加氢裂化空冷器管束多相流模拟与冲蚀破坏预测研究
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摘要
加氢裂化反应流出物空冷器(简称REAC)管束属于特种设备，承受高压临氢多相流的冲蚀，易引发恶性事故。自加氢裂化和深度加氢工艺投用以来，REAC及其相联管道的失效已成为制约装置安全、稳定、长周期运行的突出问题，其腐蚀机理研究一直是该领域关注的焦点。近年来，NACE T-8委员会、UOP公司和API协会正全面进行REAC管路系统的失效机理研究。现有研究表明，REAC的腐蚀受一系列综合因素的影响，其中反应流出物的流动状况和腐蚀性介质的浓度分布是二个关键因素。但迄今为止的研究只对腐蚀现象进行了定性分析，都没有系统地对流动与腐蚀进行定量分析研究。因而，尚无法对REAC管路系统进行腐蚀预测和安全评估。
随着我国高硫原油加工技术进展，REAC的腐蚀失效日趋频繁。本论文拟在深入研究REAC冲蚀机理基础上，寻找高硫扩能改造工况下的危害源；通过对多相流介质流动及腐蚀状况进行CFD数值模拟和无量纲分析，来研究广泛应用条件下反应流出物对碳钢REAC管束的冲蚀破坏规律；并结合国产化REAC管束冲蚀破坏案例及失效解剖分析、在役无损检测仪开发和腐蚀加速试验等研究手段，对仿真计算结果进行全面考核；最终，提出REAC管束冲蚀破坏预测方法和在役安全评估准则。本项研究成果，有望在进一步完善国产化成果的基础上，推动REAC的设计、制造、运行、检验、预测和评估等技术进入国际先进水平，实现REAC的闭环管理，将对加氢裂化装置的安稳运行产生重要影响，绎济效益和社会效益显著。
本论文的创新在于：通过对腐蚀性介质和流动状况的定量分析，揭示了反应流出物的腐蚀性、多相流物性及流动特性对冲蚀破坏的实际作用；给出了REAC管束腐蚀的失效机理，获得了广泛应用条件下多相反应流出物对碳钢REAC管束的冲蚀破坏规律；为实现闭环管理，提出了REAC管束的冲蚀破坏预测方法、基于风险的在役检验和安全评估准则。
The hydrocracking REAC pipes are special equipments, and easy to lead to serious accidents, for they suffer from the erosion of multiphase flow under the environment of high-pressure hydrogen. Since hydrocracking and high severity hydrotreating process was put into use, the failure of REAC and its relative pipes has been haunting the units' stable long run, then the study on its corrosion mechanism has become a focus in the field. In recent years, NACE T-8 committee, UOP and API have been doing comprehensive research and studying the failure mechanism of REAC. The research shows that the influence of REAC corrosion was very complicated, among which the flow behavior of reacting effluent and the content distribution of corrosive medium are two critical factors. While, till now the research only make qualitative analysis of this phenomenon, without comprehensive research on the quantity analysis between the pipe flow to the pipe corrosion. So the corrosion prediction and safety assessment of the REAC pipelines
cannot be done.
Since high-sulfur crude oil was processed in China, the cases of REAC failures tend to be more and more. The paper, based on the research of RHAC erosion mechanism, intends to find out the sources under the condition where the process capability was expanded and reconstructed; using the numerical simulated by CFD and no-dimension analysis for multiphase flow fluid motion and corrosion situation, analyses the erosion method of reacting effluent upon REAC pipes for extensive situations; checks the emulation result with the analysis of domestic REAC pipes failures, no destructed test in using and corrosion accelerated test, etc; finally brings out the prediction method of REAC corrosion and the guideline of safety assessment. The results of the research will help to improve the design, manufacture, operation, test, prediction and evaluation of domestic REAC to the international level, and
realize the closed management of the REAC. It will own a lot to the stability of hydrocracking units, and produce lots of economic benefits and social effects.
The innovations in the paper as following: Using quantity analysis on corrosive medium and the flow motion, the paper shows the tangible impact of corrosion of the reacting effluent, multiphase flow physical property and flow behavior upon corrosion failure; clarifies the mechanism of REAC corrosion failure, then bring out the principle of the erosion failure of multiphase reacting effluent upon carbonsteel REAC pipes for extensive applications; in order to realize closed management, gives out the prediction method of the erosion failures of REAC pipes, the risk test in using and safety assessment guidelines.
随着我国高硫原油加工技术进展，REAC的腐蚀失效日趋频繁。本论文拟在深入研究REAC冲蚀机理基础上，寻找高硫扩能改造工况下的危害源；通过对多相流介质流动及腐蚀状况进行CFD数值模拟和无量纲分析，来研究广泛应用条件下反应流出物对碳钢REAC管束的冲蚀破坏规律；并结合国产化REAC管束冲蚀破坏案例及失效解剖分析、在役无损检测仪开发和腐蚀加速试验等研究手段，对仿真计算结果进行全面考核；最终，提出REAC管束冲蚀破坏预测方法和在役安全评估准则。本项研究成果，有望在进一步完善国产化成果的基础上，推动REAC的设计、制造、运行、检验、预测和评估等技术进入国际先进水平，实现REAC的闭环管理，将对加氢裂化装置的安稳运行产生重要影响，绎济效益和社会效益显著。
本论文的创新在于：通过对腐蚀性介质和流动状况的定量分析，揭示了反应流出物的腐蚀性、多相流物性及流动特性对冲蚀破坏的实际作用；给出了REAC管束腐蚀的失效机理，获得了广泛应用条件下多相反应流出物对碳钢REAC管束的冲蚀破坏规律；为实现闭环管理，提出了REAC管束的冲蚀破坏预测方法、基于风险的在役检验和安全评估准则。
The hydrocracking REAC pipes are special equipments, and easy to lead to serious accidents, for they suffer from the erosion of multiphase flow under the environment of high-pressure hydrogen. Since hydrocracking and high severity hydrotreating process was put into use, the failure of REAC and its relative pipes has been haunting the units' stable long run, then the study on its corrosion mechanism has become a focus in the field. In recent years, NACE T-8 committee, UOP and API have been doing comprehensive research and studying the failure mechanism of REAC. The research shows that the influence of REAC corrosion was very complicated, among which the flow behavior of reacting effluent and the content distribution of corrosive medium are two critical factors. While, till now the research only make qualitative analysis of this phenomenon, without comprehensive research on the quantity analysis between the pipe flow to the pipe corrosion. So the corrosion prediction and safety assessment of the REAC pipelines
cannot be done.
Since high-sulfur crude oil was processed in China, the cases of REAC failures tend to be more and more. The paper, based on the research of RHAC erosion mechanism, intends to find out the sources under the condition where the process capability was expanded and reconstructed; using the numerical simulated by CFD and no-dimension analysis for multiphase flow fluid motion and corrosion situation, analyses the erosion method of reacting effluent upon REAC pipes for extensive situations; checks the emulation result with the analysis of domestic REAC pipes failures, no destructed test in using and corrosion accelerated test, etc; finally brings out the prediction method of REAC corrosion and the guideline of safety assessment. The results of the research will help to improve the design, manufacture, operation, test, prediction and evaluation of domestic REAC to the international level, and
realize the closed management of the REAC. It will own a lot to the stability of hydrocracking units, and produce lots of economic benefits and social effects.
The innovations in the paper as following: Using quantity analysis on corrosive medium and the flow motion, the paper shows the tangible impact of corrosion of the reacting effluent, multiphase flow physical property and flow behavior upon corrosion failure; clarifies the mechanism of REAC corrosion failure, then bring out the principle of the erosion failure of multiphase reacting effluent upon carbonsteel REAC pipes for extensive applications; in order to realize closed management, gives out the prediction method of the erosion failures of REAC pipes, the risk test in using and safety assessment guidelines.
引文
1. Harvey. C and Singh. A. Mitigate Failures for Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1999, pp 59-72.
2. American Petroleum Institute. A Study of Corrosion in Hydroprocess Reactor Emuent Air Cooler Systems. API PUBLICATION 932-A:Washington D.C. 2002
3．偶国富，王乐勤，杨健等．在用加氢反应流出物空冷器管束的检验．压力容器．2003，11(11)：43-45
4. Dr.Russell D.Kane Dr.Michael S.Cayard Mr.Sridhar Srinivasan. Assessment of Corrosivity in Refinery Sour Water Systems. Corrosionsource-2000-Session 03-Paper 0301.htm lnterCorr International, Inc. Equilon Enterprises, LLC
5. Turner. J. Design of Hydroprocessing Effluent Water Wash Systems. CORROSION/98 conference, Paper 593, NACE, 1998.
6. Singh.A., Harvey. C. and Piehl. R.L. Corrosion of Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. CORROSION/97 conference, Paper 490, NACE.
7. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion by Sulfide-Containing Condensate in Hydrocarbon. API Div. of Refining. 33rd Midyear Meeting
8. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion Control in Hydrocouversion Effluent Pipingby NH_4 Control.United States Patent No.3583901
9. Turner, J. Control Corrosion in Washwater Systems. Hydrocarbon Processing, June 1997.
10. C.A.Shargay, G.E. Jacobs and M.D. Price. Ammonium Salt Corrosion in Hydrotreating Unit Stripper Column Overhead Systems. CORROSION/99, Paper 392.
11. Fouroulis.Z.A. Mechanism of Refinery Corrosion by Aqueous Sour Water Condensates. Middle East Corrosion Conference, Kuwait, 1996.
12. Shargay.C.A.,Bagdasarian. A. J., Coombs. J.W. Corrosion in Hydroprocessing Units. NACE International Symposium on Corrosion in the Oil Refining Industry, Houston TX, Sep. 1996.
13. Turner J. Design of Hydroprocessing Effluent Wash Water Systems. NACE International CORROSION/98, Paper593,San Diege CA, Mar 1998.
14. Russel C.Strong, Raymond A. Stephenson, Ara J. Bagdasarian. Crude Unit Corrosion and Corrosion Control. CORROSION/96,paper no,615(Houston,TX:NACE International, 1996).
15. Milton P.Ramos,Luiz A.Correa.. On-Line Corrosion in Refinery Overhead System CORROSION/95, paper no. 335(Houston, TX: NACE International, 1995)
16. Thomas Mebrahtu. K, Rossi J.Del, SEM and XPS Characterization of the Carbon Steel Surface Passivation Film in Anhydrous Hydrogen Fluoride Media. CORROSION/95, paper no. 341(Houston, TX: NACE International, 1995)
17. RP 0775-87 NACE. Preparation and Installation of Corrosion Coupons and Interpretations of Test Data in Oilfield Operations.
18. R.A.White and E.F.Ehmke. Materials Selection for Refineries and Associated Facilities (NACE, 1991).p. 131
19. Claude Scherrer, Marc Durrieu, Gaston Jarno. Distillate and Resid Hydroprocessing: Coping with Corrosion with High Concentrations of Ammonium Bisulfide in the Pocess Water. Materials Performanes November, 1980 P25-32
20. Piehl, R.L. Survey of Corrosion in Hydrocracker Effluent Air Coolers. Materials Performance, Vol 15(1), January 1976, pp 15-20.
21. Damin G. and McCoy J. Prevention of Corrosion in Hydrodesulfurizer Air Coolers and Condensers. Materials Performance, 1978, 17(12): 23-26
22. C. Seherrer, M. Durrieu, and G. Jarno. Distillate and Resid Hydroprocessing: Coping with High Concentrations of Ammonium Bisulfide in the Process Water. Materials Performance, Vol 19(11), November 1980, pp 25-31 (see also NACE Corrosion/79, paper 27).
23. Shargay, C.A, Bagdasarian A.J., and Coombs J.W. Corrosion in Hydroprocessing Units in the Oil Refining Industry. Short Course presented by NACE International, Houston, Texas, Sept. 1996. pp 10/1-18.
24. C. Harvey and A. Singh, .Mitigate Failures for Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1999, pp 59-72.
25．李智利．冲蚀与腐蚀运行环境下多相流管道设计准则．油气储运，1996，15(4)：48-50
26．赵会友，陈华辉，邵荷生等．几种钢的腐蚀冲蚀磨损行为与机理研究．摩擦学学报．1996，16(2)：112-119
27．吴欣强，敬和民，郑玉贵等．碳钢在高温环烷酸介质中冲刷腐蚀行为．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2002，22(5)：257-263
28．郑玉贵，阎永贵，龙康等．双相流冲刷腐蚀激光多普勒测试装置及其校正，中国腐蚀与防护学报，1999，19(5)：302-305
29．陈冠国，褚秀萍，张宏亮等．关于冲蚀磨损问题．河北理工学院学报，1997，19(4)：27-32
30. A.Karimi,Ch. Verdon.,L. Martin. Slurry Erosion Behavior of Thermally Sprayed, WC-M Coating[J]. Wear, 1995,186-187:480-486
31. RM.Rogers, I.M.Hutchings, .J.A.Little. Coatings and Surface Treatments for Protection against Low-Velocity Erosion in Fluidized Beds[J]. Wear,1995,186_187:238-246
32. H,X.Zhao, M.Yamamoto, M. Matsumura.. Slurry Erosion Properties of Ceramic Coatings and Functionally.Gradient Materialsibid. 1995,186-187:473-479
33. W.Tabakoff..High-Temperature Erosion Resistance of Coatings for Use in Turbomachinery[J]. Wear, 1995,186-187:224-229
34. Bu-Qian,Wang. The Dependence of Erosion-Corrosion Wastage on Carbide/Metal Binder Proportion for HVOF Carbide-Metal Cermet Coatings[J]. Wear,1996,196:141-146
35. Newman, S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 1, Hydrocarbon Processing. September 1991.
36. Newman. S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 2, Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1991.
37. Newman. S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 3, Hydrocarbon Processing, November 1991.
38．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅰ．酸性H_2S溶液中碳钢的腐蚀行为及硫化物膜的生长．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(1)：1-7
39．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅱ．碳钢在碱性H_2S溶液中的阳极钝化及钝化膜破裂．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(1)：9-14
40．杨怀玉．陈家竖，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅲ．不同pH值H_2S溶液中碳钢的腐蚀电化学行为．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(2)：97-104
41．杨怀玉．陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅳ．碱性硫化物溶液中Cl-对碳钢钝化行为的影响．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(5)：287-292
42．杨怀玉，陈家坚．曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅴ．咪唑啉衍生物在H_2S溶液中的缓蚀作用特征．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2001、21(6)：321-327
43．杨怀玉．陈家坚，曹楚南等，H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究 Ⅵ．H_2S溶液中咪唑啉衍生物分子结构与其缓蚀性能的关系．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2002，22(3)：148-152
44. H. Herm Stapelberg, Dmewes, The Pressure Loss and Slug Frequency of Liquid-Liquid-Gus Slug
1. Harvey. C and Singh. A. Mitigate Failures for Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1999, pp 59-72.
2. American Petroleum Institute. A Study of Corrosion in Hydroprocess Reactor Effluent Air Cooler Systems. API PUBLICATION 932-A: Washington D.C. 2002
3．偶国富，王乐勤，杨健等．在用加氢反应流出物空冷器管束的检验．压力容器．2003．11(11)：43-45
4. Dr.Russell D.Kane Dr.Michael S.Cayard Mr.Sridhar Srinivasan. Assessment of Corrosivity in Refinery Sour Water Systems. Corrosionsource-2000-Session 03-Paper 0301.htm InterCorr international, Inc. Equilon Enterprises, LLC
5. Turner. J. Design of Hydroprocessing Effluent Water Wash Systems. CORROSION/98 conference, Paper 593, NACE, 1998.
6. Singh.A.. Harvey. C. and Piehl. R.L. Corrosion of Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. CORROSION/97 conference, Paper 490, NACE.
7. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion by Sulfide-Containing Condensate in Hydrocarbon. API Div. of Refining. 33rd Midyear Meeting
8. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion Control in Hydrocouversion Effluent Pipingby NH_4 Control.United States Patent No.3583901
9. Turner, J. Control Corrosion in Washwater Systems. Hydrocarbon Processing. June 1997.
10. C.A.Shargay, G.E. Jacobs and M.D. Price. Ammonium Salt Corrosion in Hydrotreating Unit Stripper Column Overhead Systems. CORROSION/99, Paper 392.
11. Fouroulis.Z.A. Mechanism of Refinery Corrosion by Aqueous Sour Water Condensates. Middle East Corrosion Conference, Kuwait, 1996.
12. Shargay.C.A.,Bagdasarian. A.J., Coombs.J.W. Corrosion in Hydroprocessing Units. NACE International Symposium on Corrosion in the Oil Refining Industry, Houston TX, Sep. 1996.
13. Turner J. Design of Hydroprocessing Effluent Wash Water Systems. NACE International CORROSION/98, Paper593,San Diege CA, Mar 1998.
14. Russel C.Strong, Raymond A. Stephenson, Ara J. Bagdasarian. Crude Unit Corrosion and Corrosion Control. CORROSION/96, paper no, 615(Houston, TX: NACE International, 1996).
15. Milton P. Ramos, Luiz A. Correa.. On-Line Corrosion in Refinery Overhead System CORROSION/95, paper no. 335(Houston, TX: NACE International, 1995)
16. Thomas Mebrahtu. K, Rossi J. Del, SEM and XPS Characterization of the Carbon Steel Surface Passivation Fihn in Anhydrous Hydrogen Fluoride Media. CORROSION/95, paper no. 341(Houston, TX: NACE International, 1995)
17. RP 0775-87 NACE. Preparatiota and Installation of Corrosion Coupons and Interpretations of Test Data in Oilfield Operations.
18. R.A.White and E.F.Ehmke. Materials Selection for Refineries and Associated Facilities (NACE,1991). p. 131
19. Claude Scherrer, Marc Durrieu, Gaston Jarno. Distillate and Resid Hydroprocessing: Coping with Corrosion with High Concentrations of Ammonium Bisulfide in the Pocess Water. Materials Performanes November, 1980 P25-32
20. Piehl, R.L. Survey of Corrosion in Hydrocracker Effluent Air Coolers. Materials Performance. Vol 15(1), January 1976, pp 15-20.
21. Damin G. and McCoy J. Prevention of Corrosion in Hydrodesulfurizer Air Coolers and Condensers. Materials Performance, 1978, 17(12): 23-26
22. C. Scherrer, M. Durrieu, and G. Jarno. Distillate and Resid Hydroprocessing: Coping with High Concentrations of Ammonium Bisulfide in the Process Water. Materials Performance, Vol 19(11), November 1980, pp25-31(see also NACE Corrosion/79, paper 27).
23. Shargay, C.A, Bagdasarian A.J., and Coombs J.W. Corrosion in Hydroprocessing Units in the Oil Refining Industry. Short Course presented by NACE International, Houston, Texas, Sept. 1996. pp 10/1-18.
24. C. Harvey and A. Singh, .Mitigate Failures for Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1999, pp 59-72.
25．李智利．冲蚀与腐蚀运行环境下多相流管道设计准则．油气储运，1996，15(4)：48-50
26．赵会友，陈华辉，邵荷生等．几种钢的腐蚀冲蚀磨损行为与机理研究．摩擦学学报．1996．16(2)：112-119
27．吴欣强，敬和民，郑玉贵等．碳钢在高温环烷酸介质中冲刷腐蚀行为．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2002，22(5)：257-263
28．郑玉贵，阎永贵，龙康等．双相流冲刷腐蚀激光多普勒测试装置及其校正．中国腐蚀与防护学报，1999，19(5)：302-305
29．陈冠国，褚秀萍，张宏亮等．关于冲蚀磨损问题．河北理工学院学报，1997，19(4)：27-32
30. .A. Karimi,Ch. Verdon,,L, Martin. Slurry Erosion Behavior of Thermally Sprayed. WC-M Coating[J]. Wear, 1995,186-187:480-486
31. RM,Rogers, I,M,Hutchings, .J,A.Little. Coatings and Surface Treatments for Protection against Low-Velocity Erosion in Fluidized Beds[J]. Wear,1995,186_187:238-246
32. .H.X.Zhao, M.Yamamoto, M, Matsumura..Slurry Erosion Properties of Ceramic Coatings and Functionally. Gradient Materialsibid. 1995, 186-187: 473-479
33. W.Yabakoff..High-Temperature Erosion Resistance of Coatings for Use in Turbomachinery[J]. Wear, 1995,186-187:224-229
34. Bu-Qian,Wang. The Dependence of Erosion-Corrosion Wastage on Carbide/Metal Binder Proportion for HVOF Carbide-Metal Cermet Coatings[J]. Wear,1996,196:141-146
35. Newman. S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 1, Hydrocarbon Processing. September 1991.
36. Newman. S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 2, Hydrocarbon Processing, October 1991.
37. Newman. S.A, Sour Water Design by Charts: Part 3, Hydrocarbon Processing, November 1991
38．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究Ⅰ．酸性H_2S溶液中碳钢的腐蚀行为及硫化物膜的生长．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(1)：1-7
39．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究Ⅱ．碳钢在碱性H_2S溶液中的阳极钝化及钝化膜破裂．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(1)：9-14
40．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究Ⅲ．不同pH值H_2S溶液中碳钢的腐蚀电化学行为．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(2)：97-104
41．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究Ⅳ．碱性硫化物溶液中Cl-对碳钢钝化行为的影响．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2000，20(5)：287-292
42．杨怀玉，陈家坚，曹楚南等．H_2S水溶液中的腐蚀与缓蚀作用机理的研究Ⅴ．咪唑啉衍生物在H_2S溶液中的缓蚀作用特征．中国腐蚀与防护学报，2001，21(6)：321-327
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4. Dr.Russell D.Kane Dr.Michael S.Cayard Mr.Sridhar Srinivasan. Assessment of Corrosivity in Refinery Sour Water Systems. Corrosionsource-2000-Session 03-Paper 0301.htm InterCorr international, Inc. Equilon Enterprises, LLC
5. Turner. J. Design of Hydroprocessing Effluent Water Wash Systems. CORROSION/98 conference, Paper 593, NACE, 1998.
6. Singh.A.. Harvey. C. and Piehl. R.L. Corrosion of Reactor Effluent Air Coolers. CORROSION/97 conference, Paper 490, NACE.
7. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion by Sulfide-Containing Condensate in Hydrocarbon. API Div. of Refining. 33rd Midyear Meeting
8. R.L.Piehl. Corrosion Control in Hydrocouversion Effluent Pipingby NH_4 Control.United States Patent No.3583901
9. Turner, J. Control Corrosion in Washwater Systems. Hydrocarbon Processing. June 1997.
10. C.A.Shargay, G.E. Jacobs and M.D. Price. Ammonium Salt Corrosion in Hydrotreating Unit Stripper Column Overhead Systems. CORROSION/99, Paper 392.
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20. Piehl, R.L. Survey of Corrosion in Hydrocracker Effluent Air Coolers. Materials Performance. Vol 15(1), January 1976, pp 15-20.
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