美国政府欧安会政策考察（1969-1975）
摘要
本文以美国政府解密档案为主要支撑,在借鉴国内外新近研究成果的基础上,拟就1969-1975年间美国政府欧安会政策的评估、制定和实施进行考察,分析美国政府欧安会政策背后的深层原因,并阐述这一时期的外交战略理念,最终探讨欧安会对冷战结束的影响。
长期以来,欧安会一直被学界视为冷战期间东西方缓和的顶峰,而通向欧安会的“赫尔辛基进程(Helsinki Process)"及其后续会议对美国外交决策、美苏关系以及冷战的结束皆产生了深远影响,并加速了东欧地区民族民主意识的高涨,促成了东欧集团内部改革派力量壮大,且在引发苏东剧变、促成两极体系在持续了五十年之后宣告终结的过程中发挥了重要作用。与欧安会这般深远影响所不同的是,美国在整个会议期间的态度和立场却显得并不那么积极,这与尼克松——福特当局的欧洲安全政策有直接的关系。其中,基辛格个人的欧洲安全理念对当局的欧安会对策制定影响尤为明显。
全文共分为五个部分：
第一部分阐述欧安会问题的由来、发展及各方对策,重点分析苏联政府提出欧安会的动机和北约盟国的态度。苏联欧安会倡议是旨在寻求对战后欧洲边界的国际认可、在美国与西欧各国之间打入楔子,同时与西方开展经济合作,但该倡议却一再被西方拒绝,这与冷战肇始的国际环境、苏联自身的策略密切相关。在敌对尚未消退而缓和尚未开启之时,美国政府不可能轻易将欧安会纳入双边或者多边对话中,而处于马歇尔计划援助之下西欧各国,对美依存度尚高,更不可能摆脱美国追求独立自主的外交政策。但随着欧洲走上复兴之路,西欧各国开始在美苏之间逐渐发出自己的声音,欧安会召开的时机尚不成熟但却慢慢发生变化。
第二部分则重点阐述缓和形势下,尼克松当局对欧安会政策的初步形成过程。在欧洲缓和浪潮推动下,召开欧安会的倡议逐渐被西欧各国所接受。尼克松-基辛格上台后对欧洲政策进行修订,根据关联的策略,相继提出了以柏林问题的解决和确定共同均衡裁军谈判召开日期作为召开欧安会的条件。这一时期美国政府的主要政策是尽可能借苏联的迫切心情来获取更多的战略利益,诸如首脑访问等。
第三部分重点分析美国在筹备会议召开过程中的立场。这一时期美国对欧安会政策进一步形成发展。随着筹备会议各项议程的开展,美国与苏联、欧洲政治委员会之间的分歧日益凸显。在尼克松当局对欧关系原则指导下,尼克松当局成功地实现了筹备会议的召开与共同均衡裁军之间的关联。与此同时,对欧安会的“损害限制”政策也成为了美国在正式会议期间的基本政策。
第四部分着重阐释欧安会政策的推进与执行。在这一阶段,苏联与西欧各国分歧重重导致会期相当冗长,谈判甚至一度陷入僵局。因需考量与盟国的微妙关系,以及受到苏联的催促和舆论的质疑,基辛格不得不在苏联和西欧各国中间调停。至水门事件后,福特总统上台,在基辛格领导的国家安全委员会指导下,美国与欧洲政治委员会之间依然保持了有效的沟通。经过长期的讨价还价,在基辛格的斡旋下,最终协定得以达成。
第五部分是结论。赫尔辛基协定的签署是一次谋求集体安全的尝试,也是理想主义者和现实主义者之间的交锋,短期的历史也证明了这点。该协定是对60年代中期以来欧洲缓和的肯定,也是对美苏之间均势的一种认可。事实上,协定也并没有阻止苏联入侵阿富汗,所达成的协定也并没有有效地实施。但从长远来看,赫尔辛基协定第三个篮子所开启的人员、信息、文化交流,却给西方分化瓦解苏联提供了良好的机会,在二十年内加速了苏联阵营的解体,却是尼克松和基辛格等政策决策者当时并未预料到的。
This thesis tries to take advantage of the declassified documents of the U.S. government and recent researches at home and abroad, to inspect the U.S. government policies assessment, formulation and implementation of the CSCE in1969-1975, to explore its underlying reasons, foreign strategic concept and historical influence on the end of the Cold War. Over the years, the academia regards CSCE as the pinnacle of the East-West detente during the Cold War. The "Helsinki Process" leading to CSCE and its follow-up meetings had a profound impact on the U.S. foreign policies, the US-Soviet relations as well as the end of the Cold War, it also accelerated the national democratic consciousness in the Eastern Europe, contributed to the growth of the reformist forces in these areas and played an important role in triggering Drastic Change in the Soviet and Eastern Europe along with the end of bipolar system. However, compared with such great importance, the attitudes and policies of the United States during the whole sessions were not so positive, and these had a direct relationship with the Nixon-Ford administration's European security policies. Among them, Kissinger's individual European security concept made remarkable influence on the authorities'policies of CSCE.
The full text consists of five parts:
The first part describes the origin and development of CSCE as well as the parties' countermeasures, focusing on analysis of the Soviet government's CSCE motivation and the attitude of the NATO allies. Soviet initiatives of CSCE were designed to seek to the international recognition of the post-war boundaries of Europe, to infiltrate the wedge between the United States and Europe, to engage in economic cooperation with west Europe countries. However, Russians'propose repeatedly been rejected by the West, this was closely related to international environment of the beginning Cold War and the Soviet Union's strategy. When Soviet-U.S. had not receded in a hostile and ease did not open, the U.S government could not easily bring CSCE into bilateral or multilateral dialogue. Europe was in the assistance of the Marshall Plan with high dependence on the United States, impossible to get rid of the U.S to pursue an independent foreign policy. However, with the recovery of west Europe as a whole in the1970s, Europeans began to make their voices between the Soviet Union and the U.S. The opportunity to hold CSCE was immature but slowly changed.
The second part focuses on the preliminary formation process of CSCE policy in the Nixon administration during the detente period. Driven by the Europe detente wave, the initiative of convening CSCE was gradually accepted by the west Europe countries. When Nixon-Kissinger came to power, they revised the policies towards Europe. According to the linkage theory, the U.S. government successively proposed quadripartite talks in Berlin as well as convened date of co-balanced Disarmament as the conditions of convening CSCE. During this period, the Americans'main policy was to obtain strategic interests, such as the summits.
The third part focuses on the position of the United States during the preparatory meetings process. During this period, the U.S. government CSCE policy was further in formation and development. With the launching of the agendas of preparatory meetings, the divergence among the United States, the Soviet Union and the European Political Committee was increasingly prominent. Under the Nixon administration's guidance of the principles governing relations with Europe, the Nixon administration successfully achieved the convening of preparatory meetings for the association with the co-balanced Disarmament. At the same time, Sonnenfeldt's limit damage theory towards CSCE had become the basic position of the United States during the formal meetings.
The fourth part focuses on the advancement and implementation of policy on the CSCE. At this stage, the divergence between the Soviet Union and the European countries led to fairly lengthy duration of the meetings, the negotiations were even deadlocked. Because of the need to consider the delicate relationship with allies, and urged by the Soviet Union along with public opinion to questioning, Kissinger had to mediate strongly. After the Watergate, President Ford took office. Under the guidance of the National Security Council led by Kissinger, the United States and the European Political Committee still maintained effective communication. After a long period of bargaining, Kissinger's mediation led to a final agreement reached.
The fifth part is the conclusion. The signing of Helsinki Agreement is the attempt of the collective security treaty, it is also the confrontation between the idealists and the realists, short-term history has proved this point. This agreement is more about the affirmation of European detente, to ascertain a balance of power between the Soviet Union and the United States. In fact, the Helsinki Accords did not prevent the Soviet's invasion to Afghanistan, and there was no effective implementation. But in the long run, the personnel, information and cultural exchange in the third basket of the Helsinki Accords gave the West a good opportunity to disintegrate Soviet Union, to accelerate the collapse of the Soviet bloc in twenty years, which was Nixon, Kissinger and other policy-makers never expected.
长期以来,欧安会一直被学界视为冷战期间东西方缓和的顶峰,而通向欧安会的“赫尔辛基进程(Helsinki Process)"及其后续会议对美国外交决策、美苏关系以及冷战的结束皆产生了深远影响,并加速了东欧地区民族民主意识的高涨,促成了东欧集团内部改革派力量壮大,且在引发苏东剧变、促成两极体系在持续了五十年之后宣告终结的过程中发挥了重要作用。与欧安会这般深远影响所不同的是,美国在整个会议期间的态度和立场却显得并不那么积极,这与尼克松——福特当局的欧洲安全政策有直接的关系。其中,基辛格个人的欧洲安全理念对当局的欧安会对策制定影响尤为明显。
全文共分为五个部分：
第一部分阐述欧安会问题的由来、发展及各方对策,重点分析苏联政府提出欧安会的动机和北约盟国的态度。苏联欧安会倡议是旨在寻求对战后欧洲边界的国际认可、在美国与西欧各国之间打入楔子,同时与西方开展经济合作,但该倡议却一再被西方拒绝,这与冷战肇始的国际环境、苏联自身的策略密切相关。在敌对尚未消退而缓和尚未开启之时,美国政府不可能轻易将欧安会纳入双边或者多边对话中,而处于马歇尔计划援助之下西欧各国,对美依存度尚高,更不可能摆脱美国追求独立自主的外交政策。但随着欧洲走上复兴之路,西欧各国开始在美苏之间逐渐发出自己的声音,欧安会召开的时机尚不成熟但却慢慢发生变化。
第二部分则重点阐述缓和形势下,尼克松当局对欧安会政策的初步形成过程。在欧洲缓和浪潮推动下,召开欧安会的倡议逐渐被西欧各国所接受。尼克松-基辛格上台后对欧洲政策进行修订,根据关联的策略,相继提出了以柏林问题的解决和确定共同均衡裁军谈判召开日期作为召开欧安会的条件。这一时期美国政府的主要政策是尽可能借苏联的迫切心情来获取更多的战略利益,诸如首脑访问等。
第三部分重点分析美国在筹备会议召开过程中的立场。这一时期美国对欧安会政策进一步形成发展。随着筹备会议各项议程的开展,美国与苏联、欧洲政治委员会之间的分歧日益凸显。在尼克松当局对欧关系原则指导下,尼克松当局成功地实现了筹备会议的召开与共同均衡裁军之间的关联。与此同时,对欧安会的“损害限制”政策也成为了美国在正式会议期间的基本政策。
第四部分着重阐释欧安会政策的推进与执行。在这一阶段,苏联与西欧各国分歧重重导致会期相当冗长,谈判甚至一度陷入僵局。因需考量与盟国的微妙关系,以及受到苏联的催促和舆论的质疑,基辛格不得不在苏联和西欧各国中间调停。至水门事件后,福特总统上台,在基辛格领导的国家安全委员会指导下,美国与欧洲政治委员会之间依然保持了有效的沟通。经过长期的讨价还价,在基辛格的斡旋下,最终协定得以达成。
第五部分是结论。赫尔辛基协定的签署是一次谋求集体安全的尝试,也是理想主义者和现实主义者之间的交锋,短期的历史也证明了这点。该协定是对60年代中期以来欧洲缓和的肯定,也是对美苏之间均势的一种认可。事实上,协定也并没有阻止苏联入侵阿富汗,所达成的协定也并没有有效地实施。但从长远来看,赫尔辛基协定第三个篮子所开启的人员、信息、文化交流,却给西方分化瓦解苏联提供了良好的机会,在二十年内加速了苏联阵营的解体,却是尼克松和基辛格等政策决策者当时并未预料到的。
This thesis tries to take advantage of the declassified documents of the U.S. government and recent researches at home and abroad, to inspect the U.S. government policies assessment, formulation and implementation of the CSCE in1969-1975, to explore its underlying reasons, foreign strategic concept and historical influence on the end of the Cold War. Over the years, the academia regards CSCE as the pinnacle of the East-West detente during the Cold War. The "Helsinki Process" leading to CSCE and its follow-up meetings had a profound impact on the U.S. foreign policies, the US-Soviet relations as well as the end of the Cold War, it also accelerated the national democratic consciousness in the Eastern Europe, contributed to the growth of the reformist forces in these areas and played an important role in triggering Drastic Change in the Soviet and Eastern Europe along with the end of bipolar system. However, compared with such great importance, the attitudes and policies of the United States during the whole sessions were not so positive, and these had a direct relationship with the Nixon-Ford administration's European security policies. Among them, Kissinger's individual European security concept made remarkable influence on the authorities'policies of CSCE.
The full text consists of five parts:
The first part describes the origin and development of CSCE as well as the parties' countermeasures, focusing on analysis of the Soviet government's CSCE motivation and the attitude of the NATO allies. Soviet initiatives of CSCE were designed to seek to the international recognition of the post-war boundaries of Europe, to infiltrate the wedge between the United States and Europe, to engage in economic cooperation with west Europe countries. However, Russians'propose repeatedly been rejected by the West, this was closely related to international environment of the beginning Cold War and the Soviet Union's strategy. When Soviet-U.S. had not receded in a hostile and ease did not open, the U.S government could not easily bring CSCE into bilateral or multilateral dialogue. Europe was in the assistance of the Marshall Plan with high dependence on the United States, impossible to get rid of the U.S to pursue an independent foreign policy. However, with the recovery of west Europe as a whole in the1970s, Europeans began to make their voices between the Soviet Union and the U.S. The opportunity to hold CSCE was immature but slowly changed.
The second part focuses on the preliminary formation process of CSCE policy in the Nixon administration during the detente period. Driven by the Europe detente wave, the initiative of convening CSCE was gradually accepted by the west Europe countries. When Nixon-Kissinger came to power, they revised the policies towards Europe. According to the linkage theory, the U.S. government successively proposed quadripartite talks in Berlin as well as convened date of co-balanced Disarmament as the conditions of convening CSCE. During this period, the Americans'main policy was to obtain strategic interests, such as the summits.
The third part focuses on the position of the United States during the preparatory meetings process. During this period, the U.S. government CSCE policy was further in formation and development. With the launching of the agendas of preparatory meetings, the divergence among the United States, the Soviet Union and the European Political Committee was increasingly prominent. Under the Nixon administration's guidance of the principles governing relations with Europe, the Nixon administration successfully achieved the convening of preparatory meetings for the association with the co-balanced Disarmament. At the same time, Sonnenfeldt's limit damage theory towards CSCE had become the basic position of the United States during the formal meetings.
The fourth part focuses on the advancement and implementation of policy on the CSCE. At this stage, the divergence between the Soviet Union and the European countries led to fairly lengthy duration of the meetings, the negotiations were even deadlocked. Because of the need to consider the delicate relationship with allies, and urged by the Soviet Union along with public opinion to questioning, Kissinger had to mediate strongly. After the Watergate, President Ford took office. Under the guidance of the National Security Council led by Kissinger, the United States and the European Political Committee still maintained effective communication. After a long period of bargaining, Kissinger's mediation led to a final agreement reached.
The fifth part is the conclusion. The signing of Helsinki Agreement is the attempt of the collective security treaty, it is also the confrontation between the idealists and the realists, short-term history has proved this point. This agreement is more about the affirmation of European detente, to ascertain a balance of power between the Soviet Union and the United States. In fact, the Helsinki Accords did not prevent the Soviet's invasion to Afghanistan, and there was no effective implementation. But in the long run, the personnel, information and cultural exchange in the third basket of the Helsinki Accords gave the West a good opportunity to disintegrate Soviet Union, to accelerate the collapse of the Soviet bloc in twenty years, which was Nixon, Kissinger and other policy-makers never expected.
引文
①资中筠：《战后美国外交史——从杜鲁门到里根》,世界知识出版社,1994年。
②刘金质：《冷战史》(中册),世界知识出版社,2002年。
①赵璐：《尼克松当局欧洲安全政策研究》,山东师范大学,学位论文,2010年。
②魏宁：《苏联外交与“欧洲安全与合作会议”(1973-1975)》,苏州科技学院,学位论文,2008年。
③夏立平：《欧安会进程与未来欧洲安全结构》,《欧洲研究》,1992年03期。
④卓文：《欧安组织发展演变及其在欧洲的作用》,《国际问题研究》,1996年02期。
⑤朱立群,林民旺：《赫尔辛基进程30年：塑造共同安全》,《世界经济与政治》,2005年12期。
⑥ Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation:American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan,Brookings Institution Press,1994.
①Vojtech Mastny,Helsinki, Human Rights, and European Security,1975-1985:Analysis and Documentatio n,Durham, NC:Duke University Press,1986.
② William Korey,The Promises We Keep:Human Rights, the Helsinki Process, and American Foreign Policy New York:St. Martin's Press,1993.
③ John J. Maresca, To Helsinki—the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,1973-1975, Duke University Press,1987.
④Sarah Baldwin Snyder. Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press,2011.
⑤Sarah Baldwin Snyder,The Helsinki Process, American Foreign Policy,and the End of the Cold War, Ph.D, Georgetown University,2006.
⑥Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
⑦ Perforating the Iron Curtain:European detente, transatlantic relations, and the Cold War,1965-1985, Museum Tusculanum Press,2010.
⑧ Gioranni Bernardini, Forced to Cooperate:the Brandt Government and the Nixon Administration on the Road to Helsinki. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Jussi M.Hanhimaki.'They Can Write it in Swahili':Kissinger, the Soviets, and the Helsinki Accords,1973-75, Transatlantic Studies, Volume 1, Supplement 1,2003.
② Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the reconceptualization of European security,1969-75. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
③ Michael Morgan, North America, Atlanticism, and the making of the Helsinki Final Act. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
④[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,时殷弘译,世界知识出版社,2005,第334页。
⑤ Wilfried Loth, The Cold War:What is was about and why it is ended?. Poul Villaume, Odd Arne Westad. Perforating the Iron Curtain:European detente, transatlantic relations, and the Cold War,1965-1985. Museum Tusculanum Press,2010.
① U.S.Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, Eu ropean Security. Washington.D.C.:United States Government Printing Office,2011. Available at:http://history.s tate.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v39[查看时间:2011-09-21]
② Digital National Security Archive, Available at http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/collections/content/KT/intro.jsp.[查看时间：2011-05-301. Access Provided by University of California, Los Angeles Library.
③ Declassified Documents Reference System, Available at http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/DDRS;jsessio nid=680830D9B38C5B67655CC9323FB8AFC0?locID=cnsnnu[查看时间：2011-05-30].Access Provided by Sha anxi Normal University.
④此文件集是由米尔恰·蒙泰亚努(Mircea Munteanu)、海德薇·朱斯托(Hedwig Giusto)、和克里斯提安·奥斯特曼(Christian F. Ostermann)等人为在2002年9月26-28在意大利的多比亚克召开的国际性学术会议“北约、华约与缓和的兴起,1965-72(NATO, the Warsaw Pact and the Rise of Detente,1965-1972) "而形成,Online, Available at:http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-rise-Detente[查看时间：201]-05-30].
⑤此文件集作者同上,是为2003年9月23-30日在佛罗伦萨召开的“通向赫尔辛基之路：欧安会步伐的开启(The Road to Helsinki, The Early Steps to the CSCE)”的学术会议而汇编的,Online, Available at http:// www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-road-to-helsinki [查看时间：2011-07-12]
⑥ ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Online, Available at http://proquest.umi.com/login?COPT=REJTPTY5YT YrM2IwNCslOGRjKzM2ZmIrNThkYSszYzVhKzFhY2QrNjQ5MSs2NDhmKzFhY2MrMjY4YSZJTlQ9MCZWR VI9Mg, Access paid by The UCSD Libraries.
⑦ Documents on British Policy Overseas, Online, Available at http://dbpo.chadwyck.com/home.do
⑧ Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Online, Available at http://www.csce.gov/
⑨ Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security, Online, Available at:http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch/
⑩ Center for Security Studies, Online, Available at http://www.css.ethz.ch/index_EN
① International Relations and Security Network,Online, Available at http://www.isn.ethz.ch/
② NATO elibrary, Online, Available at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-6798B9A3-383F608B/natolive/publicatio ns.htm
③ NATO Archive, Online, Available at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/68238.htm
④ OCSE library, Online, Available at http://www.osce.org/library/
⑤[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,前言部分,第3页。
① Helsinki Final Act, Online, Available at http://www.osce.org/mc/39501[查看时间：2011-09-10]
②关于冷战开始的时间问题,学界上有争议,本文以1947年杜鲁门主义的出台为冷战的开始时间。
③ The United States Delegations at Berlin Conferences to the Department of state, FRUS.1952-1954. Germany and Austria (1952-1954), Federal Republic of Germany, pp. P814,also see in CSCE handbook, P2.
① Anatoliy Fedorovich Dobrynin, In confidence:Moscow's ambassador to six Cold War Presidents, University of Washington Press, P351.
① Raymond L. Garthoff， Detente and Confrontation:American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, Revised Edition, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C.1994.P528.
②1956年2月在苏共20大上,赫鲁晓夫全面系统地阐述了他在对外政策方面的观点,其新外交政策的核心就是“三和路线”。这一战略的基本目标是谋求实现苏美合作主宰世界。三和路线以缓和代替全面对抗,从而使苏联赢得了外交上的主动权和较大的活动空间,和平攻势迫使西方承认了苏联在东欧的势力范围并扩大了苏联的国际影响；但赫鲁晓夫把美苏之间的和平共处作为所有社会主义国家外交政策的总路线,要求其他社会主义国家的对外政策服从苏联的国家利益,暴露了苏联的大国主义,并成为造成社会主义阵营分化的思想渊源。
③[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,时殷弘译,世界知识出版社,2005年,第330页。
①[美]亨利·基辛格；《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第532页。
② The United States Delegation at the Berlin Conference to the Department of State, February 10,1954, Foreign Relations,1952-1954, Germany and Austria, P1025.
③ Ibid, P1027.
①Ibid.P1021.
②Ibid.P1022.
① Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the reconceptualization of European security,1969-75，P47. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Richard Nixon:"Inaugural Address," January 20,1969. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=1941.[查看日期：2011.05.09]
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第520贞。
②对于尼克松主义的研究,参见Robert S. Litwak, Detente and the Nixon Doctrine:American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability,1969-1976, Cambridge University Press,1986.
③关岛主义是尼克松1969年7月25日在关岛同新闻记者的非正式会谈中提出的新亚洲政策,一般学界认为被认为是70年代美苏关系缓和的开端和尼克松主义的雏形。
④ The Wars for Viet Nam. President Nixon's Speech on "Vietamization," November 3,1969, Online, Avail able at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2303&st=&stl=#axzzlr3TqtCEo[查看时间：2012.03.04]
⑤全文详见U.S. foreign policy for the 1970's:A new strategy for peace, Online, Available at http://www.p residency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2835#axzzltsmVy5HC[查看时间：2011.02.01]
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第521页。
② Ibid, PI71.
③对于关联原则(Linkage Theory)的分析及其运用,可以参见Samuel M. Makinda的The Role of Linkage Diplomacy in the US-Soviet relations. Australian Journal of Politics & History, Volume 33, Issue 3, pages 224-236, December 1987.
④ Richard Nixon:"Inaugural Address," January 20,1969. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=941.[查看日期：2011.05.091
①[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第334页。
②对于缓和政策的研究,著作比较多,可以参见Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation:America n-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, Revised Edition. The Brookings Institution,Washington,D.C.1994此外John Van Oudenaren. Detente in Europe:The soviet Union and the West since 1953, Duke University p ress,1991,1991,以及 Angela Romano 的 From Detente in Europe to European Detente:How the West Shaped the Helsinki CSCE, Peter Lang Publishing,2009对缓和以及赫尔辛基进程都有涉及。
③ Henry Kissinger,Years of Renewal, New York:Simon & Schuster,1999, P93.
④[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第291页。
①"Discussion of European Security Conference, Vietnam, and China," Secret, Memorandum, April 3,1969,3 pp. DNSA. Collection:Kissinger Transcripts, Item Number:KT00014.
② Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, April 8,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII, footnote 2,P6.
③ Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),October 2,1969, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P8
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII.P35.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, October 31,1969,Foreign Relations,19 69-1976,volume XII,P25.
② Telegram From the Department of State to the Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, November 20,,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII,P25.
③ U.S. Approach to Current Issues of European Security, National Security Study Memorandum 83, November 21, 1969,1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume XXXIX, P30.
④ "Background Paper on Europe for NSC Meeting, January 28," 26 January 1970,NPMP, NSC Institutional Files, Box H-026, NSC Meeting 1/28/70-Europe.
⑤ Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), March 25,1970. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX. Tab A:NSSM 83—Current Issues Of European Security, PP.50-55.
Memorandum of Conversation,July 4,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, volume XII, P7.
Editor notes, Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII, P19.
① Minutes of a National Security Council Meeting, January 28,1970.1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, PP.44-47.
② First Annual Report to the Congress on United States Foreign Policy for the 1970's, Public Papers of t he Presidents RIchard Nixon, February 18,1970, Online, Avaliable at:http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ind ex.php?pid=2835&st=&st1=#axzz1rvx6NUL1[查看时间:2012-02-12]
③ Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, April 18,1970,1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P60.
④ Memorandum of Conversation, June 10,1970,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ,P68.
⑤ Memorandum of Conversation, October 22,1970, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P86.
⑥ North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO Final Communiques,1949-1974, P243.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixonl December 5,1970. Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P107.
②对此问题的研究,可参见黑尔加·哈夫托顿(Helga Haftendorn):The link between CSCE and MBFR:two sprouts from one bulb. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
③刘金质：《冷战史》(中册),世界知识出版社,2002年,第864页。
① Ibid.P865.
②Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), April 22,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P1 12.
③ Conversation Among President Nixon, Secretary of Defense Laird, and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),May 19,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P133.
④ National Security Decision Memorandum 108,May 21,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P1 42.
⑤ Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon,May 26,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P144.
① Ibid.P26.
② Editor Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P149.
③ Memorandum of Conversation,June 17,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P167.
①National Security Study Memorandum 138, October 2,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P210.
② A Conference On European Security (Analytical Summary) Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Staff,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P212.
③ Ibid, P228.
④ Ibid, p232.
① Minutes of a National Security Council Meetingl December 1,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, VolumeXXXIX,P239在该文件注7里面.
② NSDM142,该文件是关于MBFR与CSCE的总统指令,由国家安全委员会起草,经总统批准,下发给国务院和国防部。Online, Available in Nixon library, http://nixon.archives.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/nsdm/nsd m 142.pdfl查看时间：2012-04-021
③ National Security Decision Memorandum 142,December 2,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P244.
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P250.
⑤ Ibid. P251-253.
⑥ Ibid.P254.
⑦ National Security Decision Memorandum 162, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P270
① Memorandum of Conversation, May 24,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P290.
② Richard Nixon:"Text of the "Basic Principles of Relations Between the United States of America and t he Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." May 29,1972. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, Th e American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3438.
①美苏首脑峰会对于促进欧洲缓和的影响是不容小视的,对此学界看法不一,如Angela Romano提出了对欧安会提出了缓和、谅解和关联原则的三种不同看法。Detente, Entente, or Linkage? The Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in U.S. Relations with the Soviet Union, Diplomatic History, Vol.33, No.4, September 2009.
②关于欧安会与共同均衡裁军谈判的关系问题,可参见Helga Haftendorn, The link between CSCE and MBFR: two sprouts from one bulb. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System.-The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), July 5,1972., Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P310.
② Memorandum for the Record,July 7,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P311-12.
③ Memorandum of Conversation, July 28,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, PP.318.
④ Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) and the Soviet Ambassador (Dobrynin), August 22,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P327.
① Telegram From the Embassy in the Soviet Union to the Department of State 1 August 21,1972, Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, PP.325-6.
② Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P330.
③阿尔巴尼亚拒绝了芬兰政府的邀请,宣称欧洲安全不能由两个超级大国所组织的会议来安排。
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P368.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, December 20,1972, Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P370.
②Memorandum for the President's Files by the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), February 2，1973. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P391.
③ Memorandum of Conversation, February 21,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P397.
④ Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series Ⅲ, Volume Ⅱ, Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1972-1975, p.103, fn 6),参见Letter From the Deputy Chief of the U.S. Delegation to the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Vest) to the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Stoessel) 1, P399.
⑤ Memorandum of Conversation 1 April 21,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P440.
① Final Recommendations of the Helsinki Consultations, Online, available at http://www.osce.org/mc/40213[查看时间：2012.01.23]
②陈须隆：《欧安会/欧安组织与欧洲安全——区域安全合作的一种经验分析》,北京大学,学位论文,2001年,第24页。
③ Memorandum for the Record by the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Stoessel), April 19,1973, Foreign relations of the united states,1969-1976, volume ⅹⅹⅹⅸ, european security。 PS:http://hist ory.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus 1969-76v39/d 141
④ Minutes of a Senior Review Group Meeting, May 14,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P121
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《大外交》,海南出版社,1998年,第747页。
① Department of State Bulletin, July 23,1973, page 132.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, June 28,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ,P498.
② Ibid.P499.
③ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ.P517.
④ Brezhnev Excerpts, Special to The New York Times,New York Times (1923-Current file); Sep 20,1973; ProQuest Historical Newspapers, The New York Times (1851-2008),pg.11
① Message From Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev to President Nixon, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P537.
② Memorandum of Conversation February 4,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P540.
③ Ibid,P546.
④越南战争的失败加剧了美国经济衰退的步伐,尼克松决定迅速协调与西欧盟国的关系,重新建立以美国为领导的大西洋联盟。1973年4月23日,基辛格在纽约举行的美联社编辑年会上发表重要讲话,宣布1973年是“欧洲年”。基辛格建议美国和西欧拟订新的大西洋宪章,陈述共同的目标,双方在防务、贸易和东西方关系上协调各自的政策。但是,西欧各国对此反应冷漠。尼克松欧洲政策严重受挫。
⑤对此尼克松时期美国外交决策的分析,可参见Asaf Siniver的新著Nixon, Kissinger, and U.S. Foreign Policy Making, Cambridge University Press,2011一书,该书从尼克松-基辛格时期几次重要的危机处理为例子,分析 美国这一时期外交政策决策管理形式,包括国家安全委员会只能在决策中的作用个,可以清晰的了解尼克松时期决策模式的变化,此外Wilfrid L. Kohl, The Nixon-Kissinger Foreign Policy System and U. S.-Europe Relations, World Politics Vol.28, No.1 (Oct.,1975), pp.1-43对尼克松基辛格的对外政策体系以及美欧关系进行了详细的论述；夏亚峰在《试析尼克松当局对外政策决策机制、过程及主要人员》中分析了尼克松当局对外政策的决策机制,可以对此问题进行深入了解。
①对这一问题的研究,可参见Jussi M.Hanhimaki 的'They Can Write it in Swahili':Kissinger, the Soviets, and the Helsinki Accords,1973-75, Transatlantic Studies, Volume 1, Supplement 1,2003。在这里,作者认为基辛格是一个“不情愿的贡献者(Reluctant Contributor)”在1975年春天,基辛格在促进葛罗米柯接受更多的妥协方面做出了重要贡献。在Jeremi Suri的Henry Kissinger and the Reconceptualization of European Security,1969-75 。文中,他认为基辛格在欧安会问题上与欧洲之间的分歧,很大程度是是由六十年代美欧在欧洲安全观念重塑过程中形成的。
② Memorandum of Conversation, October 10,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P522.
③ Ibid, P523.
① Minutes of Secretary of State Kissinger's Staff Meeting, October 29,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P526.
② Memorandum of Conversation, August 15,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P713.
③ Memorandum of Conversation,August 28,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P717.
④ Minutes of Secretary of State Kissinger's Staff Meeting,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P506.
①[美1约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第334页。
②Memorandum of Conversation,June 30,1973,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volumeXXXIx,P502.
③Editorial Note,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,Volume XXXIX,P506.
① Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX,P843.
② Sarah b. Snyder, "Jerry, Don't Go":Domestic Opposition to the 1975 Helsinki Final Act, Journal of American Studies,44(2010),1,67-81.
③ Telegram From the Mission in Geneva to the Department of State. July 21,1975,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P918.
④ Jerry, Don't Go, Wall Street Journal (1923-Current file); Jul 23,1975;ProQuest Historical Newspapers:The Wall Street Journal (1889-1991) pg.14.
⑤ Super Yalta, William Safire New York Times (1923-Current file); Jul 28,1975; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2007) pg.21.
⑥ Super Yalta By William Safire New York Times (1923-Current file); Jul 28,1975; ProQuest Historical Newspapers:The New York Times (1851-2007) pg.21.
⑦ Gerald R.Ford, A time to Heal:The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford, P300-02.
① Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect:International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism, Princeton University Press,2001.
① Vojtech Mastny, Helsinki, human rights, and European security:analysis and documentation, Durham,1986.
①Ibid,P397.
② Ibid,P398.
3[英]爱德华·卡尔,秦亚青译《20年危机(1919-1939)：国际关系研究导论》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第12页。
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[6]Sarah b. Snyder, "Jerry, Don't Go":Domestic Opposition to the 1975 Helsinki Final Act, Journal of American Studies,44 (2010),1,67-81
[7]Angela Romano, Detente, Entente, or Linkage? The Helsinki Conference on Se curity and Cooperation in Europe in U.S. Relations with the Soviet Union, Diplo matic History, Vol.33, No.4 (September 2009).
[8]Jussi M. Hanhimaki, Detente in Europe,1962-1975, The Cambridge Histor y of the Cold War, Volume 2,373-394,2010
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[10]Asaf Siniver, The Nixon Administration and the Cienfuegos Crisis of 1970:c risis management of a non-crisis?" Review of International Studies,34:1 (200 8):69-88;
[11]Asaf Siniver, Nixon, Kissinger, and U. S. Foreign Policy Making:The Machinery of Crisis, New York:Cambridge University Press,2008。
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[13]赵璐.尼克松当局欧洲安全政策研究,学位论文,山东师范大学,2010
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[16]陈须隆,欧安会／欧安组织与欧洲安全——区域安全合作的一种经验分析,学位论文,2001
[17]皮立军,从欧安会制度建设看合作安全,学位论文,外交学院,2000
[18]李昀,欧美者对二战后美国与欧洲一体化关系的研究[J].世界历史,2008
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[20]张曙光,美国的遏制战略与冷战研究[J].社会科学,2006(10)
[21]张志梅,试析尼克松当局的西欧外交[J].史学月刊,2008(11)
[22]白建才,大战略、遏制战略与隐蔽行动等诸战略——美国的冷战战略析论[J]陕西师范大学学报,2005(6)
[23]夏亚峰,试析尼克松当局对外政策决策机制、过程及主要人员[J].史学集刊,2009(4)
②刘金质：《冷战史》(中册),世界知识出版社,2002年。
①赵璐：《尼克松当局欧洲安全政策研究》,山东师范大学,学位论文,2010年。
②魏宁：《苏联外交与“欧洲安全与合作会议”(1973-1975)》,苏州科技学院,学位论文,2008年。
③夏立平：《欧安会进程与未来欧洲安全结构》,《欧洲研究》,1992年03期。
④卓文：《欧安组织发展演变及其在欧洲的作用》,《国际问题研究》,1996年02期。
⑤朱立群,林民旺：《赫尔辛基进程30年：塑造共同安全》,《世界经济与政治》,2005年12期。
⑥ Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation:American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan,Brookings Institution Press,1994.
①Vojtech Mastny,Helsinki, Human Rights, and European Security,1975-1985:Analysis and Documentatio n,Durham, NC:Duke University Press,1986.
② William Korey,The Promises We Keep:Human Rights, the Helsinki Process, and American Foreign Policy New York:St. Martin's Press,1993.
③ John J. Maresca, To Helsinki—the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe,1973-1975, Duke University Press,1987.
④Sarah Baldwin Snyder. Human Rights Activism and the End of the Cold War, Cambridge University Press,2011.
⑤Sarah Baldwin Snyder,The Helsinki Process, American Foreign Policy,and the End of the Cold War, Ph.D, Georgetown University,2006.
⑥Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
⑦ Perforating the Iron Curtain:European detente, transatlantic relations, and the Cold War,1965-1985, Museum Tusculanum Press,2010.
⑧ Gioranni Bernardini, Forced to Cooperate:the Brandt Government and the Nixon Administration on the Road to Helsinki. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Jussi M.Hanhimaki.'They Can Write it in Swahili':Kissinger, the Soviets, and the Helsinki Accords,1973-75, Transatlantic Studies, Volume 1, Supplement 1,2003.
② Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the reconceptualization of European security,1969-75. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
③ Michael Morgan, North America, Atlanticism, and the making of the Helsinki Final Act. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
④[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,时殷弘译,世界知识出版社,2005,第334页。
⑤ Wilfried Loth, The Cold War:What is was about and why it is ended?. Poul Villaume, Odd Arne Westad. Perforating the Iron Curtain:European detente, transatlantic relations, and the Cold War,1965-1985. Museum Tusculanum Press,2010.
① U.S.Department of State. Foreign Relations of the United States(FRUS),1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, Eu ropean Security. Washington.D.C.:United States Government Printing Office,2011. Available at:http://history.s tate.gov/historicaldocuments/frus1969-76v39[查看时间:2011-09-21]
② Digital National Security Archive, Available at http://nsarchive.chadwyck.com/collections/content/KT/intro.jsp.[查看时间：2011-05-301. Access Provided by University of California, Los Angeles Library.
③ Declassified Documents Reference System, Available at http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/DDRS;jsessio nid=680830D9B38C5B67655CC9323FB8AFC0?locID=cnsnnu[查看时间：2011-05-30].Access Provided by Sha anxi Normal University.
④此文件集是由米尔恰·蒙泰亚努(Mircea Munteanu)、海德薇·朱斯托(Hedwig Giusto)、和克里斯提安·奥斯特曼(Christian F. Ostermann)等人为在2002年9月26-28在意大利的多比亚克召开的国际性学术会议“北约、华约与缓和的兴起,1965-72(NATO, the Warsaw Pact and the Rise of Detente,1965-1972) "而形成,Online, Available at:http://www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-rise-Detente[查看时间：201]-05-30].
⑤此文件集作者同上,是为2003年9月23-30日在佛罗伦萨召开的“通向赫尔辛基之路：欧安会步伐的开启(The Road to Helsinki, The Early Steps to the CSCE)”的学术会议而汇编的,Online, Available at http:// www.wilsoncenter.org/publication/the-road-to-helsinki [查看时间：2011-07-12]
⑥ ProQuest Historical Newspapers, Online, Available at http://proquest.umi.com/login?COPT=REJTPTY5YT YrM2IwNCslOGRjKzM2ZmIrNThkYSszYzVhKzFhY2QrNjQ5MSs2NDhmKzFhY2MrMjY4YSZJTlQ9MCZWR VI9Mg, Access paid by The UCSD Libraries.
⑦ Documents on British Policy Overseas, Online, Available at http://dbpo.chadwyck.com/home.do
⑧ Commission on Security and Cooperation in Europe, Online, Available at http://www.csce.gov/
⑨ Parallel History Project on Cooperative Security, Online, Available at:http://www.php.isn.ethz.ch/
⑩ Center for Security Studies, Online, Available at http://www.css.ethz.ch/index_EN
① International Relations and Security Network,Online, Available at http://www.isn.ethz.ch/
② NATO elibrary, Online, Available at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/SID-6798B9A3-383F608B/natolive/publicatio ns.htm
③ NATO Archive, Online, Available at http://www.nato.int/cps/en/natolive/68238.htm
④ OCSE library, Online, Available at http://www.osce.org/library/
⑤[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,前言部分,第3页。
① Helsinki Final Act, Online, Available at http://www.osce.org/mc/39501[查看时间：2011-09-10]
②关于冷战开始的时间问题,学界上有争议,本文以1947年杜鲁门主义的出台为冷战的开始时间。
③ The United States Delegations at Berlin Conferences to the Department of state, FRUS.1952-1954. Germany and Austria (1952-1954), Federal Republic of Germany, pp. P814,also see in CSCE handbook, P2.
① Anatoliy Fedorovich Dobrynin, In confidence:Moscow's ambassador to six Cold War Presidents, University of Washington Press, P351.
① Raymond L. Garthoff， Detente and Confrontation:American-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, Revised Edition, The Brookings Institution, Washington, D.C.1994.P528.
②1956年2月在苏共20大上,赫鲁晓夫全面系统地阐述了他在对外政策方面的观点,其新外交政策的核心就是“三和路线”。这一战略的基本目标是谋求实现苏美合作主宰世界。三和路线以缓和代替全面对抗,从而使苏联赢得了外交上的主动权和较大的活动空间,和平攻势迫使西方承认了苏联在东欧的势力范围并扩大了苏联的国际影响；但赫鲁晓夫把美苏之间的和平共处作为所有社会主义国家外交政策的总路线,要求其他社会主义国家的对外政策服从苏联的国家利益,暴露了苏联的大国主义,并成为造成社会主义阵营分化的思想渊源。
③[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,时殷弘译,世界知识出版社,2005年,第330页。
①[美]亨利·基辛格；《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第532页。
② The United States Delegation at the Berlin Conference to the Department of State, February 10,1954, Foreign Relations,1952-1954, Germany and Austria, P1025.
③ Ibid, P1027.
①Ibid.P1021.
②Ibid.P1022.
① Jeremi Suri, Henry Kissinger and the reconceptualization of European security,1969-75，P47. Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Richard Nixon:"Inaugural Address," January 20,1969. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project, http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=1941.[查看日期：2011.05.09]
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第520贞。
②对于尼克松主义的研究,参见Robert S. Litwak, Detente and the Nixon Doctrine:American Foreign Policy and the Pursuit of Stability,1969-1976, Cambridge University Press,1986.
③关岛主义是尼克松1969年7月25日在关岛同新闻记者的非正式会谈中提出的新亚洲政策,一般学界认为被认为是70年代美苏关系缓和的开端和尼克松主义的雏形。
④ The Wars for Viet Nam. President Nixon's Speech on "Vietamization," November 3,1969, Online, Avail able at http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/index.php?pid=2303&st=&stl=#axzzlr3TqtCEo[查看时间：2012.03.04]
⑤全文详见U.S. foreign policy for the 1970's:A new strategy for peace, Online, Available at http://www.p residency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=2835#axzzltsmVy5HC[查看时间：2011.02.01]
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《白宫岁月》(第一册),陈瑶华等译,世界知识出版社,2003年,第521页。
② Ibid, PI71.
③对于关联原则(Linkage Theory)的分析及其运用,可以参见Samuel M. Makinda的The Role of Linkage Diplomacy in the US-Soviet relations. Australian Journal of Politics & History, Volume 33, Issue 3, pages 224-236, December 1987.
④ Richard Nixon:"Inaugural Address," January 20,1969. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, The American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=941.[查看日期：2011.05.091
①[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第334页。
②对于缓和政策的研究,著作比较多,可以参见Raymond L. Garthoff, Detente and Confrontation:America n-Soviet Relations from Nixon to Reagan, Revised Edition. The Brookings Institution,Washington,D.C.1994此外John Van Oudenaren. Detente in Europe:The soviet Union and the West since 1953, Duke University p ress,1991,1991,以及 Angela Romano 的 From Detente in Europe to European Detente:How the West Shaped the Helsinki CSCE, Peter Lang Publishing,2009对缓和以及赫尔辛基进程都有涉及。
③ Henry Kissinger,Years of Renewal, New York:Simon & Schuster,1999, P93.
④[美]约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第291页。
①"Discussion of European Security Conference, Vietnam, and China," Secret, Memorandum, April 3,1969,3 pp. DNSA. Collection:Kissinger Transcripts, Item Number:KT00014.
② Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, April 8,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII, footnote 2,P6.
③ Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),October 2,1969, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P8
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII.P35.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, October 31,1969,Foreign Relations,19 69-1976,volume XII,P25.
② Telegram From the Department of State to the Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, November 20,,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII,P25.
③ U.S. Approach to Current Issues of European Security, National Security Study Memorandum 83, November 21, 1969,1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume XXXIX, P30.
④ "Background Paper on Europe for NSC Meeting, January 28," 26 January 1970,NPMP, NSC Institutional Files, Box H-026, NSC Meeting 1/28/70-Europe.
⑤ Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), March 25,1970. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX. Tab A:NSSM 83—Current Issues Of European Security, PP.50-55.
Memorandum of Conversation,July 4,1969,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, volume XII, P7.
Editor notes, Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volume XII, P19.
① Minutes of a National Security Council Meeting, January 28,1970.1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, PP.44-47.
② First Annual Report to the Congress on United States Foreign Policy for the 1970's, Public Papers of t he Presidents RIchard Nixon, February 18,1970, Online, Avaliable at:http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/ind ex.php?pid=2835&st=&st1=#axzz1rvx6NUL1[查看时间:2012-02-12]
③ Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon, April 18,1970,1969-1976, Foreign Relations, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P60.
④ Memorandum of Conversation, June 10,1970,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ,P68.
⑤ Memorandum of Conversation, October 22,1970, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P86.
⑥ North Atlantic Treaty Organization, NATO Final Communiques,1949-1974, P243.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixonl December 5,1970. Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P107.
②对此问题的研究,可参见黑尔加·哈夫托顿(Helga Haftendorn):The link between CSCE and MBFR:two sprouts from one bulb. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System:The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
③刘金质：《冷战史》(中册),世界知识出版社,2002年,第864页。
① Ibid.P865.
②Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), April 22,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P1 12.
③ Conversation Among President Nixon, Secretary of Defense Laird, and the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger),May 19,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P133.
④ National Security Decision Memorandum 108,May 21,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P1 42.
⑤ Memorandum From the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) to President Nixon,May 26,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P144.
① Ibid.P26.
② Editor Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P149.
③ Memorandum of Conversation,June 17,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P167.
①National Security Study Memorandum 138, October 2,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P210.
② A Conference On European Security (Analytical Summary) Paper Prepared by the National Security Council Staff,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P212.
③ Ibid, P228.
④ Ibid, p232.
① Minutes of a National Security Council Meetingl December 1,1971. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, VolumeXXXIX,P239在该文件注7里面.
② NSDM142,该文件是关于MBFR与CSCE的总统指令,由国家安全委员会起草,经总统批准,下发给国务院和国防部。Online, Available in Nixon library, http://nixon.archives.gov/virtuallibrary/documents/nsdm/nsd m 142.pdfl查看时间：2012-04-021
③ National Security Decision Memorandum 142,December 2,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P244.
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P250.
⑤ Ibid. P251-253.
⑥ Ibid.P254.
⑦ National Security Decision Memorandum 162, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P270
① Memorandum of Conversation, May 24,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P290.
② Richard Nixon:"Text of the "Basic Principles of Relations Between the United States of America and t he Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." May 29,1972. Online by Gerhard Peters and John T. Woolley, Th e American Presidency Project. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=3438.
①美苏首脑峰会对于促进欧洲缓和的影响是不容小视的,对此学界看法不一,如Angela Romano提出了对欧安会提出了缓和、谅解和关联原则的三种不同看法。Detente, Entente, or Linkage? The Helsinki Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe in U.S. Relations with the Soviet Union, Diplomatic History, Vol.33, No.4, September 2009.
②关于欧安会与共同均衡裁军谈判的关系问题,可参见Helga Haftendorn, The link between CSCE and MBFR: two sprouts from one bulb. Andreas Wenger, Vojtech Mastny, Christian Nuenlist, Origins of the European Security System.-The Helsinki Process Revisited,1965-75, Routledge,2008.
① Memorandum From Helmut Sonnenfeldt of the National Security Council Staff to the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), July 5,1972., Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P310.
② Memorandum for the Record,July 7,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P311-12.
③ Memorandum of Conversation, July 28,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, PP.318.
④ Transcript of Telephone Conversation Between the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger) and the Soviet Ambassador (Dobrynin), August 22,1972, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P327.
① Telegram From the Embassy in the Soviet Union to the Department of State 1 August 21,1972, Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, PP.325-6.
② Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P330.
③阿尔巴尼亚拒绝了芬兰政府的邀请,宣称欧洲安全不能由两个超级大国所组织的会议来安排。
④ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P368.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, December 20,1972, Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P370.
②Memorandum for the President's Files by the President's Assistant for National Security Affairs (Kissinger), February 2，1973. Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P391.
③ Memorandum of Conversation, February 21,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P397.
④ Documents on British Policy Overseas, Series Ⅲ, Volume Ⅱ, Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe, 1972-1975, p.103, fn 6),参见Letter From the Deputy Chief of the U.S. Delegation to the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Vest) to the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Stoessel) 1, P399.
⑤ Memorandum of Conversation 1 April 21,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P440.
① Final Recommendations of the Helsinki Consultations, Online, available at http://www.osce.org/mc/40213[查看时间：2012.01.23]
②陈须隆：《欧安会/欧安组织与欧洲安全——区域安全合作的一种经验分析》,北京大学,学位论文,2001年,第24页。
③ Memorandum for the Record by the Assistant Secretary of State for European Affairs (Stoessel), April 19,1973, Foreign relations of the united states,1969-1976, volume ⅹⅹⅹⅸ, european security。 PS:http://hist ory.state.gov/historicaldocuments/frus 1969-76v39/d 141
④ Minutes of a Senior Review Group Meeting, May 14,1971, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P121
①[美]亨利·基辛格：《大外交》,海南出版社,1998年,第747页。
① Department of State Bulletin, July 23,1973, page 132.
① Memorandum From Secretary of State Rogers to President Nixon, June 28,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ,P498.
② Ibid.P499.
③ Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ.P517.
④ Brezhnev Excerpts, Special to The New York Times,New York Times (1923-Current file); Sep 20,1973; ProQuest Historical Newspapers, The New York Times (1851-2008),pg.11
① Message From Soviet General Secretary Brezhnev to President Nixon, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P537.
② Memorandum of Conversation February 4,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P540.
③ Ibid,P546.
④越南战争的失败加剧了美国经济衰退的步伐,尼克松决定迅速协调与西欧盟国的关系,重新建立以美国为领导的大西洋联盟。1973年4月23日,基辛格在纽约举行的美联社编辑年会上发表重要讲话,宣布1973年是“欧洲年”。基辛格建议美国和西欧拟订新的大西洋宪章,陈述共同的目标,双方在防务、贸易和东西方关系上协调各自的政策。但是,西欧各国对此反应冷漠。尼克松欧洲政策严重受挫。
⑤对此尼克松时期美国外交决策的分析,可参见Asaf Siniver的新著Nixon, Kissinger, and U.S. Foreign Policy Making, Cambridge University Press,2011一书,该书从尼克松-基辛格时期几次重要的危机处理为例子,分析 美国这一时期外交政策决策管理形式,包括国家安全委员会只能在决策中的作用个,可以清晰的了解尼克松时期决策模式的变化,此外Wilfrid L. Kohl, The Nixon-Kissinger Foreign Policy System and U. S.-Europe Relations, World Politics Vol.28, No.1 (Oct.,1975), pp.1-43对尼克松基辛格的对外政策体系以及美欧关系进行了详细的论述；夏亚峰在《试析尼克松当局对外政策决策机制、过程及主要人员》中分析了尼克松当局对外政策的决策机制,可以对此问题进行深入了解。
①对这一问题的研究,可参见Jussi M.Hanhimaki 的'They Can Write it in Swahili':Kissinger, the Soviets, and the Helsinki Accords,1973-75, Transatlantic Studies, Volume 1, Supplement 1,2003。在这里,作者认为基辛格是一个“不情愿的贡献者(Reluctant Contributor)”在1975年春天,基辛格在促进葛罗米柯接受更多的妥协方面做出了重要贡献。在Jeremi Suri的Henry Kissinger and the Reconceptualization of European Security,1969-75 。文中,他认为基辛格在欧安会问题上与欧洲之间的分歧,很大程度是是由六十年代美欧在欧洲安全观念重塑过程中形成的。
② Memorandum of Conversation, October 10,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P522.
③ Ibid, P523.
① Minutes of Secretary of State Kissinger's Staff Meeting, October 29,1973, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P526.
② Memorandum of Conversation, August 15,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P713.
③ Memorandum of Conversation,August 28,1974, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P717.
④ Minutes of Secretary of State Kissinger's Staff Meeting,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume ⅩⅩⅩⅨ, P506.
①[美1约翰·加迪斯：《遏制战略：战后美国国家安全政策评析》,世界知识出版社,2005年,第334页。
②Memorandum of Conversation,June 30,1973,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,volumeXXXIx,P502.
③Editorial Note,Foreign Relations,1969-1976,Volume XXXIX,P506.
① Editorial Note, Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX,P843.
② Sarah b. Snyder, "Jerry, Don't Go":Domestic Opposition to the 1975 Helsinki Final Act, Journal of American Studies,44(2010),1,67-81.
③ Telegram From the Mission in Geneva to the Department of State. July 21,1975,Foreign Relations,1969-1976, Volume XXXIX, P918.
④ Jerry, Don't Go, Wall Street Journal (1923-Current file); Jul 23,1975;ProQuest Historical Newspapers:The Wall Street Journal (1889-1991) pg.14.
⑤ Super Yalta, William Safire New York Times (1923-Current file); Jul 28,1975; ProQuest Historical Newspapers: The New York Times (1851-2007) pg.21.
⑥ Super Yalta By William Safire New York Times (1923-Current file); Jul 28,1975; ProQuest Historical Newspapers:The New York Times (1851-2007) pg.21.
⑦ Gerald R.Ford, A time to Heal:The Autobiography of Gerald R. Ford, P300-02.
① Daniel C. Thomas, The Helsinki Effect:International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism, Princeton University Press,2001.
① Vojtech Mastny, Helsinki, human rights, and European security:analysis and documentation, Durham,1986.
①Ibid,P397.
② Ibid,P398.
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