超越进化心理学的理论困境
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摘要
进化心理学是近年兴起的一种心理学研究的新取向,它是现代进化生物学与认知心理学相结合的产物,试图从进化和适应的视角来揭示人类心理的内在特征。但是,进化心理学自诞生以来就一直饱受争议。有人认为它是一场心理学革命,将会成为一种新的心理学范式。批评者则认为,进化心理学有“新瓶装旧酒”的嫌疑,它只是社会生物学的翻版而已。进化心理学之所以引发众多争论,主要在于其理论框架的模糊性和局限性。本研究将梳理进化心理学理论框架的形成过程,从心理结构、心理过程和研究方法三个方面剖析进化心理学的理论观点,指出进化心理学的理论困境,阐明进化心理学的实证研究可能面临的误区和陷阱,并为进化心理学提供可能的解决方案。
进化心理学的诞生得益于现代进化生物学和心理学的长足发展。在生物学方面,习性学运动、广义适合度理论、互惠式的利他主义、亲代投资理论以及社会生物学等,都是进化心理学的生长土壤。而由于行为主义和信息加工范式的固有局限性,随着婴幼儿认知发展研究的不断深入和领域特殊性理论的兴起,一部分心理学家重新回到了机能主义心理学的传统轨道。此外,进化心理学理论框架的构建过程,也得益于上世纪末关于心理学危机的大讨论,以及对心理学的三大范式、心理学的科学主义与人文主义取向等问题的反思。
进化心理学的心理结构理论以适应器理论为代表。适应器理论经历了心理模块理论、瑞士军刀模型、海量模块理论、适应器理论(即EPM理论)等发展过程,该理论认为人类的心理由一系列进化形成的心理适应器所组成,每一种适应器都是专门用于解决某些特定的适应性问题。适应器理论存在的主要缺陷包括：(1)它一种静态的模块观,未能从动态的角度刻画心理机制的发展过程；(2)它对模块的限定标准模糊不清,对领域一般性心理机制的看法前后矛盾；(3)它不能解释适应器的析取问题与可分性问题；(4)它对各个适应器之间的协同运作方式也语焉不详。
进化心理学的心理过程理论主要表现为达尔文算法。根据达尔文算法,每一种进化形成的心理机制只能接收小部分特定的信息,然后按照它内部的运算程序和决策规则对信息进行加工,并产生相应的输出信息,而这些输出结果可以用于解决特定的适应性问题。达尔文算法的实质仍然是认知心理学的计算与表征理论,它只是缩小了计算的范围和容量,并未超越传统计算理论的藩篱。再加上将心理结构还原为生理结构的倾向,进化心理学必将继续受到如下问题的困扰：心理的可计算性,句法和语义的关系,心理的指向性与意向性等。
进化心理学的研究方法理论主要包括逆向工程法和多水平分析法。逆向工程法遵循从功能到结构的思路：先明确人类祖先反复面对的适应性问题,然后根据适应性问题来确定适应器的主要功能,进而探究该适应器的内在结构和运作机制。多水平分析法认为,进化心理学的研究过程可以从高到低地分为一般的进化理论、中级水平的进化理论、具体的进化假设、从假设中得出的具体预测这四个层级,研究者可以采取自上而下和自下而上两种策略。总体来说,这两种研究方法论面临的难题有：(1)功能与结构之间并非存在一一对应关系,从功能推测结构可能行不通；(2)适应器在个体身上也经历了动态变化的发展过程,所以不能简单地从适应器的成型状态倒回去推测它的原初特征；(3)很多具体的进化假设无法操作化,可能面临不可证伪的问题；(4)进化心理学并未提出新式的研究技术,大量的问卷调查使其研究价值大打折扣。
尽管进化心理学存在诸多问题,但它也给我们带来了新的启示。进化心理学的积极意义表现为：(1)拓展了心理学的研究领域,将很多常识心理学的主题纳入到科学心理学的范畴；(2)摒弃了自行为主义以来的相对主义心理观；(3)重塑了“先天-后天”论的对立模式；(4)指出了心理无限可变性的文化主义心理观的缺陷；(5)若能谨慎地选择研究变量和方法,进化的视角可以带给我们很多新的发现。
总体而言,目前进化心理学还不足以成为一个新的心理学范式,但它仍不失为一个非常有用的视角。进化论将继续为心理学的发展提供营养,但它在当下的意义比较有限。进化心理学要走向成熟,有赖于人类学、认知神经科学和具身认知理论的长足发展。古人类学能够填补人类进化的“缺失环节”,认知人类学可以为进化心理学提供丰富的素材。认知神经科学在心理与脑机制之间搭建起桥梁,是进化心理学的必经之路。进化心理学仍然属于传统认知心理学的范畴,具身认知理论可以消解进化心理学的计算主义实质,是进化心理学的前进方向。
Evolutionary psychology (EP) becomes a new approach to psychological researches in recent years. As a result of combining the modern evolutionary biology and cognitive psychology, EP aims to discovery the internal characteristics of human mind from the evolution and adaptation. Otherwise, EP is always involved in all kinds of debates since it was born. Some researchers claim that EP brings a whole revolution which will make EP become a promising psychological paradigm. On the contrary, others consider EP as a replica of sociobiology, just like "old wine in a new bottle". Now the number of EP's empirical researches keeps increasing, in which good and bad experiments were mixed. Actually, these debates mostly come from ambiguity and limitation of EP. By looking back the generation of EP's theoretical framework, this dissertation will analysis the EP's core theories from psychological structure, mental processes and research methodology, and then illustrate the EP's theoretical dilemma and experimental misunderstanding by two case studies.
EP was born of the rapid development of modern evolutionary biology and psychology. In the branch of biology, some new theories provide EP with fertile ground such as the ethology, inclusive fitness theory, the reciprocal altruism, parental investment theory, and sociobiology. With the development of infant's cognitive abilities theory and domain-specific trend, evolutionary psychologists return to the traditional functionalism thought. Besides, EP's theoretical framework also benefits from the extensive discussion about crisis of psychology, multi-paradigms, scientific objectivism and humanism.
Adaptations theory is EP's point of view on psychological structure. It derived from Jerry Fodor's "modularity of mind", Cosmides and Tooby's "Swiss-Army Knife model", Sperber and Samuels's "massive modules theory", and evolved psychological mechanism (EPM) theory. According to adaptations theory, human mind consists of a series of EPM, and every adaptation will be evolved to deal with some specific adaptive problem. This theory has some flaws as follow:(1) it couldn't examine the ontogeny and development of psychological mechanism from dynamic perspective;(2) it blows hot and cold about domain-general psychological mechanism although it has denied Fodor's module theory;(3) it couldn't explain the interaction and work mode of all independent adaptations;(4) different kinds of adaptations and adaptations' grain problem.
EP describes mental processes as Darwinian algorithm. That means every EPM will only receive specific information, and process these data according to internal program and decision rules. The output will provide some results to help organisms to solve specific adaptive problems. In essence, Darwinian algorithm continues to use the concepts of cognitive psychology about computation and representation. It can't escape from the troubles of computation theory, but only narrow the scope and capacity of computation. Added to the reductionism, EP has to confront these problems, such as computability of mind, relation of syntax and semantic, intentionality of mind.
There are two general methodologies in EP, reverse engineering and multilevel analysis method. The former has three steps,(1) determine the adaptive problems that human ancestor faced repeatedly,(2) determine the adaptation's function by analysis the adaptive problem,(3) examine the intrinsic structure and work mechanism. The latter divides EP's research program into four levels, such as general evolutionary theory, middle-level evolutionary theory, specific evolutionary hypothesis, and specific predictions derived from hypothesis. There are two strategies of generating and testing evolutionary hypothesis, top-down strategy and bottom-up strategy. In general, these two methodologies have to face the following problems:(1) there isn't one to one correspondence between functions and structures, and it doesn't work that speculating the structures from the functions;(2) psychological adaptations have experienced dynamic development, and one can't work backwards from the mature form to original character of adaptations;(3) it's hard to be operationalized for many specific evolutionary hypothesis, and have to face the problem of being unfalsifiable;(4) EP has no any new research technologies, and EP's research value will decrease to some extent because of using too much questionnaires.
Although it has to face many problems, EP brings some new thoughts to us. EP is deserved to be praised because of the following reasons:(1) EP helps some folk psychological knowledge to enter into the region of scientific psychology, which extend greatly the sphere of psychology;(2) EP gets rid of the relativism derived from Behaviorism;(3) EP reshapes the wrong dichotomy of "nature-nurture";(4) EP points out the defects of cross-culture theory about variations of mind;(5) EP will bring some new results if researchers choose the right variables and methods prudently.
In sum, EP can't be considered as a new paradigm for psychology now, although it is still a useful perspective. The evolution theory will continue to nourish psychology in future. A mature EP needs the support from other disciplines such as paleoanthropology, cognitive neuroscience, and embodied cognition theory.
进化心理学的诞生得益于现代进化生物学和心理学的长足发展。在生物学方面,习性学运动、广义适合度理论、互惠式的利他主义、亲代投资理论以及社会生物学等,都是进化心理学的生长土壤。而由于行为主义和信息加工范式的固有局限性,随着婴幼儿认知发展研究的不断深入和领域特殊性理论的兴起,一部分心理学家重新回到了机能主义心理学的传统轨道。此外,进化心理学理论框架的构建过程,也得益于上世纪末关于心理学危机的大讨论,以及对心理学的三大范式、心理学的科学主义与人文主义取向等问题的反思。
进化心理学的心理结构理论以适应器理论为代表。适应器理论经历了心理模块理论、瑞士军刀模型、海量模块理论、适应器理论(即EPM理论)等发展过程,该理论认为人类的心理由一系列进化形成的心理适应器所组成,每一种适应器都是专门用于解决某些特定的适应性问题。适应器理论存在的主要缺陷包括：(1)它一种静态的模块观,未能从动态的角度刻画心理机制的发展过程；(2)它对模块的限定标准模糊不清,对领域一般性心理机制的看法前后矛盾；(3)它不能解释适应器的析取问题与可分性问题；(4)它对各个适应器之间的协同运作方式也语焉不详。
进化心理学的心理过程理论主要表现为达尔文算法。根据达尔文算法,每一种进化形成的心理机制只能接收小部分特定的信息,然后按照它内部的运算程序和决策规则对信息进行加工,并产生相应的输出信息,而这些输出结果可以用于解决特定的适应性问题。达尔文算法的实质仍然是认知心理学的计算与表征理论,它只是缩小了计算的范围和容量,并未超越传统计算理论的藩篱。再加上将心理结构还原为生理结构的倾向,进化心理学必将继续受到如下问题的困扰：心理的可计算性,句法和语义的关系,心理的指向性与意向性等。
进化心理学的研究方法理论主要包括逆向工程法和多水平分析法。逆向工程法遵循从功能到结构的思路：先明确人类祖先反复面对的适应性问题,然后根据适应性问题来确定适应器的主要功能,进而探究该适应器的内在结构和运作机制。多水平分析法认为,进化心理学的研究过程可以从高到低地分为一般的进化理论、中级水平的进化理论、具体的进化假设、从假设中得出的具体预测这四个层级,研究者可以采取自上而下和自下而上两种策略。总体来说,这两种研究方法论面临的难题有：(1)功能与结构之间并非存在一一对应关系,从功能推测结构可能行不通；(2)适应器在个体身上也经历了动态变化的发展过程,所以不能简单地从适应器的成型状态倒回去推测它的原初特征；(3)很多具体的进化假设无法操作化,可能面临不可证伪的问题；(4)进化心理学并未提出新式的研究技术,大量的问卷调查使其研究价值大打折扣。
尽管进化心理学存在诸多问题,但它也给我们带来了新的启示。进化心理学的积极意义表现为：(1)拓展了心理学的研究领域,将很多常识心理学的主题纳入到科学心理学的范畴；(2)摒弃了自行为主义以来的相对主义心理观；(3)重塑了“先天-后天”论的对立模式；(4)指出了心理无限可变性的文化主义心理观的缺陷；(5)若能谨慎地选择研究变量和方法,进化的视角可以带给我们很多新的发现。
总体而言,目前进化心理学还不足以成为一个新的心理学范式,但它仍不失为一个非常有用的视角。进化论将继续为心理学的发展提供营养,但它在当下的意义比较有限。进化心理学要走向成熟,有赖于人类学、认知神经科学和具身认知理论的长足发展。古人类学能够填补人类进化的“缺失环节”,认知人类学可以为进化心理学提供丰富的素材。认知神经科学在心理与脑机制之间搭建起桥梁,是进化心理学的必经之路。进化心理学仍然属于传统认知心理学的范畴,具身认知理论可以消解进化心理学的计算主义实质,是进化心理学的前进方向。
Evolutionary psychology (EP) becomes a new approach to psychological researches in recent years. As a result of combining the modern evolutionary biology and cognitive psychology, EP aims to discovery the internal characteristics of human mind from the evolution and adaptation. Otherwise, EP is always involved in all kinds of debates since it was born. Some researchers claim that EP brings a whole revolution which will make EP become a promising psychological paradigm. On the contrary, others consider EP as a replica of sociobiology, just like "old wine in a new bottle". Now the number of EP's empirical researches keeps increasing, in which good and bad experiments were mixed. Actually, these debates mostly come from ambiguity and limitation of EP. By looking back the generation of EP's theoretical framework, this dissertation will analysis the EP's core theories from psychological structure, mental processes and research methodology, and then illustrate the EP's theoretical dilemma and experimental misunderstanding by two case studies.
EP was born of the rapid development of modern evolutionary biology and psychology. In the branch of biology, some new theories provide EP with fertile ground such as the ethology, inclusive fitness theory, the reciprocal altruism, parental investment theory, and sociobiology. With the development of infant's cognitive abilities theory and domain-specific trend, evolutionary psychologists return to the traditional functionalism thought. Besides, EP's theoretical framework also benefits from the extensive discussion about crisis of psychology, multi-paradigms, scientific objectivism and humanism.
Adaptations theory is EP's point of view on psychological structure. It derived from Jerry Fodor's "modularity of mind", Cosmides and Tooby's "Swiss-Army Knife model", Sperber and Samuels's "massive modules theory", and evolved psychological mechanism (EPM) theory. According to adaptations theory, human mind consists of a series of EPM, and every adaptation will be evolved to deal with some specific adaptive problem. This theory has some flaws as follow:(1) it couldn't examine the ontogeny and development of psychological mechanism from dynamic perspective;(2) it blows hot and cold about domain-general psychological mechanism although it has denied Fodor's module theory;(3) it couldn't explain the interaction and work mode of all independent adaptations;(4) different kinds of adaptations and adaptations' grain problem.
EP describes mental processes as Darwinian algorithm. That means every EPM will only receive specific information, and process these data according to internal program and decision rules. The output will provide some results to help organisms to solve specific adaptive problems. In essence, Darwinian algorithm continues to use the concepts of cognitive psychology about computation and representation. It can't escape from the troubles of computation theory, but only narrow the scope and capacity of computation. Added to the reductionism, EP has to confront these problems, such as computability of mind, relation of syntax and semantic, intentionality of mind.
There are two general methodologies in EP, reverse engineering and multilevel analysis method. The former has three steps,(1) determine the adaptive problems that human ancestor faced repeatedly,(2) determine the adaptation's function by analysis the adaptive problem,(3) examine the intrinsic structure and work mechanism. The latter divides EP's research program into four levels, such as general evolutionary theory, middle-level evolutionary theory, specific evolutionary hypothesis, and specific predictions derived from hypothesis. There are two strategies of generating and testing evolutionary hypothesis, top-down strategy and bottom-up strategy. In general, these two methodologies have to face the following problems:(1) there isn't one to one correspondence between functions and structures, and it doesn't work that speculating the structures from the functions;(2) psychological adaptations have experienced dynamic development, and one can't work backwards from the mature form to original character of adaptations;(3) it's hard to be operationalized for many specific evolutionary hypothesis, and have to face the problem of being unfalsifiable;(4) EP has no any new research technologies, and EP's research value will decrease to some extent because of using too much questionnaires.
Although it has to face many problems, EP brings some new thoughts to us. EP is deserved to be praised because of the following reasons:(1) EP helps some folk psychological knowledge to enter into the region of scientific psychology, which extend greatly the sphere of psychology;(2) EP gets rid of the relativism derived from Behaviorism;(3) EP reshapes the wrong dichotomy of "nature-nurture";(4) EP points out the defects of cross-culture theory about variations of mind;(5) EP will bring some new results if researchers choose the right variables and methods prudently.
In sum, EP can't be considered as a new paradigm for psychology now, although it is still a useful perspective. The evolution theory will continue to nourish psychology in future. A mature EP needs the support from other disciplines such as paleoanthropology, cognitive neuroscience, and embodied cognition theory.
引文
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