货币国际化影响因素的实证研究
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摘要
自牙买加体系建立以来,美元依托强大的实体经济和发达的金融市场,并凭借其原有的国际优势地位继续充当国际货币体系中的主导货币。作为一种信用货币,美元长期受到人们的青睐,缘自于诸多内部和外部因素的共同作用。但随着国际金融市场频繁的汇率波动,这种美元本位的国际货币体系对世界经济稳定也产生了一定的负面影响,金融危机开始频发。尤其是1997年的亚洲金融危机和最近美国次贷危机引发的全球性金融危机,使得各国经济受到了严重的打击,其严重程度也超出了人们的预期。而金融危机频发并给各国带来较大冲击的一个重要原因即是美联储通常以美国的利益为准则而忽视其他国家的利益,仅从本国经济的内部均衡角度出发制定相关货币政策,使大多数国家在国际货币体系中处于被动地位而遭受损失。也因此使各界对美元的质疑之声迭起,人们也开始更多地思考美元的“霸权”之路究竟还能走多远,能否建立一种新的国际货币体系来解决“美元本位制”的一系列问题。但世界经济的客观现实决定了美元主导地位的动摇还将经历一个漫长的过程。尽管如此,各国也想方设法减少美国的经济政策及美元的信用降低给本国带来的负面冲击。其中推进本国(区域)的货币国际化成为了很多国家(经济体)的重要战略举措。
     目前,欧元依然是位列于美元之后的主要国际货币,欧元区也在推进欧元国际化方面做出了不懈努力。但随着欧洲主权债务危机的爆发和扩散,欧元区经济成长的前景也蒙上了一层阴霾。这场连锁危机导致了欧元的弱势,为欧元重新恢复往日的辉煌增加了很大的不确定性;日本自上世纪九十年代至今经济长期萎靡不振,日元在国际货币体系中的影响力仍然相对微弱,也令日元的前景变得十分黯淡。
     毫无疑问,当前发达国家(经济体)的经济形势确为人民币国际地位的提升提供了一个契机,促使中国在人民币国际化方面的政策取向逐渐浮出水面。面对当前国际风起云涌、变幻莫测的种种形势,中国必须在各领域提升自身实力,以增强抵御风险的能力。其中为消除各国(经济体)的经济波动对本国各产品市场尤其是金融市场的影响,长期来看,加快推进人民币国际化是必然的选择,也是无奈的选择。如果人民币能够国际化,那么必定会有一部分对外经济交易将以人民币结算,减少汇率波动风险,同时也可以降低大规模美元外汇储备所构成的潜在风险。然而如何顺利有效地推动人民币走向世界,需要我们总结货币国际化的重要条件,探寻主要货币的国际化规律,为人民币国际化提供可借鉴的经验。在这个过程中,我们需要解决三个关键性问题:首先,影响一国货币国际化的因素有哪些;各种因素的作用是如何发挥的。其次,对于在位的国际货币而言,在其国际化过程中是否存在外溢现象;如果存在,其在推进货币国际化过程中的作用机理如何。最后,这种外溢效应的作用是如何扩展的,其是否会长期发挥作用。为解决这些问题,本论文通过理论与实证分析对货币国际化的有关影响因素及外溢效应进行充分的阐述与论证。
     为更深入的分析并解决上述问题,本论文首先对与货币国际化相关的基础理论进行了较系统的分析:在对货币的含义、职能和性质进行初步介绍的基础上,对国际货币的概念、性质及特点进行了简单阐释,并对货币国际化的内涵进行剖析与界定,为后文的相关研究做出铺垫;对货币国际化的影响因素进行了较全面的理论分析,为后文进行实证研究提供了一定依据和价值判断的标准,也有利于进行比较分析。对主要货币国际化的历史经验进行具体分析,总结这些货币国际化进程中的影响因素,在为后文实证分析奠定基础的同时,也为中国推进人民币国际化提供可借鉴的经验,并吸取有些货币国际化失败或受阻的教训。
     在上述理论研究的基础上,本论文通过对美元、日元、欧元国际化的影响因素进行分国别(地区)的实证研究:第一,对美元区位分布的直接影响因素及网络外部性进行实证分析。这部分主要是对美元在不同历史时期充当国际货币的地位及其变化展开了分析,而后针对这种当前世界上最主要的国际货币,通过建立静态、动态和空间计量模型来实证分析影响其地位变化的相关因素,并尝试分析网络外部性在推进其国际货币功能升级方面所发挥的重要作用。最终所得到的结果表明,市场国(地区)与美国的实际进出口贸易额越大或其外汇市场越发达,该市场对美元的需求量越大,美元在该市场的地位越高;而市场国(地区)前一期的双边汇率波动程度增大,各市场中人们会有增持美元的动机。同时各市场中实际货币交易量的前期历史值越大,人们越青睐于持有美元,在该市场美元的地位就越高。这一结论亦证实了网络外部性效应所发挥的重要作用。此外,在对美元国际地位变化影响因素的分析中发现,美元的国际使用会通过双边贸易而产生空间溢出效应,并且这种溢出效应在地区间形成了互补关系。也就是说各国(地区)同美国的贸易聚集激发了其更偏好于使用美元。第二,对日元国际化的直接影响因素及网络外部性进行实证研究。这部分首先是通过对各方面数据和相关图表进行分析来初步介绍日元国际化的程度及其变动趋势,进而掌握日元国际化的进程及有关情况。其次,针对日元国际化的情况,选取合适的指标来反映其国际地位的变化,通过建立静态、动态和空间面板模型来实证考察影响其地位变化的相关因素,并把反映网络外部性的相关指标加入到模型中予以分析。实证结果反映出,市场国(地区)双边汇率波动程度及前期历史值对日元的国际地位产生了正面影响,即双边汇率波动程度增大,人们会有增持日元的动机;市场国(地区)与日本的实际双边贸易额越大或其外汇市场越发达,该市场越偏好于使用日元作为交易货币,在该国日元的影响力越强;同时各市场中实际货币交易量的前期历史值越大,人们越偏好于使用日元交易,在该市场日元的地位就越高。在这种情况下,日元国际化过程中就存在着网络溢出效应。此外,一国外汇市场的发达程度,会对周边经济体使用日元的偏好产生积极作用力。这反映出日元国际化过程中通过市场国金融市场发达程度而产生空间溢出效应。也就是金融市场越发达的国家在增加使用日元的同时可以带动周边国家对日元的需求量,相反情况下对日元的需求量就会降低。第三,对欧元国际化的直接影响因素及网络外部性进行实证检验。这部分首先介绍了货币国际化与区域化的相关理论,加深了我们对货币区域化相关问题的认识。其次,阐述了区域性货币的相关基础理论,对当前主要的区域性货币—欧元的现实发展状况进行了分析和讨论。随后,通过对时序数据进行实证检验来考察欧元国际化的内在影响因素,分析得到如果欧元区内各国的财政赤字率越趋于一致时,人们就越乐于持有欧元,其国际地位也就越高。反之,其国际地位就越低。另外,前一期区内国家间的贸易往来越密切,欧元就越能被广泛接受,其国际化水平也就越高;相反,其国际地位就会降低。也就是区内国家间的贸易联系程度对欧元国际化的影响可能存在时滞性。最后,通过建立静态、动态和空间面板模型对欧元国际化的相关影响因素进行了实证分析,结果得到,市场国(地区)的货币同欧元的双边汇率波动程度增大,人们会有增持欧元的动机。而一国的外汇市场发达程度以及同欧元区的实际双边贸易额对欧元在各国的交易量大小均产生积极的影响。同时各市场中实际货币交易量的前期历史值越大,在该市场欧元越受到人们的欢迎,对其需求量也随之提高。这一结论证实了网络外部性在欧元国际化过程中存在正反馈效应。另外,当欧元充当交易货币时,其在各国间也发生了空间溢出效应,并且这种空间溢出效应是通过双边贸易而产生的。换言之,各国(地区)同欧元区的贸易聚集激发了其更倾向于使用欧元交易。
     在对前面几种主要国际货币进行研究的同时,本论文还对人民币国际化的影响因素进行了初步的实证分析。这部分主要是在对人民币国际化的进程及现状进行分析的基础上,针对处于初始国际化阶段的人民币,通过建立二元离散选择模型,利用实证分析手段,探讨了其在境外被使用的影响因素,具体的结果反映出:中国与他国的双边贸易额越高,人民币在国外流通的可能性越大;一国外债负担越重,其国民持有人民币的可能性越大;人均GDP和两国间的地理距离也对人民币的境外流通产生了一定程度的影响。可以推得,一国距离中国越近并且其人均GDP越低,对人民币的认可度越高,也就是人民币在其本国流通的可能性越大。
     本论文的最后一部分主要是采用将多种货币纳入到同一个经济系统中,分别通过建立不同的实证分析框架来对货币国际化的影响因素、网络外部性进行考察。这部分首先是基于货币的储备职能、将多种货币纳入到同一个非平衡面板模型中,实证分析了影响货币国际化的有关重要因素。结果表明,一国国际贸易相对规模和债券交易额均在其货币国际化中起到了关键性作用。并且一国的国际贸易规模和债券交易额越大,该国货币越容易被接受,人们会增加对该货币的需求量;反之,该国货币亦难以成为被人们所广泛接受的货币。其后,基于货币的交易媒介职能、对国际货币交易之相关理论分析中的假设条件进行放松,通过把多种货币引入到三维货币交换数组中并建立相应的计量模型,对货币国际化的相关影响因素进行实证分析,得到的结论是,货币发行国与市场国的双边贸易规模越大,该国货币在市场国流通的可能性就越大;两国间地理距离对既定货币在某国的流通量具有反向的作用力;同样,货币市场利率和长期利率对事件的发生也产生了反向影响,也就是货币市场利率和长期利率降低,货币的国际地位就会提高;而GDP和人均GDP规模扩大会推动货币国际化向前发展。最后,以亚洲区域为例,把多种国际货币整合起来,通过构建理论与计量模型并进行实证检验,得到货币国际化网络外部性的存在。同时结合相图分析可以判断,当前主要国际货币存在着持久性效应。另外,借助于相图分析也更为直观地观察到货币使用的网络外部性与持久性效应的作用机理。
Since the establishment of the Jamaica system, the US dollar still maintained its dominant status inthe International monetary system based on its large size of real sector and its highly developedfinancial markets. As a credit currency, the US dollar’s attractiveness to the market depended on manydomestic and international factors, but this “Dollar Standard System” had also caused some negativeeffects, and there occurred more financial crises gobally. Especially the Asian financial crisis in1997and the recent global financial crisis had made serious shocks on the related economies. And one of themain causes of these negative effects is that the Federal Reserves in the US always made their dicisionsbased exeptly on the US interests, and ignored the other countries’ interests, this made other countriessuffered from the passive status in the international monetary system. Just because of this, thereemerged questions about the status of the US dollar, more and more people began to think about thefuture of the hegemony of the US dollar, and the possibility of a new international monetary system.But the reality of the world economy means that the shaking of the dominant status of the US dollarwould take a very long time. So, the other countries began to find other ways to reduce the negativeeffects of the current Dollar Standard, and among which the improvement of local currencyinternationalization is a important way.
     Currently, the Euro is still a main international currency after the US dollar, and the Euro Area hasmade constant efforts to promote the international use of the Euro. But after the European sovereigndebt crisis, the future of the economic growth of the Euro Area is not very positive, and the crisiscaused the weakness of the Euro, and increased the uncertainty of the future of the Euro. And the weakperformance of the Japanese economy also made people to take a dim view of the future of theJapanese Yen in the international monetary system.
     No doubt, the current economic situation in the developed countries provided a new opportunityfor the rise of the international status of the RMB, and made Chinese government to take the initiave topromote the internationalization of the RMB. Faced with the uncertainties of the current situation of the world economy, China must improve the capability to deal with the risks, and to diminishing the effectsof the flucuationes in other economies on domestic market,especially the domestic financial market, topromote the internationalization of the RMB is a necessary choice in the long run. If the RMB isinternationalized, then we can use it in the settlement of international trade to reduce the exchange raterisks, and can reduce the potential risks of holding large size of the US dollar denominated reserves.But to improve the process of the RMB internationalization successfully and effectively, we need tofind the important pre-conditions for the currency internationalization, to find the regular patterns of thecurrency internationalization, so we can get some useful implications for the RMB internationalization.In this work, we need to answer3key questions: the first, which are the main affecting factors ofcurrency internationalization, the how these factors works; the second, for current internationalcurrencies, is there a spillover effect in its internationalization process, and if there is, what’s the resultof this effect on the currency’s international status; and the third, how this spillover effect developed,and whether it will play a long term role. To answer these questions, this thesis made sufficienttheoretical and empirical studies on the factors affecting currency internationalization and the spillovereffects.
     Firstly, the thesis made a systemic discussion about the the onceptions and theories related withcurrency internationalization: based on the introduction of the conception, the functions and the natureof currency, the thesis made a discussion on the conception, the nature and the characters of theinternational currency, and difined the conception of currency internationalization, thus made thebackground for following research. Then the thesis made a comprehensive theoretical discussion andanalysis on the factors affecting currency internationalization, provided a set of cretirias for thefollowing empirical studies, and it also helped the following comparative analysis. Then, the thesissummarized the historical experiences of the internationalization processes of the main currencies, alsoto provide a background for the following discussions and to draw some lessons for the current effortsof RMB internationalizaition.
     Based on the theoretical discussion described above, the thesis performed a series of empiricalstudies to determine the factors affecting the internationalization of the US dollar, the Japanese Yen andthe Euro. First, determinants and spatial spillover effect affecting the geographical distribution of USDwere empirically examined. In this part, the thesis analyzed the changing status of the US dollar acting as an international currency in different historical periods, and then we performed a static panel model,a dynamic panel model and a spatial panel data model to analyze the determinants and net externalityaffecting the US dollar’s leadership in currency market. The results showed that countries’ level ofdevelopment of foreign exchange market and their actual trade volume with USA are the factorspositively affecting the international distribution of the US dollar,and we found that countries sharinghigher bilateral exchange rate volatility with the US dollar would hold more USD. In addition, foreignexchange market trading volume in the last period also is a powerful driver of the US dollar leadership.It means that the larger foreign exchange market trading volume in the last period, the more possibilityUSD can be accepted in a given market. The evidence thus leads to conclusion that net externality actas an important determinant of USD’s internationalization. We also found the actual trade volume ofneighboring countries with USA also positively affect the using of the US dollar in a given market.These findings indicated that there would be a spatial spillover effect affecting the geographicaldistribution of USD and this effect may be achieved through international trade. Secondly, weempirically analyzed the direct influencing factors and net externality of the Japanese Yeninternationalization. Following the introduction for the status of Yen internationalization, weconstructed a series of panel data models to analyze the determinants and net externality affecting Yeninternationalization. The results told us, bilateral exchange rate volatility, development of foreignexchange market and the actual trade volume with Japan are positive factors influencing Yeninternationalization. Foreign exchange market trading volume in the last period also is a powerfuldriver of Yen internationalization. It means that the larger foreign exchange market trading volume inthe last period, the more possibility Yen can be accepted in a given market, indicating net externalityacts as an important determinant of Yen internationalization. In addition, we found countries with moredeveloped foreign exchange market raised the possibility of Yen acception in its neighboring countries,suggesting there would be a spatial spillover effect affecting Yen internationalization. Determinants andnet externality of Euro internationalization were also empirically analyzed. Based on the introductionof theories on currency internationalization and regionalization, we discussed the international status ofEuro, which is the major regional currency in the world. And then we empirically analyzed the internalfactors influencing Euro internationalization based on a set of time-series data. The results showed thatEuro zone's fiscal deficit volatility largely reduced the internationalization of Euro. And we found larger trading volume among countries of Euro zone in the last period would increase the degree ofEuro internationalization. A series of panel data models were further constructed to analyze the factorsaffecting the degree of Euro internationalization. We found that countries sharing higher bilateralexchange rate volatility with Euro had higher possibility of holding Euro and, development of foreignexchange market and the actual trade volume with Euro zone are positive factors influencing Eurointernationalization. Foreign exchange market trading volume in the last period also is a powerfuldriver of Euro internationalization. Additionally, we found there would be a spatial spillover effectaffecting Euro internationalization and this effect was achieved through international trade.
     In this thesis, factors affecting RMB internationalization (or regionalization) were also empiricallyanalyzed. Based on the introduction of the status of RMB regionalization, we performed a binarydiscrete choice model to analyze the determinants of RMB’s internationalization in the Asian market.The result told us that trading volume with China, debt burden, GDP per capita and distance areimportant determinants of RMB circulation in a given country. Larger trading volume with China anddebt burden can increase the possibility of RMB circulation in a given country. In contrast, RMB caneasily be accepted in a country with lower GDP per capita and short distance with China.
     In the last part of this thesis, the author tried to put multiple currencies to a same economic systemto analyze the determinants and net externality of currency internationalization. As the first step, anunbalanced panel model was constructed based on a multiple-currencies data set to analyze the factorsinfluencing the reserve function of international currencies. The result showed that amount ofinternational trade transactions and bond trading volumes are important factors influencing the reservefunction of international currencies. Furthermore, we empirically analyzed the factors influencing theexchange function of international currencies based on a three-dimensional matrix for currencyexchanging. We found that bilateral trade share would play important role in the process of currencyinternalization. With other conditions remaining unchanged, countries sharing more trading volumewith the currency country would prefer to use this currency.
引文
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