不是片面、零碎的.整体的(wholistic)与全人有关——身体、心智和精神——整体大于部分之和的观念有关.整观的(Holistic)是包含整体的(Wholistic)以及本体是一个相互连接的整体的观念——整体论。实际上关于这样一个概念能否以及是否应该被定义或者以这种方式包含其中也存在争议.可参照John Heron,.Model of Holistic Learning[DB/OL].http://www.jwelford.demon.co.uk/brainwaremap/holist.html,2009-3-24。目前还没有一个关于整体教育的定义。本研究使用整观教育来指称。详见本章第五节的阐述。
[1]世界学前教育组织(OMEP)和国际儿童教育协会(ACEI)在1999年召开的“21世纪国际幼儿教育研讨会”上,通过了《全球幼儿教育大纲》。
[2]Andrew Zolli,Creativity and Innovation[ED/OB],http://center.uoregon.edu/ISTE/NECC2007,2008-10-11
[1]21st Century Skill:Literacy in the Digital Age,http://www.ncrel.org/engauge/skills/12/12/2008.
[2]祝智庭.信息技术与创新教育:技术哲学观的透视.见:丁钢主编.创新:新世纪教育使命[M].北京:教育科学出版社,1999
[1]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文,2004.6
[2]钟志贤.面向知识时代的教学设计框架-促进学习者发展[D].华东师范大学博士论文,2004.6
[1]Bob Pearlman,Designing and Making:The New American High School[ED/OB]http:/www.newtechfoundation.org/press_articles/02_03_Technos.pdf,2008-09-22
[2]Kenschner,P.,van Vilsteren,P.,Hummel,H & Wigman,M.(1997),The Design of a Study Environment for Acquiring Academic and Professional Competence,Studies in Higher Education,22(2):151-172,Taylor & FrancisLtd.http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals[ED/OB],2008-10-11
[1]Knowledge is experience.Everything else is just information.转引自Richard McDermott(2002).Knowing is a human act.Informatik/Informatique,2002(1)
[2]Hill,J.& M.Hannafin(2001).Teaching and learning in digital environments:the resurgence of resource-based learning ETR&D Vol.49(3),38
[1]钟启泉.概念重建与我国课程创新——与《认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮》作者商榷[J].北京大学教育评论.2005(1)
[1]对知识的不同理解和不同分类方法,构成了我们理解现在世界的一种方式.按照亚里士多德的分类方法,他把知识分为:理论的知识(数学、自然科学、形而上学)、实践的知识(伦理、政治、经济和修辞学)和创造的知识(诗学),这种分类方法假定了理论的知识是一切知识之源,这种分类方法,伴随着的重要思想包括:对文本的阐释、理解的传统。按照福柯的分类方法,他是把从文艺复兴到现代的知识类型分为了三个不同的阶段,并且这三个不同的阶段都发生了一定的断裂.比如文艺复兴时期是“神圣代码的时代”,任何事物彼此都存在着一种相似和呼应,知识是“上帝写下的一部大书”,到了古典时期,“测量表”时期出现了,比如各类周期表,比如我们观察到的各类地图,然后到了现代,“人”的时期到来了,人的功能取代了另两个时期.这些分类方法属于哲学和知识社会学层次,此暂不作讨论.
[2][美]L.斯特弗.高文.徐斌艳.程可拉等译.教育中的建构主义[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002.
[1]张燕,黄荣怀.教育目标分类学2001版对我国教学改革的启示[J].中国电化教育,2005(7):16-20
[1][美]多拉·豪维尔.王爽译.批判性思维和创造性思维——推动知识社会前进的主要动力[J].全球教育展望,2001,(12)
[1]A.Dean Hauenstein(1988).A conceptual framework for educational objectives:a holistic approach to traditional taxonomies,University Press of America.;96-100;转引马兰,盛群力.教育目标分类新架构——豪恩斯坦教学系统观与目标分类整合模式述评.中国电化教育.2005(7)
[2]A.Dean Hauenstein(1995).A conceptual framework for eduoationai objectives:a holistic approach to traditional taxonomies,University Press of America.;96-100;转引马兰、盛群力.教育目标分类新架构——豪恩斯坦教学系统观与目标分类整合模式述评.中国电化教育.2005(7)
[1][美)多拉·豪维尔.王爽译.批判性思维和创造性思维——推动知识社会前进的主要动力[J].全球教育展望.2001(12)
[2][美]R.Wurman 著,李银胜等译.信息饥渴——信息选取,表达与透析[M].北京:电子工业出版社.2001.35.
[1]钟启泉.概念重建与我国课程创新——与《认真对待“轻视知识”的教育思潮》作者商榷[M].北京大学教育评论.2005(1)
[1]冯小素,潘正权.行动中的知识——企业作为知识整合的中心[J],科学学与科学技术管理,2004,(6):28-30
[2]De Jong,T.,& Fergusson-Hessler,M.G.M.(1996).Types and qualities of knowledge.Educational Psychologist,31:105-113
[1]顾自安.群体认知与行为模式[DB/OL].http://www.chinavalue.net/Article/Archive/2007/12/8/90959.html,2009-3-4
[1][美]Richard A.Schmuck & Patricia A.Schmuck著,廖珊.郭建鹏等译,班级中的群体化过程(第八版)[M],北京:中国轻工业出版社,2006:47
[2]祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰.现代教育技术——走进教育信息化[M].高等教育出版社,2005:94
[3]黄荣怀.沙景荣.彭绍东.教育技术学导论[M].北京高等教育出版社,2006:5
[1]祝智庭 顾小清 闫寒冰.现代教育技术:走向信息化教育[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005:140
[2]钟启泉.教学活动理论的考察[J].教育研究.2005(5)
[1]国内有学者对学习隐喻作了系统的梳理和译介,比如浙江大学盛群力教授在其著作《教学设计》一书中引用梅耶(Mayer)的观点,从隐喻的视角对学习类型进行了划分,三种隐喻分别为:(1)学习就是增加反映;(2)学习就是获得知识;(3)学习就是知识建构等;这种隐喻划分基本上是按照学习理论的发展脉络的,具有积极的参考价值。盛群力等编著.教学设计[M].北京:高等教育出版社.2005:166-168;任友群教授系统归纳了目前为止的各种隐喻.任友群.以学习者为中心的建构主义学习环境的建构[J].教育科学,2002,(4);戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群等译.高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:26-28
[1]董革非,颜晓川.论隐喻的基本语义特征所体现的人类思维方式[J].东北大学学报(社会科学版),2006,(2)
[2]束定芳.论隐喻产生的认知,心理和语言原因[J].外语学刊,2000,(2)
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[1]参见:学习系统设计:改进教学的途径(Learning System Design:An Approach to the Improvement to Instruction)原著/Robert H.Davis Lawrence T.Alexander Stephen L.Yelon(Michigan State University),出版/McGraw-Hill Book Company,1974.盛群力.褚献华编译.现代教学设计应用模式[M],杭州:浙江教育出版社,2002
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[1]在2002年的一个报告中,作者使用的词为:creating,在后续的研究中采用conation.见Rodney H.Clarken.Developing Human Potential.School of Education Northern Michigan University
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[1][美]]Morris L.Bigge,Samuel S.Shermis著.徐蕴.张军等译.郝京华审校.写给教师的学习心理学[M].中国轻工业出版社,2005:15
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[3]在情境理论中,心理学取向的情境理论十分关注改革学校情境下的学习,因此特别注意达到特定的学习目标和学会特定的内容,其研究重点是真实的学习活动中的情境化,中心问题就是创建实习场,在这个实习场中,学生遇到的问题和进行的实践与今后校外所遇到的是一致的。见戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年,任友群等译.高文审校.学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:38-39
[1]Gjedde,L.(1998) Making Sense of Science:Experience as Cognition through the Use of Narrative in Popular Soience.Paper presented at:IAMCR,University of Glasgow.In the Beginning Was the Experience
[2]Gjedde,L.(1998) Making Sense of Soience:Experience as Cognition through the Use of Narrative in Popular Science.Paper presented at:IAMCR,University of Glasgow.In the Beginning Was the Experience
[1]情绪、情感、感情的含义。从语言比较角度分析,商务印书馆所编《辞海》和汉语大辞典出版社的《汉语大词典》对情绪的解释基本相同:情绪最初指缠绵的情意,对情感,虽所用表达词汇不同,但意义大致相似,都是外界刺激而引起的不同心理状态。《辞海》对情感所下定义为“有所触动而起的心理状态”;《汉语大词典》中,情感解释为受外界刺激而产生的心理反应“人受,如喜、怒、悲、恐、爱、憎等。但对“感情”一词,语言似乎不够清晰,有含糊之嫌。二本辞典都将“感情”解释为“触动情感”,《辞海》补充道“后称有外界事物的刺激而引起的喜怒哀乐等心理反应为感情”,《汉语大词典》补充的是“感情外界刺激所反映的心情”。结合情绪、情感、感情的中文内涵和“emotion”、“affect”、“feeling”之含义,可看来emotion 既可指情感,也可指情绪,感情可用英文feeling(s)表示。感谢罗红卫博士关于此语义的系统比较。(2008.12)
[2]Reeves,T.C.(2008).Technology and the conative learning domain in undergraduate education.Invited presentation at EDUCAUSE ELI 2008,January,San Antonio,TX.
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[1]波林.实验心理学史[M].北京:商务印书馆,1981,关于技能心理学还可以参照:Hearnshaw L.S.A short history of British psychology:1840—1940.London:Butler & Tanner Ltd..1964.Stout,G.F.Analytical psychology.London London University Press.1896.
[2]钟启泉.教学活动理论的考察[J].教育研究.2005(5)
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[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.Instructional technology & distance learning.2005(1):3-9
[2]王佑镁.祝智庭.从联接主义到联通主义:学习理论新取向[J].中国电化教育.2006(2)
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[1]George Siemens(2005).Connectivism:A Learning Theory for the Digital Age.Instructional technology & distance learning.2005(1):3-9
[2]同上
[1]戴维·H·乔纳森主编.郑太年.任友群译.高文审校,学习环境的理论基础[M].上海:华东师范大学,2002:113
[1]Q&A on connectivism,http://www2.wznc.zj.cn/physics/et/courselog/index.asp[ED/OB],2005-10-20
[2]莱斯利·P·斯特弗.杰里·盖尔主编.高文.徐斌燕.程可拉等译.教育中的建构主义[M].上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:14
[3]同上,139
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[2]同上.
[3]莱斯利·P·斯特弗.里·盖尔主编.高文.徐斌燕.程可拉等译.教育中的建构主义[M],上海:华东师范大学出版社,2002:127
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[3]制品(artifacts)一词源于考古学,表明考古过程中各种发现物,采用制品的表述表明对中介对象的过程性。Knowledge Artifacts借用于知识和教育领域便特指学习和思维过程中表征最佳实践或者过程的记录物(records of previous projects,emphasizing best practices and lessons learned)。如祝智庭在《教育技术的实践场分析》一文中提出,技术系统产生的结果是物化的技术制品(technological artifact)或称“硬制品”;软技术系统的操作对象为社会人文要素,产生的结果是非物化的概念制品(conceptual artifact)或行为制品(behavioral artifact),可称为“软制品”,参见祝智庭,王佑镁,顾小清.教育技术的实践场分析.电化教育研究,2005(11);赵国庆,黄荣怀,陆志坚在《知识可视化的理论与方法》一文中指出,知识制品是我们日常处理的对象,如我们写的报告、发送的邮件和阅读的书刊等;按照Newman(2003)的观点,知识制品具有双重含义:认知知识制品(cognitive Knowledge artifact)和物理知识制品(physical Knowledge artifact)。认知知识制品是指对真实物理世界的了解和理解,通常被简化为“知识”;物理知识制品则是指认知知识制品的表示法。认知知识制品侧重于内容,物理知识制品侧重于表现形式。参见赵国庆,黄荣怀,陆志坚.知识可视化的理论与方法.开放教育研究.2005(1)
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[2]值得一提的是,文献中深度学习的对立面表述多有两种表达方式,即surface leraning和shallow learning,从解释来看,两者都是作为深度学习的比较面而出现的,并无本质上的差异,在本文中统称为“浅表学习”。国家新课课程标准其实也蕴含深度学习思想。课程标准要求注重提高全体学生的科学素养;注重自主学习,让学生积极参与、乐于探究、勇于实验、勤于思考,提倡教学方式多样化;关注过程性评价,注意学生的个体差异,帮助学生认识自我、建立自信,促进学生在原有水平上发展,重视评价的内在激励功能和诊断功能;认为学习重心应该从过分强调知识的传承和积累向知识的探究过程转化;从学生被动接受知识向主动获取知识转化;培养学生的科学探究能力、实事求是的科学态度和敢于创新的探索精神。
[1]Carl Bereiter(2003).Bringing Classrooms Into the Knowledge Age.Lecture presented at the Conference on Reform Initiatives in Teaching and Learning,University of Macau,28 November 2003.The Ontario Institute of the University of Toronto
[2]Carl Bereiter(2003).Bringing Classrooms Into the Knowledse Age.Lecture presented at the Conference on Reform Initiatives in Teaching and Learning,University of Macau,28 November 2003.The Ontario Institute of the University of Toronto
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[1]Merrill,M.D(2002).First principles of instruction.Educational Technology Research and Development.50(3):43-59.
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[1]关于协同学习原理和机制的开发,主要借鉴Merrill关于“首要教学原理”的开发方法。在开发过程中,Merrill赞同Reigo|uth所谓的基本方法之说。Reigeluth(1999)提出有两类基本的教学方法,一类是“基本方法”,另一种是“变通方法”。参见:Charles M.Reigeluth(]999).Instructional Design Theories and Models:A New Paradigm of Instructional Theory.Vol.2,LEA publishers:52-55。Merrill之所以称之为教学的“首要原理”,是将“变通方法”看成是在课程方案和教学实践中灵活变通的方法。一项“原理”(基本方法)是一种关系,这种关系不管具体的课程方案或教学实践如何变化(变通方法),只要有适当的条件,它总是成立的。一项“实践”是指某一具体的教学活动。依据此,Merrill提出了各种设计理论和模式都共同体现的几条原理,他认为,无需去确定这些原理有哪些经验性实证结果。作者假设,一条教学原理就算没有经过充分的实证,但如果这么多不同的教学设计理论都聚焦于它,那么,这一教学原理要么是通过经验提炼出来的,要么是通过已有的研究确认的。Merrill,M.D(2002).First principles of instruction.Educational Technology Research and Development.50(3),43-59.盛群力,马兰节译.首要教学原理[J].远程教育杂志,2003(4)20-26.完整译文参见盛群力.马兰.首要教学原理.新认识.远程教育杂志.2005(4);http://www.ced.zju.edu.cn/id/index.asp,2009-3-26
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[1]Farber,D.;Baron,P.(1977).The convergence of computing and telecommunication systems,Science 195,March 18,1166--1170.
[2]最佳的译法当然是根据convergence一词不同语境下的不同涵义将其分别翻译成合并(如媒体所有权合并Convergence of Ownership)、联合(如媒体战术性联合Convergenoe of Media Tactics)、融合或整合(如媒体科技融合/整合Convergence in Media Technology),在教育与学习领域一般称之为汇聚,与此相近的一个词汇就是congregation及aggregation,一般翻为聚合。
[1]祝智庭.顾小清.闫寒冰.现代教育技术——走进教育信息化[M].北京:高等教育出版社,2005.7:95
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[1]RSS有几个缩写源;A、Really Simple Syndication(真正简易的聚合);B、Rioh Site Summary(丰富的站点摘要);C、RDF Site Summary(RDF站点摘要)。这是一种站点与站点之间共享内容的简易方式,现在通常被用于订阅Blog。使用RSS,用户就可以发现,不但可以减少许多微内容的查找时间,而且连自己在互联网上的阅读习惯都可以改变。Tag(标签):这是一种灵活有趣的日志分类方式,使用者可以为每篇日志添加一个或多个标签,这其实是一种元数据的建立过程,元数据建立之后,就可以建立更多的与其他用户的联系和沟通。Tag体现了群体的力量,使得网络微内容之间的相关性和用户之间的交互性大大加强。
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[1]关于教学设计/教学系统设计的观点和立场,可以参照如下著述:盛群力.李志强.现代教学设计论[M].杭州:浙江教育出版社.1998;何克抗 郑永柏 谢幼如.教学系统设计[M].北京:北京师范大学出版社.2002;钟志贤,面向知识时代的教学设计框架——促进学习者发展[M].北京:中国社会科学出版社.2005
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[1]简要区分教学设计中的几个与场域相近的概念。学习场域是教学主体与教学信息互动所辐射和作用的时空整体;教学情境指的是具体的自然环境或者社会环境;教学环境与影响教学的各种因素的总和;教学系统则强调教学各要素的结构性特征与功能。应该说四个概念紧密相关但强调的重心不一。
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[4]同上.
[1]岳小莉.曹存根.信息设计和知识设计[J].中国科学院计算技术研究所内部刊物—信息技术快.2004(11)
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[1]社会学和人类学中解释文化与人的社会发展的互动与传递关系有涵化(aooulture)、濡化(enculture)、文化化(enculturation)等。“濡化”是指一种“主动态”,即用文化“化”他人,强调从文化中学习到价值与规划,其重要作用在于保持文化传递的连贯性。“涵化”是指一个群体如社会、国家、族群,尤其是一个部落因接触而接受另外一个群体的文化特征和社会模式的过程,强调外来文化的价值与规范,其重要作用在于保持文化传递的变迁性。此处的文化化也可表述为“浸化”。
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[1]技术对教育变革的积极意义是多方面的,此方面的研究论述比较丰富,可参考:Bagley,C.& B.Hunter,(1992)Restructuring,Constructivism,and Technology:Forging a New Relationship,Educational Technology,7,22-27;ICCE 1993;联合国教科文组织中文科译.教育——财富蕴藏其中.北京:教育科学出版社,1996.166-173.桑新民.基础教育信息化的理论与实践探索.见全国中小学现代教育技术实验学校领导小组办公室主编.学校教育现代化建设.北京:中央广播电视大学出版社.1998.37-53.Galbreath,J.,(1999).Preparing the 21st Century Worker.The Link Between Computer—Based Technology and Future Skill Sets,Educational Technology,39(11-12),14-22.[美]国际教育技术协会《国家教育技术标准》项目组.祝智庭,刘雍潜,黎加厚主译.面向学习者的国家教育技术标准——课程与技术整合.北京:中央广播电视大学出版社.2002.2.祝智庭,钟志贤主编.现代教育技术——促进多元智能发展.上海:华东师范大学出版社.2003..70-77.陈琦,张建伟.信息时代的整合性学习模型.http://www.pep.com.cn/6/6/2003.
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[1]比如在场研究的问卷:Garrison D.R.,Anderson,T.& Archer,W.(2000).Critical thinking in a text-based environment:Computer conferencing in higher education.Internet and Higher Education,11(2),1-14.CMC Text Analysis 10 Garrison,D.R.,Anderson,T.Archer W.(2001).Critical thinking,cognitive presence,and computer conferencing in distance education.American Journal of Distance Education,15(1),7-23.Randy Garrison,Terry Anderson,and Walter Archer,Critical Thinking,Cognitive Presence,and Computer Conferencing in Distance Education,Swan,K.(2002).Immediacy,social presence,and asynchronous discussion.In J.Bourne & J.C.Moore(Eds)Elements of Quality Online Education,Volume 3.Needham.MA:Sloan Center for Online Education.,知识建构层次的研究:Gunawardena,C.N.,Lowe,C.A.& Anderson,T.(1997).Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing.Journal Educational Computing Research,17(4),397-431.Sorensen,E.K.(2005).Networked elearning and collaborative knowledge building:Design and facilitation.Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education,4(4),446-455.
[1]王佑镁.协同学习技术系统的可用性测试研究.电化教育研究.2009(03)
[2]协同思维工具目前正处于开发之中,不影响本研究的实施,协同学习系统本身就不是一个技术依赖性模型,而是具有高度选择性的学习系统。同时,对于学习这样一种社会性活动而言,活动+技术可能是合理的解决方案。
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[1]Gunawardena提出的交互分析模型是国际上应用较广的一个知识建构分析模型。这个模型基于建构主义学习理论,是专为评价网络环境中知识的社会建构而设计的方法。该模型将网络异步交互环境中学生间的社会性交互分为五个阶段:阶段1:第一个阶段是信息的分享和比较。在这一阶段,团体成员交流观点,相互提问,针对讨论的主题做出描述;阶段2:第二个阶段主要涉及发现、分析观点的差异和分歧。在这个阶段,团体成员试图找出观点中不一致的地方,提问并回答问题,进一步对主题进行阐述;阶段3:第三个阶段中,团体成员之间进行协商讨论,或者通过提出新的观点、整合各种观点,进行知识的共同建构;阶段4:在第四个阶段,成员通过个人经验、收集的信息对新建构的观点进行检验和修订;阶段5:第五阶段,成员达成共识、运用新建构的意义和知识。这五个阶段,一方面反映了社会性交互的完整过程;另一方面也反映了社会性交互的不同水平。我们运用这种模型作为标准,以协同学习为流程,逐条解析交互区中言语的内容,评价协同交互的水平,反映交互中学员之间社会知识建构的进程。Gunawardena,Lowe,&Anderson(1997).Analysis of a global online debate and the development of an interaction analysis model for examining social construction of knowledge in computer conferencing.Journal of Educational Computing Research,17(4),397-431
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