近30年中医名词术语英译标准化的历程
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摘要
中医名词术语标准化是实现中医现代化国际化的基础和前提。为了满足国内外中医学术交流、教学以及传播等需求,这项基础性工作显得非常迫切和意义重大。中医术语英译标准化是中医名词术语标准化的重要内容,从历史角度研究近30年来我国中医术语英译标准化的历程,对于当今有着重要的借鉴意义。本研究从文献学入手,在广泛收集国内外相关研究文献的基础上,按照历史的发展脉络和特点,将近30年(1980～2007)的中医术语英译标准化历程分为三个阶段:起步阶段、理论初探阶段、学术争鸣与标准编制阶段。重点研究分析近30年间与中医术语英译标准有关的辞典、教材、代表性论著以及各种标准规范,尤其是近8年与中医名词术语英译标准编制及学术争鸣相关资料。运用翻译学、语言学、术语学等研究方法,考察中医名词术语英译及其标准化纵向发展的历程,并横向比较不同观点之间的异同,对中医名词术语标准化各个时期的特点进行总结。对相关史料和文献进行综合、归纳、分析,尝试分析开展中医名词术语标准化工作的难点及其原因,并据此对中医名词术语英译标准化发展中遇到的问题提出解决办法,以及对相关工作做出展望。
1.起步阶段(1980～1991)
1980年以前,中医英译著作不多,除了针灸,翻译多活动处于零星自发状态,翻译方法、英文译名均未见统一的标准化方案。未见系统、专门的中医英语词典或标准,可在翻译或者撰写中医文章时作为参考之用。1980年,北京医学院内部发行谢竹藩的《汉英常用中医药词汇》——第一本中医英语词典问世,1981年,WHO《针灸命名标准》(Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature)的编制工作,这两项工作的开始,标志中医名词术语英译标准化工作的开始。
本章详细介绍了从1980年《汉英常用中医药词汇》的印行、1981年WHO《针灸命名标准》(Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature)的制定开始,到1991年WHO组织出版的《针灸命名国际标准化方案:WHO专家小组报告》(A ProposedStandard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHOScientific Group)这一时期出版的词典、教材及针灸命名标准中的中医名词术语英译情况。
围绕这一时期中医英语词典,及教材中,中医术语英译的特点、英译的方法、原则的探讨;世界卫生组织针灸经穴命名标准的编制过程,及选取术语变化等内容,说明这一时期中医名词术语的英译仍主要处于实践阶段,国内外均己认识到中医名词术语英译标准化的必要性。中医专门英语词典与术语表的问世,标志着中医术语英译从纯粹的实践阶段向理论探讨阶段的过渡。国内外均开始了比较、探讨中医名词术语各种英译方法的具体应用,与英文对应词的合理性。也有人对中医术语英译原则进行了简要的探讨,但缺乏系统化的总纲领。大部分英文教科书和临床文献不完全采用已出版的双语词汇或词典中的词汇。国外早期出版的一些医学英文著作的观点及选词,对中医术语在西方世界的传播起到重要推动作用,并在后来形成各自的翻译流派。在世界卫生组织的推动下完成的《针灸命名国际标准化方案》是第一个中医英文术语标准。
2.理论初探阶段(1992～1999)
在前一阶段里,中医英译实践经验有了相当的积累。构建中医英译理论体系和设计中医名词术语英译的标准化模式便被提到了议事日程上。针灸术语英译标准化工作为后来的中医名词术语标准化提供了良好的经验。
本章主要从中医英译理论著作、中医英语教材、词典的本身发展及其中医术语英译的特点,中医翻译组织的建立、中医术语英译理论探讨等方面系统深入的论述此阶段中医名词术语的英译特点,介绍中医术语英译不同观点。
对于英译原则、英译方法、中药方剂的译法、一些重要词汇的译法开始形成共识。“拉丁化”译法受到多数人反对而逐渐淡出,词素翻译法得到一定推广。与早期相比,中医英文词典随着中医英译理论的发展而发展,术语标准化在选词方面有所进步。国内英文教材的编写,开始考虑到术语的统一性问题,并编写词典作为工具书。国外出版界提出了“出版著作的文本需参考或包含通篇文章使用的‘标准术语表'”,Nigel Wiseman(魏遁杰)的术语系统开始得到推广。市场因素开始对术语的传播起到作用。魏遁杰以《中医基础学》为代表的“以原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译,与Daniel Bensky(班康德)及其同事以《中药学》《方剂学》为代表的“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译,开始逐渐形成中医翻译学术上的两个流派,这两种思想对中医名词术语英译及其标准化产生了重要影响。
这一阶段,真正的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作还没有开展,理论总结和对术语英译的探讨,为后来即将开展的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作奠定了重要的基础。
3.学术争鸣与标准编制(2000～2007)
2000年,多个中医名词术语英译标准编制工作先后开始。2002年,世界卫生组织首次专门针对传统医学,发布了2002～2005年全球战略,强调对传统医学的规范化管理。随着中国经济的迅速崛起,中医药学在国际上越来越受欢迎,中医药研究和教学,以及中医药学术交流广泛开展。这一阶段,全国乃至国际范围都开展了一系列的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作,这些工作取得了巨大的成果,并且影响广泛。2007年为止,世界中医药联合会的《中医基本名词术语中英对照国际标准》与世界卫生组织的《传统医学名词术语国际标准》编制完成。
这一阶段魏迺杰的《实用英文中医词典》在国内外均有较大影响,其翻译思想广为西方人士接受。《中华人民共和国药典》2005年英文版成为中药与方剂名称英译的规范。
中医术语英译学界一直存在着争鸣,从第一阶段(1980～1991)就开始。而到了本阶段,在中医术语英译标准的编制过程中,不同观点产生了更激烈的交锋。主要文章发表在出版媒介及专著上。在东、西方,魏迺杰的“以原文为导向的”“字对字直译法”与班康德的“以读者为导向的”翻译方法,以及是否能使用生物医学名词翻译中医名词术语的成为争论的焦点。本章从中医术语英译原则与方法、谁有权力翻译中医、一些具体术语的英译、中医术语英译是否需要规范化等方面论述中医名词术语英译标准化的学术争鸣,并由此引出对新的方法论“开放性术语标准term open standard”的探讨。
本章还详细介绍了有关标准的编制和特点,包括《中医药学名词》、《中医药常用名词术语英译》、《中华人民共和国国家标准·中医基础理论术语》、《中医基本名词术语中英对照国际标准》、《传统医学名词术语国际标准》,并对一些术语的英译做出总结。
4.讨论
本研究认为中医名词术语英译标准化长期争鸣,及在进行中遇到的阻力可以尝试通过两个途径解决,并要注意一个问题:
一是人才培养。从翻译主体的背景看,现阶段中国专家学者的参与必不可缺,起着重要的作用。待到中医学在西方发展成熟,西方中医学者成长起来时,借鉴西医名词中译的历史看,母语为英语的人,则在翻译中医,及进行中医名词术语英译标准化时更具优势。从事中医名词术语英译标准化工作,则要求翻译主体掌握更全面的知识。
二是策略性地改变标准化的方法。建议引进新的工作方法,即,“开放性术语标准term open standard”。
三是不能忽略术语的推广,尤其是市场的潜作用。
5.结论
本研究根据1980年至2007年近三十年时间中医名词术语英译标准化进程中中医名词术语英译的特点分为三阶段:第一阶段:1980年～1991年。这一时期,中医术语英译仍旧以个人实践为主,选词不统一,理论探讨少,讨论主要集中在中医基础个别词汇方面。以语言学家魏迺杰为代表的“以原文为导向”的翻译与以班康德为代表的“以读者为导向的”翻译两个流派在这一阶段萌芽成长。WHO的《针灸经穴命名国际标准》没有得到很好的推广,一些学者对脏腑、经络的翻译仍旧保留自己的观点。第二阶段:1992年～1999年。中医术语英译理论研究有了实质性的进展。“拉丁化”译法退出历史舞台。国内受李约瑟影响词素翻译法再次活跃。中医术语翻译理论探讨活跃,多数人反对拉丁化译法,限制音译。国外出版界提出“出版著作的文本需参考或包含通篇文章使用的‘标准术语表'”,提出第一个术语表就是魏迺杰的术语表。魏氏以“原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译与班康德及其同事“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译学术流派形成完善,并开始论争。前者强调对等,回译性,后者强调翻译的多元化,译文的可读性和清晰性。一些词汇译法开始走向统一,如“证”国内用syndrome,国外用pattern。针灸经穴翻译使用WHO编制的标准的越来越多,但是,国内外学者对一些词汇翻译仍旧保留自己看法,在翻译中使用自己词汇,并做出说明。第三阶段:2000年～2007年。多个中医术语标准编制项目同时进行,相互之间沟通密切,术语的选择相互参考,求同存异,对于多数基础术语的翻译,虽然不能完全达成一致看法,但是,基本上倾向于两、三种译法,如“证”(syndrome,pattern),而一些词汇已经达成一致看法如“气”(qi)。以“原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译与“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译争鸣剧烈。中医名词术语英译学术论争的焦点集中在西医名词的使用、翻译原则与方法论、谁有权力翻译中医等方面。由于学术争鸣的持续存在,一些学者对中医名词术语规范化本身提出了异议。这一阶段既有合作也有分歧。
本研究根据目前中医名词术语标准化的现状和发展趋势,尝试提出了解决的方法。人才培养方面,从翻译主体的背景看,现阶段中国专家学者的参与必不可缺,借鉴西医名词中译的历史看,将来这项工作母语为英语的人做起来更具优势,但,要求翻译主体掌握更全面的知识。现阶段二者精诚合作是最好的解决方法。方法论方面,建议与国际相关组织合作,引进“开放性术语标准”的新方法,以进一步推动中医名词术语英译工作的发展。
6.结语
本研究只是中医名词术语英译标准化历史研究的第一步,还有很多工作有待继续。希望在将来综合历史术语学、术语学、翻译学、中医学、现代信息技术等等方面的知识,在本研究的基础上,向过去和未来延伸,进而形成中医术语学或中医历史术语学,为中医名词术语英译及向其他语言翻译的标准制定工作打下坚实的基础并提供借鉴。
In the need of academic communication,education and publication etc.,it is necessary to standardize the English terms of Chinese medicine(CM),which is the core part of CM translation.According to the historical development of standardization of English terms of Chinese Medicine,based on the extensive collection of the related materials,this article mainly study on the standardization history of English terms of Chinese Medicine in the last 30 years(1980-2007).The method of translation,philology and terminology is used to analyze the data,and investigate the evolvement of the standardization,and then to compare different views at the same period.The features of the English translation of CM terms are summarized respectively.Therefore,the difficulties and disputes the standardization confronted are disclosed,and possible resolutions are proposed.
1.Initial Stage(1980-1991)
Before 1980,there was little English translation of CM works especially that were directly translated from Chinese.When one wants to write an article or translate CM works,there was no standard to follow;and even an English dictionary of CM was not available.
This chapter introduces the English translation of CM terms and that in dictionaries,textbooks,monographs,and the WHO acupuncture standard nomenclatures,from the publication of the first English dictionary of CM,Common Terms of Traditional Chinese Medicine in English(《汉英常用中医药词汇》1980) to the accomplishment of acupuncture standard nomenclature(A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group,1991).
The following details are expounded in terms of the features of translation of CM terms,the discussion on translation methodology and principles,the history of standardization of acupuncture standard nomenclature organized by WHO and its evolvement of the term selection.
The significance of standardization of English terms of CM is wide accepted and recognized.The publication of English dictionaries of CM,glossary and textbooks signified the start of standardization of English CM terms,and the publication of A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group in 1991,the first standardized glossary of CM represents the end of the initial stage of standardization of English term of CM.The terms selected in the books,dictionaries and the standard acupuncture nomenclature by WHO were not unified and most translation activities were more or less individual.
2.Theoretical Discussion(1992-1999)
Based on the CM translation experience accumulated from the last period,the construction of CM translation theoretical systems and the model design of standardization of CM terms were put in schedule.
This chapter discusses the characteristics of English translation of CM terms and introduces the different academic viewpoints on the translation of CM terms in theory books,English CM textbooks and English dictionaries of CM.And the establishment of CM translation associations and COMP(Council of Oriental Medical Publication) was in accord with the need of the standardization.
People achieved some common viewpoints in terms of English translation principles and methodologies,how to translate the simple herbs and the formulae,and the translation of some specific words.Latin translation of CM words started to retreat from history.Morpheme level translation with Greek or Latin suffix or prefix was active in the stage.Source-oriented and reader-oriented translations sprout.COMP proposed that the publication must refer to a glossary or conclude a glossary for the terms chosen.Wiseman's term system by word-to-word literal translation became more and more welcomed in western world.The disputes on the selection of the English terms of CM began.
The standardization of CM terms still is absent in the stage.The extensive discussion on different aspects of English translation of TCM terms provide good basis for the next stage,the stage of standardization.
3.Academic Disputes and Term Standardization(2000-2007)
From 2000 to 2007,multiple different projects on standardization of English translation of CM terms started simultaneously.Different projects communicated with each other closely,their works were not isolated.The related publications are Chinese Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy,2004;English Translation of Common Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine,2004;Basic Theory Nomenclature of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2006;International standard Chinese-English Basic Nomenclature of Chinese Medicine,2007;and WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region,2007.
Meanwhile,the disputes on the standardization of English CM terms exacerbated gradually.The focuses of the dispute were still whether biomedical words can be applied to translate CM terms;whether English CM terms should be standardized; which method is better,source-oriented translation or reader-oriented.Some experts even proposed the rejection of the standardization,and "term open standard" as a methodology was introduced into the field.
The accomplishment of WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region signifies the start of international cooperation in the standardization of English terms of CM.
4.Discussion
Two of the methods that can be carried out to resolve the dispute on the English translation of CM terms are faculty education and the change of methodologies.
As to faculty education,now,the participation of Chinese scholars is quite necessary,since CM is not ripened in the west.According to the transmission of biomedical words from English into Chinese,in the future,the ones with native English and possess good CM skill,knowledge and experience,and also other knowledge will have privilege in completing the task.The "open standard" would be a good point as a new methodology.The dissemination of the standardized term couldn't ignore the latent action of marketing.
5.Conclusion
The standardization history of English terms of CM in the last 30 years (1980～2007) were divided into 3 stages according to the characteristics of each stage. In the initial stage(1980-1991),the English terms of CM were not unified and mostly are still personal translation activities.Debates focused on the basic terms of CM.One word had many English equivalents like "气"(qi,chi,ch'i,energy,air etc.).There were few theoretical discussions."Source-oriented translation" and "reader-oriented translation" sprouted.In the stage of theoretical discussion(1992-1999),the theory of CM translation developed faster and advanced a lot.Latin translation of CM words began to retreat from history.Morpheme level translation with Greek or Latin suffix or prefix was active in the stage in China.Source-oriented and reader-oriented translations formed and dispute with each other.The former one stressed literal translation and rejected to use biomedical words,the latter one stressed readability and transparency of the translation,prefer to use biomedical terms and advocate multiple English translations for one CM term,so that one can understand the term from different aspects.The disputes on translation methodology of CM terms started. People gradually reached common points to translations of some terms under debates, such as "证" is translated into "syndrome" in China and "pattern" in the west,and "气" into qi.In the stage of academic disputes and term standardization(2000-2007), multiple different projects on standardization of English terms of CM began simultaneously,different projects closely communicated with each other.Many translations of CM terms reached common points like "温病"(warm disease),"百合病" Lily Disease.Some still need long term and further discussion like "经脉" (channel,meridian).The disputes focus on the usage of biomedical equivalents, the right to translate CM,and the translation principles and methodologies. Source-oriented translation and reader-oriented translation conflict severely,the translators insist their viewpoints in the past and published many works include glossary or dictionaries as supports.Some experts propose rejection of the standardization,and "open standard" is introduced into the field.International cooperation began.
Two methods can be carried out to resolve the dispute on the English translation of CM terms.As to faculty education,now,the participation of Chinese scholars is quite necessary,and in the future,the ones speak native English and possess good CM skill,knowledge and experience,and also other knowledge needed will have privilege in completing the task.The "open standard" would be a good point as a new methodology.The dissemination of the standardized term couldn't ignore the latent action of marketing.
The study on the history of standardization of English terms of CM is only at the scratch.More works need further concerns and discussion.It is expected to form a new discipline in the future,"CM Terminology".And methodologies can be used to develop the new discipline in terms of historical terminology,terminology,translation, Chinese Medicine and modern information techniques.
1.起步阶段(1980～1991)
1980年以前,中医英译著作不多,除了针灸,翻译多活动处于零星自发状态,翻译方法、英文译名均未见统一的标准化方案。未见系统、专门的中医英语词典或标准,可在翻译或者撰写中医文章时作为参考之用。1980年,北京医学院内部发行谢竹藩的《汉英常用中医药词汇》——第一本中医英语词典问世,1981年,WHO《针灸命名标准》(Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature)的编制工作,这两项工作的开始,标志中医名词术语英译标准化工作的开始。
本章详细介绍了从1980年《汉英常用中医药词汇》的印行、1981年WHO《针灸命名标准》(Standard Acupuncture Nomenclature)的制定开始,到1991年WHO组织出版的《针灸命名国际标准化方案:WHO专家小组报告》(A ProposedStandard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHOScientific Group)这一时期出版的词典、教材及针灸命名标准中的中医名词术语英译情况。
围绕这一时期中医英语词典,及教材中,中医术语英译的特点、英译的方法、原则的探讨;世界卫生组织针灸经穴命名标准的编制过程,及选取术语变化等内容,说明这一时期中医名词术语的英译仍主要处于实践阶段,国内外均己认识到中医名词术语英译标准化的必要性。中医专门英语词典与术语表的问世,标志着中医术语英译从纯粹的实践阶段向理论探讨阶段的过渡。国内外均开始了比较、探讨中医名词术语各种英译方法的具体应用,与英文对应词的合理性。也有人对中医术语英译原则进行了简要的探讨,但缺乏系统化的总纲领。大部分英文教科书和临床文献不完全采用已出版的双语词汇或词典中的词汇。国外早期出版的一些医学英文著作的观点及选词,对中医术语在西方世界的传播起到重要推动作用,并在后来形成各自的翻译流派。在世界卫生组织的推动下完成的《针灸命名国际标准化方案》是第一个中医英文术语标准。
2.理论初探阶段(1992～1999)
在前一阶段里,中医英译实践经验有了相当的积累。构建中医英译理论体系和设计中医名词术语英译的标准化模式便被提到了议事日程上。针灸术语英译标准化工作为后来的中医名词术语标准化提供了良好的经验。
本章主要从中医英译理论著作、中医英语教材、词典的本身发展及其中医术语英译的特点,中医翻译组织的建立、中医术语英译理论探讨等方面系统深入的论述此阶段中医名词术语的英译特点,介绍中医术语英译不同观点。
对于英译原则、英译方法、中药方剂的译法、一些重要词汇的译法开始形成共识。“拉丁化”译法受到多数人反对而逐渐淡出,词素翻译法得到一定推广。与早期相比,中医英文词典随着中医英译理论的发展而发展,术语标准化在选词方面有所进步。国内英文教材的编写,开始考虑到术语的统一性问题,并编写词典作为工具书。国外出版界提出了“出版著作的文本需参考或包含通篇文章使用的‘标准术语表'”,Nigel Wiseman(魏遁杰)的术语系统开始得到推广。市场因素开始对术语的传播起到作用。魏遁杰以《中医基础学》为代表的“以原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译,与Daniel Bensky(班康德)及其同事以《中药学》《方剂学》为代表的“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译,开始逐渐形成中医翻译学术上的两个流派,这两种思想对中医名词术语英译及其标准化产生了重要影响。
这一阶段,真正的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作还没有开展,理论总结和对术语英译的探讨,为后来即将开展的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作奠定了重要的基础。
3.学术争鸣与标准编制(2000～2007)
2000年,多个中医名词术语英译标准编制工作先后开始。2002年,世界卫生组织首次专门针对传统医学,发布了2002～2005年全球战略,强调对传统医学的规范化管理。随着中国经济的迅速崛起,中医药学在国际上越来越受欢迎,中医药研究和教学,以及中医药学术交流广泛开展。这一阶段,全国乃至国际范围都开展了一系列的中医名词术语英译标准编制工作,这些工作取得了巨大的成果,并且影响广泛。2007年为止,世界中医药联合会的《中医基本名词术语中英对照国际标准》与世界卫生组织的《传统医学名词术语国际标准》编制完成。
这一阶段魏迺杰的《实用英文中医词典》在国内外均有较大影响,其翻译思想广为西方人士接受。《中华人民共和国药典》2005年英文版成为中药与方剂名称英译的规范。
中医术语英译学界一直存在着争鸣,从第一阶段(1980～1991)就开始。而到了本阶段,在中医术语英译标准的编制过程中,不同观点产生了更激烈的交锋。主要文章发表在出版媒介及专著上。在东、西方,魏迺杰的“以原文为导向的”“字对字直译法”与班康德的“以读者为导向的”翻译方法,以及是否能使用生物医学名词翻译中医名词术语的成为争论的焦点。本章从中医术语英译原则与方法、谁有权力翻译中医、一些具体术语的英译、中医术语英译是否需要规范化等方面论述中医名词术语英译标准化的学术争鸣,并由此引出对新的方法论“开放性术语标准term open standard”的探讨。
本章还详细介绍了有关标准的编制和特点,包括《中医药学名词》、《中医药常用名词术语英译》、《中华人民共和国国家标准·中医基础理论术语》、《中医基本名词术语中英对照国际标准》、《传统医学名词术语国际标准》,并对一些术语的英译做出总结。
4.讨论
本研究认为中医名词术语英译标准化长期争鸣,及在进行中遇到的阻力可以尝试通过两个途径解决,并要注意一个问题:
一是人才培养。从翻译主体的背景看,现阶段中国专家学者的参与必不可缺,起着重要的作用。待到中医学在西方发展成熟,西方中医学者成长起来时,借鉴西医名词中译的历史看,母语为英语的人,则在翻译中医,及进行中医名词术语英译标准化时更具优势。从事中医名词术语英译标准化工作,则要求翻译主体掌握更全面的知识。
二是策略性地改变标准化的方法。建议引进新的工作方法,即,“开放性术语标准term open standard”。
三是不能忽略术语的推广,尤其是市场的潜作用。
5.结论
本研究根据1980年至2007年近三十年时间中医名词术语英译标准化进程中中医名词术语英译的特点分为三阶段:第一阶段:1980年～1991年。这一时期,中医术语英译仍旧以个人实践为主,选词不统一,理论探讨少,讨论主要集中在中医基础个别词汇方面。以语言学家魏迺杰为代表的“以原文为导向”的翻译与以班康德为代表的“以读者为导向的”翻译两个流派在这一阶段萌芽成长。WHO的《针灸经穴命名国际标准》没有得到很好的推广,一些学者对脏腑、经络的翻译仍旧保留自己的观点。第二阶段:1992年～1999年。中医术语英译理论研究有了实质性的进展。“拉丁化”译法退出历史舞台。国内受李约瑟影响词素翻译法再次活跃。中医术语翻译理论探讨活跃,多数人反对拉丁化译法,限制音译。国外出版界提出“出版著作的文本需参考或包含通篇文章使用的‘标准术语表'”,提出第一个术语表就是魏迺杰的术语表。魏氏以“原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译与班康德及其同事“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译学术流派形成完善,并开始论争。前者强调对等,回译性,后者强调翻译的多元化,译文的可读性和清晰性。一些词汇译法开始走向统一,如“证”国内用syndrome,国外用pattern。针灸经穴翻译使用WHO编制的标准的越来越多,但是,国内外学者对一些词汇翻译仍旧保留自己看法,在翻译中使用自己词汇,并做出说明。第三阶段:2000年～2007年。多个中医术语标准编制项目同时进行,相互之间沟通密切,术语的选择相互参考,求同存异,对于多数基础术语的翻译,虽然不能完全达成一致看法,但是,基本上倾向于两、三种译法,如“证”(syndrome,pattern),而一些词汇已经达成一致看法如“气”(qi)。以“原文为导向的source-oriented”翻译与“以读者为导向的reader-oriented”翻译争鸣剧烈。中医名词术语英译学术论争的焦点集中在西医名词的使用、翻译原则与方法论、谁有权力翻译中医等方面。由于学术争鸣的持续存在,一些学者对中医名词术语规范化本身提出了异议。这一阶段既有合作也有分歧。
本研究根据目前中医名词术语标准化的现状和发展趋势,尝试提出了解决的方法。人才培养方面,从翻译主体的背景看,现阶段中国专家学者的参与必不可缺,借鉴西医名词中译的历史看,将来这项工作母语为英语的人做起来更具优势,但,要求翻译主体掌握更全面的知识。现阶段二者精诚合作是最好的解决方法。方法论方面,建议与国际相关组织合作,引进“开放性术语标准”的新方法,以进一步推动中医名词术语英译工作的发展。
6.结语
本研究只是中医名词术语英译标准化历史研究的第一步,还有很多工作有待继续。希望在将来综合历史术语学、术语学、翻译学、中医学、现代信息技术等等方面的知识,在本研究的基础上,向过去和未来延伸,进而形成中医术语学或中医历史术语学,为中医名词术语英译及向其他语言翻译的标准制定工作打下坚实的基础并提供借鉴。
In the need of academic communication,education and publication etc.,it is necessary to standardize the English terms of Chinese medicine(CM),which is the core part of CM translation.According to the historical development of standardization of English terms of Chinese Medicine,based on the extensive collection of the related materials,this article mainly study on the standardization history of English terms of Chinese Medicine in the last 30 years(1980-2007).The method of translation,philology and terminology is used to analyze the data,and investigate the evolvement of the standardization,and then to compare different views at the same period.The features of the English translation of CM terms are summarized respectively.Therefore,the difficulties and disputes the standardization confronted are disclosed,and possible resolutions are proposed.
1.Initial Stage(1980-1991)
Before 1980,there was little English translation of CM works especially that were directly translated from Chinese.When one wants to write an article or translate CM works,there was no standard to follow;and even an English dictionary of CM was not available.
This chapter introduces the English translation of CM terms and that in dictionaries,textbooks,monographs,and the WHO acupuncture standard nomenclatures,from the publication of the first English dictionary of CM,Common Terms of Traditional Chinese Medicine in English(《汉英常用中医药词汇》1980) to the accomplishment of acupuncture standard nomenclature(A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group,1991).
The following details are expounded in terms of the features of translation of CM terms,the discussion on translation methodology and principles,the history of standardization of acupuncture standard nomenclature organized by WHO and its evolvement of the term selection.
The significance of standardization of English terms of CM is wide accepted and recognized.The publication of English dictionaries of CM,glossary and textbooks signified the start of standardization of English CM terms,and the publication of A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group in 1991,the first standardized glossary of CM represents the end of the initial stage of standardization of English term of CM.The terms selected in the books,dictionaries and the standard acupuncture nomenclature by WHO were not unified and most translation activities were more or less individual.
2.Theoretical Discussion(1992-1999)
Based on the CM translation experience accumulated from the last period,the construction of CM translation theoretical systems and the model design of standardization of CM terms were put in schedule.
This chapter discusses the characteristics of English translation of CM terms and introduces the different academic viewpoints on the translation of CM terms in theory books,English CM textbooks and English dictionaries of CM.And the establishment of CM translation associations and COMP(Council of Oriental Medical Publication) was in accord with the need of the standardization.
People achieved some common viewpoints in terms of English translation principles and methodologies,how to translate the simple herbs and the formulae,and the translation of some specific words.Latin translation of CM words started to retreat from history.Morpheme level translation with Greek or Latin suffix or prefix was active in the stage.Source-oriented and reader-oriented translations sprout.COMP proposed that the publication must refer to a glossary or conclude a glossary for the terms chosen.Wiseman's term system by word-to-word literal translation became more and more welcomed in western world.The disputes on the selection of the English terms of CM began.
The standardization of CM terms still is absent in the stage.The extensive discussion on different aspects of English translation of TCM terms provide good basis for the next stage,the stage of standardization.
3.Academic Disputes and Term Standardization(2000-2007)
From 2000 to 2007,multiple different projects on standardization of English translation of CM terms started simultaneously.Different projects communicated with each other closely,their works were not isolated.The related publications are Chinese Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine and Pharmacy,2004;English Translation of Common Terms in Traditional Chinese Medicine,2004;Basic Theory Nomenclature of Traditional Chinese Medicine,2006;International standard Chinese-English Basic Nomenclature of Chinese Medicine,2007;and WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region,2007.
Meanwhile,the disputes on the standardization of English CM terms exacerbated gradually.The focuses of the dispute were still whether biomedical words can be applied to translate CM terms;whether English CM terms should be standardized; which method is better,source-oriented translation or reader-oriented.Some experts even proposed the rejection of the standardization,and "term open standard" as a methodology was introduced into the field.
The accomplishment of WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region signifies the start of international cooperation in the standardization of English terms of CM.
4.Discussion
Two of the methods that can be carried out to resolve the dispute on the English translation of CM terms are faculty education and the change of methodologies.
As to faculty education,now,the participation of Chinese scholars is quite necessary,since CM is not ripened in the west.According to the transmission of biomedical words from English into Chinese,in the future,the ones with native English and possess good CM skill,knowledge and experience,and also other knowledge will have privilege in completing the task.The "open standard" would be a good point as a new methodology.The dissemination of the standardized term couldn't ignore the latent action of marketing.
5.Conclusion
The standardization history of English terms of CM in the last 30 years (1980～2007) were divided into 3 stages according to the characteristics of each stage. In the initial stage(1980-1991),the English terms of CM were not unified and mostly are still personal translation activities.Debates focused on the basic terms of CM.One word had many English equivalents like "气"(qi,chi,ch'i,energy,air etc.).There were few theoretical discussions."Source-oriented translation" and "reader-oriented translation" sprouted.In the stage of theoretical discussion(1992-1999),the theory of CM translation developed faster and advanced a lot.Latin translation of CM words began to retreat from history.Morpheme level translation with Greek or Latin suffix or prefix was active in the stage in China.Source-oriented and reader-oriented translations formed and dispute with each other.The former one stressed literal translation and rejected to use biomedical words,the latter one stressed readability and transparency of the translation,prefer to use biomedical terms and advocate multiple English translations for one CM term,so that one can understand the term from different aspects.The disputes on translation methodology of CM terms started. People gradually reached common points to translations of some terms under debates, such as "证" is translated into "syndrome" in China and "pattern" in the west,and "气" into qi.In the stage of academic disputes and term standardization(2000-2007), multiple different projects on standardization of English terms of CM began simultaneously,different projects closely communicated with each other.Many translations of CM terms reached common points like "温病"(warm disease),"百合病" Lily Disease.Some still need long term and further discussion like "经脉" (channel,meridian).The disputes focus on the usage of biomedical equivalents, the right to translate CM,and the translation principles and methodologies. Source-oriented translation and reader-oriented translation conflict severely,the translators insist their viewpoints in the past and published many works include glossary or dictionaries as supports.Some experts propose rejection of the standardization,and "open standard" is introduced into the field.International cooperation began.
Two methods can be carried out to resolve the dispute on the English translation of CM terms.As to faculty education,now,the participation of Chinese scholars is quite necessary,and in the future,the ones speak native English and possess good CM skill,knowledge and experience,and also other knowledge needed will have privilege in completing the task.The "open standard" would be a good point as a new methodology.The dissemination of the standardized term couldn't ignore the latent action of marketing.
The study on the history of standardization of English terms of CM is only at the scratch.More works need further concerns and discussion.It is expected to form a new discipline in the future,"CM Terminology".And methodologies can be used to develop the new discipline in terms of historical terminology,terminology,translation, Chinese Medicine and modern information techniques.
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31 Porkert M.The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine.Cambridge:MIT Press,1978.P 9-166.
32 李照国,李鼎.试论李约瑟的中医翻译思想.上海科技翻译,1997(2):20-21.
33 中国中医研究院.中国针灸学概要.北京:外文出版社,1975.P目录.
34 谢竹藩,黄孝楷.汉英常用中医药词汇.北京:北京医学院,1980.
35 谢竹藩,黄孝楷.汉英常用中医药词汇.北京:北京医学院,1980.P前言.
36 广州中医学院编.汉英常用中医词汇.广州:广东科技出版社,1982.
37 广州中医学院《英译常用中医名词术语浅释》编译组.《英译常用中医名词术语浅释》试写稿(选)(供征求意见用)(英文).新中医,1980(4):46-47.
38 欧明,李衍文,赖世隆.中医名词术语英译的几点体会,中医杂志,1981(11):78-80.
39 帅学忠.汉英双解常用中医名词术语.长沙:湖南科学技术出版社,1983.
40 欧明.汉英中医辞典.广州:广东科技了版社,香港:三联书店香港分店,1986.P使用说明.
41 欧明,李衍文.中医名词术语的英译.上海科技翻译,1986(4):18-22.
42 欧明,李衍文,黄月中.中医常用词汇英译刍议.广州中医药大学学报,1988(3):175-181.
43 汉英医学大词典编委会.汉英医学大词典.北京:人民卫生出版社.1987.P1551.
44 Beijing,Shanghai,Nanjing Colledge of TCM.Essentials of Chinese Acupuncture.Beijng:Foreign Language Ptess.1980.P30.
45 Ibid..Pi-iv.
46 O' Connor,John,Bensky.Acupuncture:A Comprehensive Text.Seattle:Eastland Press,1981.P xv.
47 China Academy of TCM.An Outline of Chinese Acupuncture.Beijng:Foreign Language Press,1975.P i-iv.
48 Kaptchuk T.J.The Web That Has No Weaver.New York:Congdon and Weed,1983.P.xv.
49 Kaptchuk.T.J.The Web that has no Weaver:Understanding Chinese Medicine.New York:McGraw-Hill,2000.P.The author' s note,Catalogue.
50 Wiseman N.Ellis,Zmiewski.Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine.Brookline:Paradigm Publications,1985.Pxvi.
51 Unschuld P.Approaches to Traditional Chinese Medical Literature:Proceedings of an International Symposium on Translation Methodologies and Terminologies.London:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1989.P 55-66.
52 Bensky D,Gamble,Andrew.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Materia Medica.Seattle:Eastland Press,1986.P693.
53 Bensky D.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Formulas and Strategies.Seattle:Eastland Press.1990.Pxxiii-xxv.
54 Maciocia G.The Foundations of Chinese Medicine:A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists.Churchill Livingstone,1989.P Preface.
55 世界针灸联合会.针灸标准化研究的进展与战略规划.http://www.wfas.com.cn/aboutus/future/200609/22,html.2008-1-30.
56 WHO.A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group.http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2947e/#Jh2947e.3.2008-4-23.
57 兰凤利.评魏迺杰的《实用英文中医辞典》.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(2):177－181.
58 Unschuld P.Approaches to Traditional Chinese Medical Literature:Proceedings of an International Symposium on Translation Methodologies and Terminologies.London:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1989.P55-107.
59 满晰博,傅芳,曹蓉.中医名词术语英译规范化问题.中医杂志,1988(4):59-60.
60 钱绍昌.中医术语英译初探.上海科技翻译,1988(4):6-8.
61 Ellis A,Wiseman,Boss.Grasping the Wind.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1990.
62 李照国.中医翻译导论.西安:西北大学出版社,1993.
63 李照国.中医英语翻译技巧.北京:人民卫生出版社,1996.
64 Ibid.,P 目录.
65 Ibid.,P236-246.
66 Ibid.,P73-86.
67 Wiseman N,Ellis A.Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine:Revised Edition.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1995.
68 Maclean W,Lyttleton.Clinical Handbook of Internal Medicine:The Treatment of Disease with Traditional Chinese Medicine,Volume I.Sydney:University of Western Sydney.Second Edi.2000.P xix.
69 刘占文.汉英中医药学词典.北京:中医古籍出版社,1994.
70 谢竹藩,楼之岑,黄孝楷.汉英中医药分类辞典,北京:新世界出版社,1994.PV,12.
71 李志刚.中医学必将成为全人类共享的医学财富英国学者编着《英汉汉英中医词典》问世,中国中医药报,1995.12.8.
72 李照国.Nigel Wiseman的中医翻译思想评介.中国科技翻译,1998(2):41-43+51
73 魏迺杰.汉英英汉中医辞典.长沙:湖南科学技术出版社,1995.P30-35.
74 李照国.汉英中医药大词典.北京:世界图书出版公司,1997.P1203－1208.
75 李照国.简明汉英中医词典.上海:上海科学技术出版社,2002.
76 吕爱平.构建中医药国际化语言平台.中国中医药报,2007年.
77 Wiseman N.COMP Discussion 2000.http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/references/COMP,Paradigm Publications,2008-3-27.
78 Wiseman N.English Translation and Terminology of Chinese Medicine.Journal of Chinese Medicine,1993,4(1):47-56.
79 Wiseman N.Rationale for the Terminology of Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine:The Case for Literal Translation.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1998.
80 Wiseman N.The Transmission and Reception of Chinese Medicine:Language the Neglected Key.In Clinical Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine,2001(2):29-36.
81 Wiseman N.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms:Not Just a Matter of Words.Clinical Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine,2001(2):49-59.
82 魏迺杰,冯哗.中医英义词汇入门.台北:合记出版社,1998.
83 Mitchell C,Feng Y,Wiseman.Shang Han Lun(On Cold Damage):Translation and Commentaries.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1999.
84 Wiseman N,Feng Y.A Coursebook in Chinese Medical Chinese.Bookline MA:Paradigm Publications,2000.
85 李永安.早期医学名词的统一与目前中医名词术语英译标准化.中国中西医结合杂志,1996;16(1):56-57.
86 刘于中,吕维柏,谢竹藩,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(一).中国中西医结合杂志,1992(6):327-329+344.
87 Ibid.
88 欧明,李衍文,张家庆,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(二).中固中西医结合杂,1992;12(7):433-435.
89 曾碧光,谢宗万,吕少平,等.中医基本理论名访术语英译探讨(三).中国中西医结合杂志,1992;12(12):751－753.
90 黄欣贤,樊蓥,金科奇,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(四).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(4):240-243.
91 李照国,周杰,王得奎,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(五).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(6):370-373.
92 季钟朴,谢仁敷,沈雪勇,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(六).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(10):626－628
93 侯灿.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(七).中国中西医结合杂志,1994;14(1):46-49.
94 吕刚,李永安,MIEPITAO K,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨.中国中西医结合杂志,1994(10):627-629.
95 王朝辉,林岩,张登峰,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨.中国中西医结合杂志,1994(12):749-750.
96 李照国.关于中医名词术语英译标准化的思考.中国中西医结合杂志,1994;14(3):144.
97 李永安.早期医学名词的统一与目前中医名词术语英译标准化.中国中西医结合杂志,1996;16(1):56－57.
98 魏迺杰,冯晔.实用英文中医辞典.北京:人民卫生出版社.2002.P再版序.
99 Bensky D.Draft Glossary for Chinese Medicine-2006.www.eastlandpress.com/upload/_pdf_20060316150625 2/draft%20GIossary%203-13-06.pdf.Eastland Press,2008-4-21
100 朱忠宝.中医英语基础.北京:人民卫生出版社,2001.
101 李照国,朱忠宝.中医英语翻译技巧训练(高等医学院校中医英语翻译系列教程).上海:上海中医药大学出版社,2002.
102 罗磊.现代中医药学汉英翻译技巧.北京:中医古籍出版社.2004
103 李磊.中医英语(21世纪高等教育重点建设教材).北京:科学出版社,2003.
104 李磊.新世纪中医英语教程(教师用书).上海:上海外语教育出版社.2006.
105 Wiseman N.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms:A Source-Oriented Approach,Doctoral Thesis in Complementary Health Studies,2000.
106 Wiseman N,Feng Y.Introduction to English Terminology of Chinese Medicine.Paradigm Publications,2002.
107 Wiseman N.Chinese Medical Characters.Paradigm Publications,2003.
108 Wiseman N,Feng Y.Chinese Medical Chinese:Grammar and Vocabulary.Paradigm Publications,2002.
109 Bensky D,Clavey,Stoger,et al.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Materia Medica(Third Ed.).Seattle:Eastland Press,2004.
110 Maciocia G.The Foundations of Chinese Medicine:A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists Second Edition).Churchill:Livingstone,2005.
111 Maciocia G.Diagnosis in Chinese Medicine:A Comprehensive Guide(Hardcover).USA:Churchill Livingstone,2004.
112 Cheng XN,Deng LY.Chinese Acupuncture and Moxibustion(2 Ed.).Beijing:Foreign Languages Press,2005.
113 Deadman,P.,Al-Khafaji,M.Baker,K.A Manual of Acupuncture,Journal of Chinese Medicine Publications,1998.
114 Deadman P,Al-Khafaji M,Baker K.A Manual of Acupuncture(2nd Ed.).Journal of Chinese Medicine Publications,2007.
115 谢竹藩.新编汉英中医药分类词典.北京:外文出版社,2002.
116 谢竹藩.中医药常用名词术语英译.北京:中国中医药出版社,2004.Pi－iv.
117 方廷玉.新汉英中医学词典.北京:中国医药科技出版社,2005.P前言,使用说明.
118 国家药典委员会编.中华人民共和围药典(2005年,第一部,英文版,).北京:化学工业出版社,2005.P401.
119 欧明.汉英中医词汇手册.广州:广东科学技术出版社,2005.P.使用说叫,437－524.
120 Bensky D.Draft Glossary for Chinese Medicine-2006.http://eastlandpress.com/ upload/pdf_20060316150625_2/draft%20Glossary%203-13-06.pdf.Eastland Press,2008-4-21.
121 全国科学技术名词审定委员会.中医药学名词.北京:科学出版社,2004.
122 魏迺杰,许权维.中医名词英译:应用系统化原则的翻译模式.2004;6(4):30－34.
123 Ibid.
124 谢竹藩,刘干中,王奎,等.对魏迺杰先生回复的简复.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(9):794.
125 魏迺杰,冯晔.对《中医药常用名词术语英译》的一些意见.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(10):953－955.
126 谢竹藩,刘干中,王奎,等.对魏迺杰先生回复的简复.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(9):794
127 魏迺杰.就谢教授及其同僚运用西医术语表达中医概念的回复.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(8):746-748.
128 魏迺杰,许权维.中医名词英译:应用系统化原则的翻译模式.2004,6(4):30－34.
129 魏迺杰.中医英文词汇规范化的一些经验.科技术语研究,2003;5(3):22－23.
130 牛喘月.明月松间照,清泉石上流－－再论中医英语翻译及其规范化问题.中西医结合学报,2006,4(6):657-660.
131 Buck C,Ken R,Felt R,et al.On Terminology &Translation.Journal Of Chinese Medicine.2000;63(6):38-52.
132 AAOM.The Asian Medical Nomenclature Debates.http://www.aaom.info/qiunity/06/08/00.html.2008-4-23
133 谢竹藩.新编汉英中医药分类词典.北京:外文出版社.2002.
134 Xie ZF.On the Standard Nomenclature of Traditional Chinese Medicine.Beijing:Foreign Languages Press,2003.
135谢竹藩.中医药常用名词术语英译.北京:中国中医药出版社,2004.
136 中华人民共和国国家标准·中医基础理论术语.北京:中国标准出版社,2006.P II－1.
137 李振吉.中医药常用名词术语词典.北京:中国中医药出版社,2001.
138 全国科学技术名词审定委员会.北京:中医药学名词.科学出版社,2004.
139 世界中医药学会联合会.中医基本名词术语中英对照国际标准.北京:人民卫生出版社出版,2008.P xxx-xxxvi.
140 WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region.World Health Organization.2007.P Introduction.
141 魏迺杰.中医英文词汇规范化的一些经验.科技术语研究,2003,5(3):22-23.
142 Ken K.The Meaning of Open Standards.http://www.csrstds.com/openstds.html.2008-5-1.
143 Perense B.Open Standards Principles and Practice.http://perens.com/OpenStandards/Definition.html.2008-5-1.
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5 中国中医研究院.中国针灸学概要.北京:外文出版社,1975.P ⅰ.
6 英汉医学词汇编写组.英汉医学词汇.北京:人民卫生出版社,1979.
7 Porkert M.The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine.Cambridge:MIT Press,1978.P 9-166.
8 Marnae E.Considerations for the Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine into English.http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/resources/Translation,2008-1-30.
9 马祖毅,任荣珍.汉籍外译史.汉口:湖北教育出版社,1997.P 660-690.
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11 兰凤利.论中医文化内涵对中医英译的影响-中医药古籍善本书目译余谈.中国翻译,2003(4):70-73.
12 兰凤利.中医药古籍善本书目译余谈-浅淡副标题的使用上海科技翻译2003(2):32-33.
13 李照国.中医对外翻译三百年析.上海科技翻译,1997(4):39-40.
14 柏文婕,邓曼.中医英语翻译发展简述.中华中西医杂志.2005;6(22):11.
15 张登峰,薛俊梅,田杨,等.中医药翻译的回顾与思考.中西医结合学报,2006;9(5):548-550.
16 罗磊.10年中医英译的研究回顾.广州中医药大学学报,2004;21(5):90-94.
17 李永安.从西医中译看中医名词英译标准化.中国科技翻译,2002;15(2):27-29+64.
18 张登峰,薛俊梅,田杨,等.中医药翻译的回顾与思考.中西医结合学报,2006;9(5):548-550.
19 朱建平.中医药名词术语规范化的历史.科技术语研究,2001(2):28-30.
20 全国术语标准化技术委员会.国家标准·标准编写规则第1部分:术语.北京:中国标准出版社,2004.
21 全如碱.术语的理论与实践第一部分引言.术语标准化与信息技术,2001(1):9-11.
22 梁爱林.论术语学理论与翻译的一些相关问题.科技术语研究,2003;5(3):26.
23 全如碱.什么是术语.术语标准化与信息技术,2004(3):34-35.
24 谢竹藩,黄孝楷.汉英常用中医药词汇.北京:北京医学院,1980.
25 WHO International Standard Terminologies on Traditional Medicine in the Western Pacific Region.World Health Organization.2007.
26 A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group.Geneva:World Health Organization,1991.
27 Veith I.The Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine.Berkeley:University of California Press,First ed.1949.P ⅸ.
28 王吉民,伍连德.中国医史.天津:天津印刷局,1932.P18-34.
29 Williams R,Morse.Chinese Medicine.New York:Paul B.Hoeber Inc,1934.P53-85.
30 Marnae E.Considerations for the Translation of Traditional Chinese Medicine into English.http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/resources/Translation,2008.
31 Porkert M.The Theoretical Foundations of Chinese Medicine.Cambridge:MIT Press,1978.P 9-166.
32 李照国,李鼎.试论李约瑟的中医翻译思想.上海科技翻译,1997(2):20-21.
33 中国中医研究院.中国针灸学概要.北京:外文出版社,1975.P目录.
34 谢竹藩,黄孝楷.汉英常用中医药词汇.北京:北京医学院,1980.
35 谢竹藩,黄孝楷.汉英常用中医药词汇.北京:北京医学院,1980.P前言.
36 广州中医学院编.汉英常用中医词汇.广州:广东科技出版社,1982.
37 广州中医学院《英译常用中医名词术语浅释》编译组.《英译常用中医名词术语浅释》试写稿(选)(供征求意见用)(英文).新中医,1980(4):46-47.
38 欧明,李衍文,赖世隆.中医名词术语英译的几点体会,中医杂志,1981(11):78-80.
39 帅学忠.汉英双解常用中医名词术语.长沙:湖南科学技术出版社,1983.
40 欧明.汉英中医辞典.广州:广东科技了版社,香港:三联书店香港分店,1986.P使用说明.
41 欧明,李衍文.中医名词术语的英译.上海科技翻译,1986(4):18-22.
42 欧明,李衍文,黄月中.中医常用词汇英译刍议.广州中医药大学学报,1988(3):175-181.
43 汉英医学大词典编委会.汉英医学大词典.北京:人民卫生出版社.1987.P1551.
44 Beijing,Shanghai,Nanjing Colledge of TCM.Essentials of Chinese Acupuncture.Beijng:Foreign Language Ptess.1980.P30.
45 Ibid..Pi-iv.
46 O' Connor,John,Bensky.Acupuncture:A Comprehensive Text.Seattle:Eastland Press,1981.P xv.
47 China Academy of TCM.An Outline of Chinese Acupuncture.Beijng:Foreign Language Press,1975.P i-iv.
48 Kaptchuk T.J.The Web That Has No Weaver.New York:Congdon and Weed,1983.P.xv.
49 Kaptchuk.T.J.The Web that has no Weaver:Understanding Chinese Medicine.New York:McGraw-Hill,2000.P.The author' s note,Catalogue.
50 Wiseman N.Ellis,Zmiewski.Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine.Brookline:Paradigm Publications,1985.Pxvi.
51 Unschuld P.Approaches to Traditional Chinese Medical Literature:Proceedings of an International Symposium on Translation Methodologies and Terminologies.London:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1989.P 55-66.
52 Bensky D,Gamble,Andrew.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Materia Medica.Seattle:Eastland Press,1986.P693.
53 Bensky D.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Formulas and Strategies.Seattle:Eastland Press.1990.Pxxiii-xxv.
54 Maciocia G.The Foundations of Chinese Medicine:A Comprehensive Text for Acupuncturists and Herbalists.Churchill Livingstone,1989.P Preface.
55 世界针灸联合会.针灸标准化研究的进展与战略规划.http://www.wfas.com.cn/aboutus/future/200609/22,html.2008-1-30.
56 WHO.A Proposed Standard International Acupuncture Nomenclature:Report of a WHO Scientific Group.http://www.who.int/medicinedocs/en/d/Jh2947e/#Jh2947e.3.2008-4-23.
57 兰凤利.评魏迺杰的《实用英文中医辞典》.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(2):177－181.
58 Unschuld P.Approaches to Traditional Chinese Medical Literature:Proceedings of an International Symposium on Translation Methodologies and Terminologies.London:Kluwer Academic Publishers,1989.P55-107.
59 满晰博,傅芳,曹蓉.中医名词术语英译规范化问题.中医杂志,1988(4):59-60.
60 钱绍昌.中医术语英译初探.上海科技翻译,1988(4):6-8.
61 Ellis A,Wiseman,Boss.Grasping the Wind.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1990.
62 李照国.中医翻译导论.西安:西北大学出版社,1993.
63 李照国.中医英语翻译技巧.北京:人民卫生出版社,1996.
64 Ibid.,P 目录.
65 Ibid.,P236-246.
66 Ibid.,P73-86.
67 Wiseman N,Ellis A.Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine:Revised Edition.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1995.
68 Maclean W,Lyttleton.Clinical Handbook of Internal Medicine:The Treatment of Disease with Traditional Chinese Medicine,Volume I.Sydney:University of Western Sydney.Second Edi.2000.P xix.
69 刘占文.汉英中医药学词典.北京:中医古籍出版社,1994.
70 谢竹藩,楼之岑,黄孝楷.汉英中医药分类辞典,北京:新世界出版社,1994.PV,12.
71 李志刚.中医学必将成为全人类共享的医学财富英国学者编着《英汉汉英中医词典》问世,中国中医药报,1995.12.8.
72 李照国.Nigel Wiseman的中医翻译思想评介.中国科技翻译,1998(2):41-43+51
73 魏迺杰.汉英英汉中医辞典.长沙:湖南科学技术出版社,1995.P30-35.
74 李照国.汉英中医药大词典.北京:世界图书出版公司,1997.P1203－1208.
75 李照国.简明汉英中医词典.上海:上海科学技术出版社,2002.
76 吕爱平.构建中医药国际化语言平台.中国中医药报,2007年.
77 Wiseman N.COMP Discussion 2000.http://www.paradigm-pubs.com/references/COMP,Paradigm Publications,2008-3-27.
78 Wiseman N.English Translation and Terminology of Chinese Medicine.Journal of Chinese Medicine,1993,4(1):47-56.
79 Wiseman N.Rationale for the Terminology of Fundamentals of Chinese Medicine:The Case for Literal Translation.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1998.
80 Wiseman N.The Transmission and Reception of Chinese Medicine:Language the Neglected Key.In Clinical Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine,2001(2):29-36.
81 Wiseman N.Translation of Chinese Medical Terms:Not Just a Matter of Words.Clinical Acupuncture and Chinese Medicine,2001(2):49-59.
82 魏迺杰,冯哗.中医英义词汇入门.台北:合记出版社,1998.
83 Mitchell C,Feng Y,Wiseman.Shang Han Lun(On Cold Damage):Translation and Commentaries.Brookline MA:Paradigm Publications,1999.
84 Wiseman N,Feng Y.A Coursebook in Chinese Medical Chinese.Bookline MA:Paradigm Publications,2000.
85 李永安.早期医学名词的统一与目前中医名词术语英译标准化.中国中西医结合杂志,1996;16(1):56-57.
86 刘于中,吕维柏,谢竹藩,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(一).中国中西医结合杂志,1992(6):327-329+344.
87 Ibid.
88 欧明,李衍文,张家庆,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(二).中固中西医结合杂,1992;12(7):433-435.
89 曾碧光,谢宗万,吕少平,等.中医基本理论名访术语英译探讨(三).中国中西医结合杂志,1992;12(12):751－753.
90 黄欣贤,樊蓥,金科奇,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(四).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(4):240-243.
91 李照国,周杰,王得奎,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(五).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(6):370-373.
92 季钟朴,谢仁敷,沈雪勇,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨(六).中国中西医结合杂志,1993;13(10):626－628
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94 吕刚,李永安,MIEPITAO K,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨.中国中西医结合杂志,1994(10):627-629.
95 王朝辉,林岩,张登峰,等.中医基本理论名词术语英译探讨.中国中西医结合杂志,1994(12):749-750.
96 李照国.关于中医名词术语英译标准化的思考.中国中西医结合杂志,1994;14(3):144.
97 李永安.早期医学名词的统一与目前中医名词术语英译标准化.中国中西医结合杂志,1996;16(1):56－57.
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106 Wiseman N,Feng Y.Introduction to English Terminology of Chinese Medicine.Paradigm Publications,2002.
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109 Bensky D,Clavey,Stoger,et al.Chinese Herbal Medicine:Materia Medica(Third Ed.).Seattle:Eastland Press,2004.
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121 全国科学技术名词审定委员会.中医药学名词.北京:科学出版社,2004.
122 魏迺杰,许权维.中医名词英译:应用系统化原则的翻译模式.2004;6(4):30－34.
123 Ibid.
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126 谢竹藩,刘干中,王奎,等.对魏迺杰先生回复的简复.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(9):794
127 魏迺杰.就谢教授及其同僚运用西医术语表达中医概念的回复.中国中西医结合杂志,2006;26(8):746-748.
128 魏迺杰,许权维.中医名词英译:应用系统化原则的翻译模式.2004,6(4):30－34.
129 魏迺杰.中医英文词汇规范化的一些经验.科技术语研究,2003;5(3):22－23.
130 牛喘月.明月松间照,清泉石上流－－再论中医英语翻译及其规范化问题.中西医结合学报,2006,4(6):657-660.
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