汉语旋转文本加工：来自眼动的证据
摘要
人类获得的信息中有80%以上来自视觉。通过阅读获得信息是现代人重要的能力之一,而通过视知觉加工获得文本视觉特征是成功完成阅读任务的第一步。印刷文本的视觉特征会影响文本的识别难度,已有研究通过改变文本的呈现方式,发现操纵空格、交替大小写、交替字号等方式都会对阅读理解造成不同程度的影响。而通过旋转来改变文本的视觉特征,可以同时操纵文字的整体形状和空间关系,有助于进一步探索视觉加工与词汇加工的关系、加工单元等理论问题。本研究通过系统性地变化汉字的旋转角度和旋转方式,检验文本的旋转对汉语词汇识别和句子阅读的影响,探讨汉语阅读加工的基本单元,为建立汉语阅读的眼动控制模型提供实验支持。
本论文包括两项研究,共五个实验。
研究一包括两个实验,通过记录被试对字、词的词汇判断反应,考察汉语旋转字、词的识别过程,并通过考察旋转角度和旋转方式对字、词识别的影响,以及这种影响是否与字、词频效应存在相互作用,来检验汉语双字词的心理表征方式或存储方式。两个实验均采用词汇判断任务,其中,实验1采用2(字频：高频、低频)×2(旋转方向：顺时针、逆时针)×3(旋转角度：30°、60°、90°)的完全被试内设计,记录了旋转单字的词汇判断反应。实验2采用2(词频：高频、低频)×4(旋转方式：顺时针、逆时针、首字顺时针尾字逆时针、首字逆时针尾字顺时针)×3(旋转角度：30°、60°、90°)的完全被试内设计,记录了旋转双字词的词汇判断反应。此外,还收集了目标字、词在不旋转条件下的词汇判断反应,作为与各旋转条件进行比较的基线水平。
研究二包括三个实验,通过记录被试句子阅读过程中的眼动轨迹,考察汉语旋转文本的阅读过程,并通过考察旋转角度和旋转方式对双字词加工的影响,以及这种影响是否与词频效应存在相互作用,进一步探讨汉语阅读加工的基本单元,并检验E-Z读者模型进行中国化的可靠程度。三个实验均采用句子阅读任务,在句子中插入旋转目标词,均采用2(词频：高频、低频)×4(旋转方式：顺时针、逆时针、首字顺时针尾字逆时针、首字逆时针尾字顺时针)×2(旋转角度：30°、60°)的完全被试内设计。其中,实验3的目标词为普通双字词,实验4的目标词为透明双字词,实验5的目标词为不透明双字词。此外,还收集了目标词在不旋转条件下的眼动指标,作为与各旋转条件进行比较的基线水平。
结果发现：
(1)随着旋转角度的增大,词汇判断时间所需变长,而且低频字、词的增幅更大；对于普通双字词以及不透明双字词,眼动指标上出现增长,而且低频词的增幅更大；对于透明词,眼动指标上也出现增长,但是高、低频词的增幅没有差异。这些表明,旋转使汉字的视觉特征显著下降,并导致目标字、词的加工难度增加,尤其对于低频字、词来说更为明显。
(2)不一致旋转引起目标词的词汇判断时间和眼动指标的增幅大于一致旋转的,这表明旋转使汉语的词加工受到了干扰,其中不一致旋转方式造成的干扰更大。
根据上述结果,得出以下结论：
(1)汉语读者能够加工并识别旋转后的字、词,表明他们对汉语文字的视觉编码具有一定的灵活性。
(2)汉语旋转文本识别需要经历心理旋转的过程,即将旋转汉字在心理上旋转至其垂直正位,然后识别,该过程使字、词识别受到不同程度的干扰,从而增加识别难度。
(3)显著的视觉特征可以促进词汇识别,尤其是低频词识别。
(4)在汉语词汇识别和阅读过程中,通过熟悉度检验,读者可即刻获得整词辨认,表明汉语阅读过程以词为整体单元进行加工,尤其是高频词识别。
总之,在建构汉语阅读眼动控制模型时,既要考虑低水平视觉因素的影响,还要注意汉语以词为基本加工单元的特点。
Among all the information we obtained everyday,80percent of it is getting via our visual system. Getting information from reading is an important skill for our human being's daily life. Acquiring visual features from visual perception processing is the very first step of completing reading task. Visual features of printed text affects the ease of its recognition. Previous studies altered texts'visual features and found that spaces manipulation, size alternating, font alternating and other manipulations influenced reading performance differently. The-visual features of texts could also be changed by rotating the texts while whole word shape and spatial relationship are both manipulated. Such manipulation helps with some theoretical issues such as the relationship between visual processing and lexical processing, the basic processing unit and so on. Therefore, the role of text rotation in word identification and sentence reading during Chinese reading was investigated by mamipulating Chinese characters'rotation magnitudes and directions. Basic processing unit in Chinese reading was discussed as well. We assumed that those data could make some contribution to model the eye movement control during Chinese reading.
Two studies including five experiments were carried out.
Two experiments were included in Study1. Chinese rotated characters and words recognition was examined by recording participants'lexical decision responses. Whether the influence of rotation on character and word recognition was modulated by character or word frequency was also explored. In addtion, mental representation of Chinese two-character words was discussed. Lexical decision task was adopted in both experiments. In Experiment1, rotated single characters with high and low frequency were used while recording participants'lexical decision responses. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (clockwise, or anti-clockwise;30,60or90degrees). In Experiment2, rotated two-character words with high and low frequency were used while recording participants' lexical decision responses. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (all clockwise, all anti-clockwise, alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise;30,60or90degrees). In addition, participants' lexical decision responses in normal upright condition were also recorded as baseline.
Three experiments were included in Study2. To examine the influence on Chinese two-character compound words processing of rotation, praticipants' eye movements were recorded while reading sentences containing a rotated target word in each to test the basic processing unit in Chinese reading, and to further test the reliablity of sinicization of E-Z Reader model. Whether the influence of rotation on word processing was modulated by word frequency was also discussed. Sentences reading task was used in all three experiments. The target words were all two-character words, and their word frequency and transparency were manipulated. In Experiment3, only the word frequency was manipulated, while in Experiment4&5, high and low transparent words were selected respectively while also manipulating word frequency. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (all clockwise, all anti-clockwise, alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise;30or60degrees). In addition, participants' eye movements in normal upright condition were also recorded as baseline.
To summarize, the findings of the two studies are as follows:
(1) Participants' lexical decision response times increased with increasing rotation degree, the increase of low frequency characters and words was greater than high ones. Participants' eye movement measures increased with increasing rotation degree of general and non-transparent two-character words, the increase of low frequency words was greater than high ones. Participants' eye movement measures also increased with increasing rotation degree of transparent two-character words while these increases did not differ between high and low frequency words. These results suggested that the difficulty of Chinese character and word processing increased along with the visual distortion by increasing rotation magnitude, especially for low frequency characters and words.
(2) Participants' lexical decision response times and eye movement measures both increased larger in alternating rotation condition compared with consistent rotation condition. These results suggested the difficulty of Chinese two-character words processing increased in all rotation direction conditions. The disruptions on word processing in nonconsistent rotation conditions was greater than those in consistent rotation conditions.
Following conclusions was made:
(1) Chinese readers could process and recognize rotated Chinese characters and words, this reflects the flexibility of visual processing of Chinese readers.
(2) Mental rotation was included during Chinese rotated text processing. That is to say, readers anti-rotated the rotated characters to upright and than recognized. This anti-rotation processing interupts character and word recognition, thus increases the difficulties.
(3) Significant visual characteristics of printed texts reduce the ease with which they can be identified, especially for low frequency words.
(4) Readers could recognize the whole word via familiarity check stage during Chinese word recognition and reading processing. This suggests that the basic processing unit in Chinese reading is word, at least to high frequency words.
Overall, both low-level visual features and the characteristic of word-based processing of Chinese reading should be considered during constructing eye movement control model in Chinese reading.
本论文包括两项研究,共五个实验。
研究一包括两个实验,通过记录被试对字、词的词汇判断反应,考察汉语旋转字、词的识别过程,并通过考察旋转角度和旋转方式对字、词识别的影响,以及这种影响是否与字、词频效应存在相互作用,来检验汉语双字词的心理表征方式或存储方式。两个实验均采用词汇判断任务,其中,实验1采用2(字频：高频、低频)×2(旋转方向：顺时针、逆时针)×3(旋转角度：30°、60°、90°)的完全被试内设计,记录了旋转单字的词汇判断反应。实验2采用2(词频：高频、低频)×4(旋转方式：顺时针、逆时针、首字顺时针尾字逆时针、首字逆时针尾字顺时针)×3(旋转角度：30°、60°、90°)的完全被试内设计,记录了旋转双字词的词汇判断反应。此外,还收集了目标字、词在不旋转条件下的词汇判断反应,作为与各旋转条件进行比较的基线水平。
研究二包括三个实验,通过记录被试句子阅读过程中的眼动轨迹,考察汉语旋转文本的阅读过程,并通过考察旋转角度和旋转方式对双字词加工的影响,以及这种影响是否与词频效应存在相互作用,进一步探讨汉语阅读加工的基本单元,并检验E-Z读者模型进行中国化的可靠程度。三个实验均采用句子阅读任务,在句子中插入旋转目标词,均采用2(词频：高频、低频)×4(旋转方式：顺时针、逆时针、首字顺时针尾字逆时针、首字逆时针尾字顺时针)×2(旋转角度：30°、60°)的完全被试内设计。其中,实验3的目标词为普通双字词,实验4的目标词为透明双字词,实验5的目标词为不透明双字词。此外,还收集了目标词在不旋转条件下的眼动指标,作为与各旋转条件进行比较的基线水平。
结果发现：
(1)随着旋转角度的增大,词汇判断时间所需变长,而且低频字、词的增幅更大；对于普通双字词以及不透明双字词,眼动指标上出现增长,而且低频词的增幅更大；对于透明词,眼动指标上也出现增长,但是高、低频词的增幅没有差异。这些表明,旋转使汉字的视觉特征显著下降,并导致目标字、词的加工难度增加,尤其对于低频字、词来说更为明显。
(2)不一致旋转引起目标词的词汇判断时间和眼动指标的增幅大于一致旋转的,这表明旋转使汉语的词加工受到了干扰,其中不一致旋转方式造成的干扰更大。
根据上述结果,得出以下结论：
(1)汉语读者能够加工并识别旋转后的字、词,表明他们对汉语文字的视觉编码具有一定的灵活性。
(2)汉语旋转文本识别需要经历心理旋转的过程,即将旋转汉字在心理上旋转至其垂直正位,然后识别,该过程使字、词识别受到不同程度的干扰,从而增加识别难度。
(3)显著的视觉特征可以促进词汇识别,尤其是低频词识别。
(4)在汉语词汇识别和阅读过程中,通过熟悉度检验,读者可即刻获得整词辨认,表明汉语阅读过程以词为整体单元进行加工,尤其是高频词识别。
总之,在建构汉语阅读眼动控制模型时,既要考虑低水平视觉因素的影响,还要注意汉语以词为基本加工单元的特点。
Among all the information we obtained everyday,80percent of it is getting via our visual system. Getting information from reading is an important skill for our human being's daily life. Acquiring visual features from visual perception processing is the very first step of completing reading task. Visual features of printed text affects the ease of its recognition. Previous studies altered texts'visual features and found that spaces manipulation, size alternating, font alternating and other manipulations influenced reading performance differently. The-visual features of texts could also be changed by rotating the texts while whole word shape and spatial relationship are both manipulated. Such manipulation helps with some theoretical issues such as the relationship between visual processing and lexical processing, the basic processing unit and so on. Therefore, the role of text rotation in word identification and sentence reading during Chinese reading was investigated by mamipulating Chinese characters'rotation magnitudes and directions. Basic processing unit in Chinese reading was discussed as well. We assumed that those data could make some contribution to model the eye movement control during Chinese reading.
Two studies including five experiments were carried out.
Two experiments were included in Study1. Chinese rotated characters and words recognition was examined by recording participants'lexical decision responses. Whether the influence of rotation on character and word recognition was modulated by character or word frequency was also explored. In addtion, mental representation of Chinese two-character words was discussed. Lexical decision task was adopted in both experiments. In Experiment1, rotated single characters with high and low frequency were used while recording participants'lexical decision responses. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (clockwise, or anti-clockwise;30,60or90degrees). In Experiment2, rotated two-character words with high and low frequency were used while recording participants' lexical decision responses. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (all clockwise, all anti-clockwise, alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise;30,60or90degrees). In addition, participants' lexical decision responses in normal upright condition were also recorded as baseline.
Three experiments were included in Study2. To examine the influence on Chinese two-character compound words processing of rotation, praticipants' eye movements were recorded while reading sentences containing a rotated target word in each to test the basic processing unit in Chinese reading, and to further test the reliablity of sinicization of E-Z Reader model. Whether the influence of rotation on word processing was modulated by word frequency was also discussed. Sentences reading task was used in all three experiments. The target words were all two-character words, and their word frequency and transparency were manipulated. In Experiment3, only the word frequency was manipulated, while in Experiment4&5, high and low transparent words were selected respectively while also manipulating word frequency. Direction and angle of rotation were also manipulated (all clockwise, all anti-clockwise, alternately clockwise and anti-clockwise;30or60degrees). In addition, participants' eye movements in normal upright condition were also recorded as baseline.
To summarize, the findings of the two studies are as follows:
(1) Participants' lexical decision response times increased with increasing rotation degree, the increase of low frequency characters and words was greater than high ones. Participants' eye movement measures increased with increasing rotation degree of general and non-transparent two-character words, the increase of low frequency words was greater than high ones. Participants' eye movement measures also increased with increasing rotation degree of transparent two-character words while these increases did not differ between high and low frequency words. These results suggested that the difficulty of Chinese character and word processing increased along with the visual distortion by increasing rotation magnitude, especially for low frequency characters and words.
(2) Participants' lexical decision response times and eye movement measures both increased larger in alternating rotation condition compared with consistent rotation condition. These results suggested the difficulty of Chinese two-character words processing increased in all rotation direction conditions. The disruptions on word processing in nonconsistent rotation conditions was greater than those in consistent rotation conditions.
Following conclusions was made:
(1) Chinese readers could process and recognize rotated Chinese characters and words, this reflects the flexibility of visual processing of Chinese readers.
(2) Mental rotation was included during Chinese rotated text processing. That is to say, readers anti-rotated the rotated characters to upright and than recognized. This anti-rotation processing interupts character and word recognition, thus increases the difficulties.
(3) Significant visual characteristics of printed texts reduce the ease with which they can be identified, especially for low frequency words.
(4) Readers could recognize the whole word via familiarity check stage during Chinese word recognition and reading processing. This suggests that the basic processing unit in Chinese reading is word, at least to high frequency words.
Overall, both low-level visual features and the characteristic of word-based processing of Chinese reading should be considered during constructing eye movement control model in Chinese reading.
引文
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Koriat, A.,& Norman, J. (1985). Reading rotated words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: human Perception and Performance.11 (4),490-508.
Kowler, E.,& Anton, S. (1987). Reading twisted text:Implications for the role of saccades. Vision Research,27,45-60.
Lete, B.,& Pynte, J. (2003). Word-shape and word-lexical frequency effects in lexical-decision and naming tasks. Visual Cognition,10(8),913-948.
Li, X. S., Liu P. P.,& Rayner, K. (2011). Eye movement guidance in Chinese reading:Is there a preferred viewing location? Vision Research,51,1146-1156.
Li, X. S.,& Pollatsek, A. (2011). Word knowledge influences character perception. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,18(5),833-839.
Li, X. S., Rayner, K.,& Cave, R. K. (2009). On the segmentation of Chinese words during reading. Cognitive Psychology,58,525-552.
Liversedge, S. P. (1998). Eye movement and measures of reading time. In Underwood G (Ed), Eye Guidance in Reading and Scene Perception (pp.55-77). Oxford:Elsevier Science LTD.
McClelland, J. L.,& Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception:Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review,88, 375-405.
McConkie, G. W.,& Zola, D. (1979). Is visual information integrated across successive fixations in reading? Perception and Psychophysics,25,221-224.
Miller, K. F., Chen, S. Y., & Zhang, H. C. (2007). Where the words are:Judgments of words, syllables, and phrases by English and Chinese speakers. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan.
Mitchell, D. C. (1982). The process of reading:a cognitive analysis. Chichester:John Wiley.
Monsell, S. (1991). The nature and locus of word frequency effects in reading. In D. Besner & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Basic Processes in Reading (pp.148-1:97). Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Perea, M. & Acha, J. (2009). Space information is important for reading. Vision Research,49, 1994-2000.
Perea, M., & Rosa, E. (2002). Does "whole word shape" play a role in visual word recognition? Perception and Psychophysics,64,785-794.
Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1982). Eye movement control during reading:The role of word boundaries. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,8, 817-833.
Radach, R. & Kennedy, A. (2004). Theoretical perspectives on eye movements in reading:Past controversies, current deficits and an agenda for future research. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,16,3-26.
Rayner, K. (1979). Eye guidance in reading:Fixation locations in words. Perception,8,21-30.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing:20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin,124,372-422.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,62,1457-1506.
Rayner, K., Balota, D. A., & Pollatsek, A. (1986). Against parafoveal semantic preprocessing during eye fixations in reading. Canadian Journal of Psychology,40,473-483.
Rayner, K., Binder, K. S., Ashby, J.,& Pollatsek, A. (2001). Eye movement control in reading: Word predictability has little influence on initial landing positions in words. Vision Research,41,943-954.
Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A. (1986). Lexical complexity and fixation times in reading:Effects of word frequency, verb complexity, and lexical ambiguity. Memory & Cognition,14, 191-201.
Rayner, K., & Fischer, M. H. (1996). Mindless reading revisited:Eye movements during reading and scanning are different. Perception & Psychophysics,58,734-747.
Rayner, K., Fischer, M. H., & Pollatsek, A. (1998). Unspaced text interferes with both word identification and eye movement control. Vision Research,38,1129-1144.
Rayner, K., Li, X., Juhasz, B. J., & Yan, G. (2005). The effect of word predictability on the eye movements of Chinese readers. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,12,1089-1093.
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D. (1980). Integrating information across eye movements. Cognitive Psychology,12,206-226.
Rayner, K., Li, X., & Pollatsek, A. (2007). Extending the E-Z Reader model to Chinese reading. Cognitive Science,31,1021-1033.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1981). Eye movement control during reading:Evidence for direct control. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,33 A,351-373.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1996). Reading unspaced text is not easy:Comments on the implications of Epelboim et al.'s study for models of eye movement control in reading. Vision Research,36,461-470.
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., & Binder, K. S. (1998). Phonological codes and eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition,24, 476-497.
Rayner, K., Sereno, S. C., & Raney, G. E. (1996). Eye movement control in reading:comparison of two types of models. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,22,1188-1200.
Rayner, K., & Well, A. D. (1996). Effects of contextual constraint on eye movements in reading: A further examination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,3,504-509.
Reichle, E. D. (2011). Serial-attention models of reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist & S. Everling (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Eye Movements (pp.767-786). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Reichle, E. D., Warren, T.,& McConnell, K. (2009). Using E-Z Reader to model the effects of higher-level language processing on eye movements during reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,16,1-21.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L.,& Rayner, K. (1998). Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review,105,125-157.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A.,& Rayner, K. (2006). E-Z reader:a cognitive control, serial-attention model of eye-movement behavior during reading. Cognitive Systems Research,7,4-22.
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1999). Eye movement control in reading: Accounting for initial fixation locations and refixations within the E-Z Reader model. Vision Research,39,4403-4411.
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2003). The E-Z reader model of eye movement control in reading:comparisons to other models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,26, 445-476.
Reichle, E. D., Warren, T., & McConnell, K. (2009). Using E-Z Reader to model effects of higher level language processing on eye-movements in reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,16,1-20.
Riddell, P., Duddy, J., Gibbons, W., & Mansfield, S. (1997). Do textual distortions affect normal and reading disabled adults equally? Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Supplement,38, S647.
Rumelhart, D. E.,& McClelland, J. L. (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In D. E. Rumelhart & J. L. McClelland (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing, Vol 2: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (pp.216-271). Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime user's guide. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychology Software Tools.
Shepard, R. N.,& Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science,171, 701-703.
Shepard, R. N.,& Cooper, L. A. (1982). Mental images and their transformations (pp.26-90). Cambridge MA:MIT Press.
Shu, H., Zhou, W., Yan, M.,& Kliegl, R. (2011). Font size modulates saccade-target selection in Chinese reading. Attention, Perception,& Psychophysics,73,482-490.
Spragins, A. B., Lefton, L. A.& Fisher, D. F. (1976). Eye movements while reading and searching spatially transformed text:A developmental examination. Memory & Cognition, 4,36-42.
Stanners, R. F., Jastrzembski, J. E., and Westbrook, A. (1975). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour,14,259-264.
Starr, M. S.,& Rayner, K. (2001). Eye movements during reading:Some current controversies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,5,156-163.
Taft, M.,& Zhu, X. (1997). Submorphemic processing in reading Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition,23(3),761-775.
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Tsai, J. L., Lee, C. Y., Lin, Y. C., Tzeng, O. J. L.,& Huang, D. L. (2006). Neighborhood size effects of Chinese words in lexical decision and reading. Language and Linguistics,7, 659-675.
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Just, M. A.,& Carpenter, P. A. (1985). Cognitive coordinate system:Accounts of mental rotation and individual difference in spatial ability. Psychoogicall Review,92,137-172.
Koriat, A.,& Norman, J. (1985). Reading rotated words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: human Perception and Performance.11 (4),490-508.
Kowler, E.,& Anton, S. (1987). Reading twisted text:Implications for the role of saccades. Vision Research,27,45-60.
Lete, B.,& Pynte, J. (2003). Word-shape and word-lexical frequency effects in lexical-decision and naming tasks. Visual Cognition,10(8),913-948.
Li, X. S., Liu P. P.,& Rayner, K. (2011). Eye movement guidance in Chinese reading:Is there a preferred viewing location? Vision Research,51,1146-1156.
Li, X. S.,& Pollatsek, A. (2011). Word knowledge influences character perception. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,18(5),833-839.
Li, X. S., Rayner, K.,& Cave, R. K. (2009). On the segmentation of Chinese words during reading. Cognitive Psychology,58,525-552.
Liversedge, S. P. (1998). Eye movement and measures of reading time. In Underwood G (Ed), Eye Guidance in Reading and Scene Perception (pp.55-77). Oxford:Elsevier Science LTD.
McClelland, J. L.,& Rumelhart, D. E. (1981). An interactive activation model of context effects in letter perception:Part 1. An account of basic findings. Psychological Review,88, 375-405.
McConkie, G. W.,& Zola, D. (1979). Is visual information integrated across successive fixations in reading? Perception and Psychophysics,25,221-224.
Miller, K. F., Chen, S. Y., & Zhang, H. C. (2007). Where the words are:Judgments of words, syllables, and phrases by English and Chinese speakers. Unpublished manuscript, University of Michigan.
Mitchell, D. C. (1982). The process of reading:a cognitive analysis. Chichester:John Wiley.
Monsell, S. (1991). The nature and locus of word frequency effects in reading. In D. Besner & G. W. Humphreys (Eds.), Basic Processes in Reading (pp.148-1:97). Hillsdale, N. J.: Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Perea, M. & Acha, J. (2009). Space information is important for reading. Vision Research,49, 1994-2000.
Perea, M., & Rosa, E. (2002). Does "whole word shape" play a role in visual word recognition? Perception and Psychophysics,64,785-794.
Pollatsek, A., & Rayner, K. (1982). Eye movement control during reading:The role of word boundaries. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,8, 817-833.
Radach, R. & Kennedy, A. (2004). Theoretical perspectives on eye movements in reading:Past controversies, current deficits and an agenda for future research. European Journal of Cognitive Psychology,16,3-26.
Rayner, K. (1979). Eye guidance in reading:Fixation locations in words. Perception,8,21-30.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and information processing:20 years of research. Psychological Bulletin,124,372-422.
Rayner, K. (2009). Eye movements and attention in reading, scene perception, and visual search. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,62,1457-1506.
Rayner, K., Balota, D. A., & Pollatsek, A. (1986). Against parafoveal semantic preprocessing during eye fixations in reading. Canadian Journal of Psychology,40,473-483.
Rayner, K., Binder, K. S., Ashby, J.,& Pollatsek, A. (2001). Eye movement control in reading: Word predictability has little influence on initial landing positions in words. Vision Research,41,943-954.
Rayner, K., & Duffy, S. A. (1986). Lexical complexity and fixation times in reading:Effects of word frequency, verb complexity, and lexical ambiguity. Memory & Cognition,14, 191-201.
Rayner, K., & Fischer, M. H. (1996). Mindless reading revisited:Eye movements during reading and scanning are different. Perception & Psychophysics,58,734-747.
Rayner, K., Fischer, M. H., & Pollatsek, A. (1998). Unspaced text interferes with both word identification and eye movement control. Vision Research,38,1129-1144.
Rayner, K., Li, X., Juhasz, B. J., & Yan, G. (2005). The effect of word predictability on the eye movements of Chinese readers. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,12,1089-1093.
Rayner, K., McConkie, G. W., & Zola, D. (1980). Integrating information across eye movements. Cognitive Psychology,12,206-226.
Rayner, K., Li, X., & Pollatsek, A. (2007). Extending the E-Z Reader model to Chinese reading. Cognitive Science,31,1021-1033.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1981). Eye movement control during reading:Evidence for direct control. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,33 A,351-373.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1996). Reading unspaced text is not easy:Comments on the implications of Epelboim et al.'s study for models of eye movement control in reading. Vision Research,36,461-470.
Rayner, K., Pollatsek, A., & Binder, K. S. (1998). Phonological codes and eye movements in reading. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition,24, 476-497.
Rayner, K., Sereno, S. C., & Raney, G. E. (1996). Eye movement control in reading:comparison of two types of models. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Human Perception and Performance,22,1188-1200.
Rayner, K., & Well, A. D. (1996). Effects of contextual constraint on eye movements in reading: A further examination. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,3,504-509.
Reichle, E. D. (2011). Serial-attention models of reading. In S. P. Liversedge, I. D. Gilchrist & S. Everling (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Eye Movements (pp.767-786). Oxford:Oxford University Press.
Reichle, E. D., Warren, T.,& McConnell, K. (2009). Using E-Z Reader to model the effects of higher-level language processing on eye movements during reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,16,1-21.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A., Fisher, D. L.,& Rayner, K. (1998). Toward a model of eye movement control in reading. Psychological Review,105,125-157.
Reichle, E. D., Pollatsek, A.,& Rayner, K. (2006). E-Z reader:a cognitive control, serial-attention model of eye-movement behavior during reading. Cognitive Systems Research,7,4-22.
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1999). Eye movement control in reading: Accounting for initial fixation locations and refixations within the E-Z Reader model. Vision Research,39,4403-4411.
Reichle, E. D., Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (2003). The E-Z reader model of eye movement control in reading:comparisons to other models. Behavioral and Brain Sciences,26, 445-476.
Reichle, E. D., Warren, T., & McConnell, K. (2009). Using E-Z Reader to model effects of higher level language processing on eye-movements in reading. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review,16,1-20.
Riddell, P., Duddy, J., Gibbons, W., & Mansfield, S. (1997). Do textual distortions affect normal and reading disabled adults equally? Investigative Ophthalmology and Visual Science, Supplement,38, S647.
Rumelhart, D. E.,& McClelland, J. L. (1986). On learning the past tenses of English verbs. In D. E. Rumelhart & J. L. McClelland (Eds.), Parallel distributed processing, Vol 2: Explorations in the microstructure of cognition (pp.216-271). Cambridge, MA:MIT Press.
Schneider, W., Eschman, A., & Zuccolotto, A. (2002). E-Prime user's guide. Pittsburgh, PA: Psychology Software Tools.
Shepard, R. N.,& Metzler, J. (1971). Mental rotation of three-dimensional objects. Science,171, 701-703.
Shepard, R. N.,& Cooper, L. A. (1982). Mental images and their transformations (pp.26-90). Cambridge MA:MIT Press.
Shu, H., Zhou, W., Yan, M.,& Kliegl, R. (2011). Font size modulates saccade-target selection in Chinese reading. Attention, Perception,& Psychophysics,73,482-490.
Spragins, A. B., Lefton, L. A.& Fisher, D. F. (1976). Eye movements while reading and searching spatially transformed text:A developmental examination. Memory & Cognition, 4,36-42.
Stanners, R. F., Jastrzembski, J. E., and Westbrook, A. (1975). Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behaviour,14,259-264.
Starr, M. S.,& Rayner, K. (2001). Eye movements during reading:Some current controversies. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,5,156-163.
Taft, M.,& Zhu, X. (1997). Submorphemic processing in reading Chinese. Journal of Experimental Psychology:Learning, Memory, and Cognition,23(3),761-775.
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