鸡皮明胶的制备及性质研究
|
摘要
胶原(Collagen)主要存在于动物的皮、骨、软骨、牙齿、肌腱、韧带和血管中，它是动物体内含量最多的蛋白质，占体内蛋白质总重的25％-30％。一般按胶原的所在组织可将胶原分为皮胶原、骨胶原、齿胶原等。胶原是高分子化合物，其相对分子量一般是30万。
明胶(Gelatin)是从胶原转化生成的一种亲水性的凝胶物质。胶原分子表面的侧基能与水分子以氢键结合，发生膨胀。膨胀后的胶原加热到50℃以上时，水解成为水溶性的明胶。明胶在食品、医药、感光材料、纺织、化工、印染和其它工业上都有非常广泛的用途。
本研究项目以福建圣农实业有限公司提供的鸡皮为原料，采用酸法工艺制备一种新型明胶，探讨了提取条件对提胶得率及成品明胶的粘度、凝胶强度、透明度和色泽的影响，以确定明胶最优的制备工艺条件，并对明胶重要的理化性质进行表征，为鸡皮的合理利用和提高产品品质，提供了必要的科学依据。
鸡皮明胶的酸法制各工艺为：挑选新鲜冷冻鸡皮，经切割，盐酸浸泡，换酸数次后水力脱脂，水浴提胶，过滤，去除油脂，然后对胶液进行浓缩和干燥，即得到成品明胶。
采用酸法工艺对鸡皮原料进行前处理的实验表明，盐酸浓度3.5％，浸酸温度15℃，每隔6-8小时换同浓度的盐酸，浸酸4天，鸡皮膨胀率可以达到42％，同时能较好地保持鸡皮的新鲜度和鸡皮中蛋白质的理化性质。
研究结果表明：明胶制备过程中提胶条件对明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度及溶解性能产生重大影响。一般情况下，随着提胶温度的升高，时间延长，明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度等指标均发生不同程度的下降趋势。当提胶温度低于70℃，提胶时间不超过4h时，随温度升高、时间延长明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度等理化性质下降比较缓慢或变化不明显；但是当提胶温度超过75℃，提胶时间大于5h时，明胶的理化性质将会发生明显变化，表现为粘度大幅度下降(70℃提胶4h，明胶粘度为550s，80℃提胶8h，明胶粘度降低为348s)，且明胶色泽变黄、变暗(1.5％的胶液于450nm处的吸光值从0.41上升至0.80)，胶液出
现不均匀的细小悬浮状颗粒，导致明胶透明度变差(1 .5%的胶液于630nm处的吸光值从0.37
上升至0.56)。
明胶的干燥温度对明胶的理化性质产生较大影响:干燥温度低于70℃时，明胶粘度下
降随干燥温度上升变化不明显;但干燥温度超过70℃时，明胶粘度急剧下降，当干燥温度
从70℃上升到105℃时1 .5%的明胶胶液粘度将从5505下降到4285。此外，明胶的干燥温
度还将对明胶的溶解时间和冻点产生影响:当干燥温度低于90℃时，干燥温度对明胶的溶
解时间和冻点几乎毫无影响，但是当干燥温度从90℃上升到105℃时，明胶的溶解时间大
大延长(浓度为2.既的明胶胶液的溶解时间将从20min延长到38min)，同时明胶的冻点
也上升了(从26℃上升到30℃)。
通过实验确定最适提胶条件:PH 4.7一5.0，提胶温度60℃，提胶时间3h。明胶得率
较高，且明胶色泽浅白，透明度较高(1.溅明胶溶液在450nm、630nm的吸光值分别为0.167
和 0.374)，其凝胶强度可达到2589，1.5%的胶液于25℃下，勃氏粘度可达到4505。
本论文采用SDS一PAGE电泳法和等电聚焦法研究鸡皮明胶蛋白分子量、等电点分布况
状，实验结果表明:鸡皮明胶主要由两种蛋白组成，分子量分别为30000和26000，其等
电点分别为8.8和9.0。
本实验以肉鸡加工中鸡皮为原料生产明胶，不仅解决了资源浪费和环境污染问题，同
时提供了一条以鸡皮为原料生产药用明胶和食用明胶的新途径，开发新的资源代替牛皮、
牛骨及猪皮、猪骨。
Collage exists mainly in the skin, the bone, the cartilage, the tooth, the muscle, the ligament and the blood vessel of the animals, and it is the most content protein which accouts for 25%-30% of the protein gross weight According to the distributing, collage is commonly classified three kinds: skin collage, bone collage and the tooth collage. Collage is the macromolecule, and the molecule weight are 300 thousand approximately.
Gelatin is a kind of hydrophilic pastern matter translated from the collage. The side radicals on the surface of collage will combine water with the hydrogen bond, then expand. When heap up the expanded collage to above 50"C, it will hydrolyze , and turn into water-dissovle gelatin which can be used in food, medicine, sensitive matter, chemical industry, printing, drying and other areas widely.
This research item prepare a new kind of gelatin adopted the acid technics using the chicken skin which are provided by Fujian Shengnong Industry Ltd., discuss the infections on the gain rate, the viscosity, the gel intension, the transparency, the color and luster, so as to make certain the optimization conditions and some important physics and chemistry characters are measurated in order to make good use of the abandon chicken skin.
The acid technics for preparation gelatin from chicken skin as followed: pick out the fresh freezing chicken skin, cut into slice, dip into given concentration hydrochloric acid, then hydraulic degrease after several replace the same concentration hydrochloric acid, add some water to distill the gelatin with water-bath, filtrate the gel and remove the grease in it, finally, concentrate and evaporation the water to gain the finished-product gelatin.
The former disposal experiment indicates: the expand rate achieves 42%, at the same time the chicken skin can keep the freshness and protect the protein in it
This paper discuss the affection that the distill conditions on the viscosity, the color and luster, the transparency and the dissolve capability. Commonly, many characteristic qualities of gelatin will descend with the distill temperature ascends and the durative time prolongs. Experiments indicate: the qualities declines are unobvious or the declines are slow with the distill temperature below 70 C and the durative time are less than 4h, but when the temperature exceeds 75 C and the time prolongs more than 5h, the quality changes are obvious, such as, the viscosity decline in great extent, the color turn into yellow and dark, many small suspend appear, which leads to the transparency becomes bad.
Moreover, the dry temperature also effect the gelatin qualities: the viscosity descends unobvious while the dry temperature ascend, but the viscosity will sharply descend for the dry temperature exceeds 70 C, when the temperature ascends from 70 C to 105 C, the viscosity will descends from 550s to 428s with the thickness 1.5%. At the same time, the dry temperature also effect the gelatin dissolve time and the solidification point: when the dry temperature below 90 C, the temperature hardly effects the dissolve tune and the solidification, whereas the dissolve time will prolong greatly (from 20min to 38min with the thickness 2.0%), and the solidification
point also ascends (from 26 C to30 C).
With experiment, the paper make certain the optimize of the distill condition as followed: pH4.7-5.0, the distill temperature 60 C, the distill time 3.0h. With this condition, the gain rate high relatively, and the gelatin white and transparent (the absorbency is 0.167, 0.374 with the wavelength 450nm,630nm and the thickness 1.5%), the bloom value attains 258g and the viscosity attains 450s (the thickness is 1.5%).
The SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and the EEF methods are applied in this paper to analyse the protein molecular weight and the IP of the chicken skin gelatin. Research indicates: two kinds of protein compose the gelatin protein, and their molecular weight are 30,000 and 26,000, the IP are 8.7 and 8.9 differently.
In this paper, we prepare gelatin using the abandoned chick
明胶(Gelatin)是从胶原转化生成的一种亲水性的凝胶物质。胶原分子表面的侧基能与水分子以氢键结合，发生膨胀。膨胀后的胶原加热到50℃以上时，水解成为水溶性的明胶。明胶在食品、医药、感光材料、纺织、化工、印染和其它工业上都有非常广泛的用途。
本研究项目以福建圣农实业有限公司提供的鸡皮为原料，采用酸法工艺制备一种新型明胶，探讨了提取条件对提胶得率及成品明胶的粘度、凝胶强度、透明度和色泽的影响，以确定明胶最优的制备工艺条件，并对明胶重要的理化性质进行表征，为鸡皮的合理利用和提高产品品质，提供了必要的科学依据。
鸡皮明胶的酸法制各工艺为：挑选新鲜冷冻鸡皮，经切割，盐酸浸泡，换酸数次后水力脱脂，水浴提胶，过滤，去除油脂，然后对胶液进行浓缩和干燥，即得到成品明胶。
采用酸法工艺对鸡皮原料进行前处理的实验表明，盐酸浓度3.5％，浸酸温度15℃，每隔6-8小时换同浓度的盐酸，浸酸4天，鸡皮膨胀率可以达到42％，同时能较好地保持鸡皮的新鲜度和鸡皮中蛋白质的理化性质。
研究结果表明：明胶制备过程中提胶条件对明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度及溶解性能产生重大影响。一般情况下，随着提胶温度的升高，时间延长，明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度等指标均发生不同程度的下降趋势。当提胶温度低于70℃，提胶时间不超过4h时，随温度升高、时间延长明胶的粘度、色泽、透明度等理化性质下降比较缓慢或变化不明显；但是当提胶温度超过75℃，提胶时间大于5h时，明胶的理化性质将会发生明显变化，表现为粘度大幅度下降(70℃提胶4h，明胶粘度为550s，80℃提胶8h，明胶粘度降低为348s)，且明胶色泽变黄、变暗(1.5％的胶液于450nm处的吸光值从0.41上升至0.80)，胶液出
现不均匀的细小悬浮状颗粒，导致明胶透明度变差(1 .5%的胶液于630nm处的吸光值从0.37
上升至0.56)。
明胶的干燥温度对明胶的理化性质产生较大影响:干燥温度低于70℃时，明胶粘度下
降随干燥温度上升变化不明显;但干燥温度超过70℃时，明胶粘度急剧下降，当干燥温度
从70℃上升到105℃时1 .5%的明胶胶液粘度将从5505下降到4285。此外，明胶的干燥温
度还将对明胶的溶解时间和冻点产生影响:当干燥温度低于90℃时，干燥温度对明胶的溶
解时间和冻点几乎毫无影响，但是当干燥温度从90℃上升到105℃时，明胶的溶解时间大
大延长(浓度为2.既的明胶胶液的溶解时间将从20min延长到38min)，同时明胶的冻点
也上升了(从26℃上升到30℃)。
通过实验确定最适提胶条件:PH 4.7一5.0，提胶温度60℃，提胶时间3h。明胶得率
较高，且明胶色泽浅白，透明度较高(1.溅明胶溶液在450nm、630nm的吸光值分别为0.167
和 0.374)，其凝胶强度可达到2589，1.5%的胶液于25℃下，勃氏粘度可达到4505。
本论文采用SDS一PAGE电泳法和等电聚焦法研究鸡皮明胶蛋白分子量、等电点分布况
状，实验结果表明:鸡皮明胶主要由两种蛋白组成，分子量分别为30000和26000，其等
电点分别为8.8和9.0。
本实验以肉鸡加工中鸡皮为原料生产明胶，不仅解决了资源浪费和环境污染问题，同
时提供了一条以鸡皮为原料生产药用明胶和食用明胶的新途径，开发新的资源代替牛皮、
牛骨及猪皮、猪骨。
Collage exists mainly in the skin, the bone, the cartilage, the tooth, the muscle, the ligament and the blood vessel of the animals, and it is the most content protein which accouts for 25%-30% of the protein gross weight According to the distributing, collage is commonly classified three kinds: skin collage, bone collage and the tooth collage. Collage is the macromolecule, and the molecule weight are 300 thousand approximately.
Gelatin is a kind of hydrophilic pastern matter translated from the collage. The side radicals on the surface of collage will combine water with the hydrogen bond, then expand. When heap up the expanded collage to above 50"C, it will hydrolyze , and turn into water-dissovle gelatin which can be used in food, medicine, sensitive matter, chemical industry, printing, drying and other areas widely.
This research item prepare a new kind of gelatin adopted the acid technics using the chicken skin which are provided by Fujian Shengnong Industry Ltd., discuss the infections on the gain rate, the viscosity, the gel intension, the transparency, the color and luster, so as to make certain the optimization conditions and some important physics and chemistry characters are measurated in order to make good use of the abandon chicken skin.
The acid technics for preparation gelatin from chicken skin as followed: pick out the fresh freezing chicken skin, cut into slice, dip into given concentration hydrochloric acid, then hydraulic degrease after several replace the same concentration hydrochloric acid, add some water to distill the gelatin with water-bath, filtrate the gel and remove the grease in it, finally, concentrate and evaporation the water to gain the finished-product gelatin.
The former disposal experiment indicates: the expand rate achieves 42%, at the same time the chicken skin can keep the freshness and protect the protein in it
This paper discuss the affection that the distill conditions on the viscosity, the color and luster, the transparency and the dissolve capability. Commonly, many characteristic qualities of gelatin will descend with the distill temperature ascends and the durative time prolongs. Experiments indicate: the qualities declines are unobvious or the declines are slow with the distill temperature below 70 C and the durative time are less than 4h, but when the temperature exceeds 75 C and the time prolongs more than 5h, the quality changes are obvious, such as, the viscosity decline in great extent, the color turn into yellow and dark, many small suspend appear, which leads to the transparency becomes bad.
Moreover, the dry temperature also effect the gelatin qualities: the viscosity descends unobvious while the dry temperature ascend, but the viscosity will sharply descend for the dry temperature exceeds 70 C, when the temperature ascends from 70 C to 105 C, the viscosity will descends from 550s to 428s with the thickness 1.5%. At the same time, the dry temperature also effect the gelatin dissolve time and the solidification point: when the dry temperature below 90 C, the temperature hardly effects the dissolve tune and the solidification, whereas the dissolve time will prolong greatly (from 20min to 38min with the thickness 2.0%), and the solidification
point also ascends (from 26 C to30 C).
With experiment, the paper make certain the optimize of the distill condition as followed: pH4.7-5.0, the distill temperature 60 C, the distill time 3.0h. With this condition, the gain rate high relatively, and the gelatin white and transparent (the absorbency is 0.167, 0.374 with the wavelength 450nm,630nm and the thickness 1.5%), the bloom value attains 258g and the viscosity attains 450s (the thickness is 1.5%).
The SDS-PAGE electrophoresis and the EEF methods are applied in this paper to analyse the protein molecular weight and the IP of the chicken skin gelatin. Research indicates: two kinds of protein compose the gelatin protein, and their molecular weight are 30,000 and 26,000, the IP are 8.7 and 8.9 differently.
In this paper, we prepare gelatin using the abandoned chick
引文
1．陈秀金，曹健．胶原蛋白和明胶在食品中的应用．郑州工程院学报，2002，23(1)：66-69。
2 金桂仙，陈丽娟，彭必先．胶原／明胶的结构(构象)与性能研究．感光科学与光化学，1994(12)1：11-16。
3 王师俊．明胶．化学世界，1991，2：49-55。
4．蒋挺大，张春萍．胶原蛋白．化学工业出版社，2001：2-5。
5. Edgar S. Lower. Gelatin Science and Technology.1986,6 (2): 64-73。
6．傅晓敏，陈丽娟，彭必先．明胶分子量分布测定和表征的研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(3)：113-117，14(4)：170-183。
7．陈丽娟，王彤．SDS-PAGE法分离和表征明胶中的不同构象．明胶科学与技术，1993，13(1)：17-28。
8．朱肇阳．凝胶型糖果：明胶及明胶软糖(上)。食品工业，1992，2：2-6。
9．彭必先，陈丽娟．从胶原到明胶．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(1)：1-11。
10．黄明智，缪进康等．明胶浓溶液表面张力的研究．齐齐哈尔轻学院学报，1991，7(4)：71-77。
11．汪多仁．明胶．东南化工信息，1998，7：38-41。
12. Han Qing Yu, Herbert H.EFang. Acidogenesis of gelatin-rich wastewater in an upflow anaerobic reactor, influence of pH and temperature. Water Research, 2003(37)1:55-66.
13. Juyeon Lim, Sangsuk Oh, K.Wang-Ok Kim. The effects of Processing Conditions on the Properties Chicen Feetgelatin.Food Science and Biotechnology,2001,10(6):638-645.
14．林艺忠．明胶的应用及生产．化学世界，1998，5：4-6。
15 徐文达．明胶在冰淇淋生产上的应用．明胶科学与技术，2001，12(3)：21-25。
16 Germany: New Measures to Combat BSE Focus on Safe Gelatin Production. World Food Regulation Review,2001,10(11) :7.
17 Huang-Chien Liang, Wen-Hsiang Chang, Ko-Jung Lin. Genipin-crosslinked Gelatin Microspheres as a Drug Carrier for Intramuscularadministration: In Vitro and in Vivo Studies. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2003, 65A: 271-282.
18 王显伦．凝聚法制备微胶囊技术研究．郑州粮食学院学报，1997，18(3)：29-34。
19 冷延国，黄明智．明胶微胶囊化技术研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1998，18(2)：57-65。
20 CE Quarterly List Published by the Journal of Mieroencap. Taylor and Francis, London.
21 Fender J.H. Photochenieal Solar Energy Conversion , an Assessment of Scientific Accomplish. Phys Chem, 1985,89(13):2730-2740.
22 Yoshoka J. Specific delivery of mitomyein to liver spleep and lung: Nano-and micropherieal carriers of gelatin. Int J Pharm, 1998, 81:131
23 Narayani.R., Int. J.Pharm. 1983,95(1-3):85-91
24 Cf. Quarterly List Published by the Journal of Microeneap. Taylor and Francis, London.
25 绀户朝治．微胶囊工艺学．轻工出版社，1989：34-35。
26 CP Stuff. Chem Companies Could Save Money Under Futures EPA Program. In the News, 2001,8:1-10.
27 谢昭然．我国食品添加剂工业现状及发展前景．中国化工信息，2002，11：1-12。
28 丁凤平．明胶酸法制胶工艺的研究．中国医药工业杂志，1991，22(10)：433-436。
29 丁凤平．单因素及正交试验法在酸法制备明胶中的应用．生化药物杂志，1991，4：29-34。
30 Fribourg. Proceedings of the Fifth lAG Conterenee. Photographic Gelatin, 1988,9:3-33.
31 P.Keopff, fourth Conference on Photogrtaphie Gelatin, Oxford, Sept., 1979, IAG Reports 1970-1982:197.
32 伊藤典一等．日写志．1988，51：490。
33 B.H.Tavernier, Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Conference. Sept ,1988,Fribourg.
34 T.Ohno, T.Ishikawa, H.Kobayashi, S.Mizusawa, Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Confrenee, Sept., 1988, Fribourg.
35 Bi-xian Peng, J.of Imaging Science and Technology, 1992,36(6):544.
36 M.Szues. Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Conference. Sept,1988, Frigbourg.
37 T.Kobayshi, et al., J.Phot. Sci., 1992, 40(5,6):152.
38 N.Iton, Papers from the fourth IAG Conference, Fribourg, 1983:144.
39 傅晓敏，陈丽娟，彭必先．明胶分子量分布测定和表征的研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(3)：113118，170-182．
40 J.L.Cheve. IAG Reports 1965-1979,1971:34.
41 岩本国治．写真工业基础：银盐写真篇．1979：124。
42 L.D.Brabandere, etal., Photographic Gelatin Ⅱ. Edited by R.J.Cox, Academic Press, 1976:335.
43 R.J.Rose, S.S.Suarey, J.L.Bronson, The fourth Conference on Photographic Gelatin, Oxford, 1979.
44 J.J.Steckert, D.L.Kramer, J.S.Brand, J.Phot. Sci., 1992,40(5-6):134.
45 C.R.Maxey, M.R.Palmer. Photographic Gelatin Ⅱ,1976:27.
46 Yuzo Toda. Papers from the Fourth IAG Conference:173, Fribourg, Sept. 1983.
47 Chen Li-juan, Jia Yan-ming, Peng Bi-xian. Ibid:150.
48 S.Aoyagi, Photographic Gelatin, Proceedings of the Fifth IAG Conference, Pt. Ⅰ :174, Fribourg, Sept., 1988.
49 CP Stuff. Chem Companies Could Save Money Under Futures EPA Program. In the News, 2001,8:1-10.
50 R.Hinterwaldnerr(德)．明胶技术进展．IAG学术会议宣读稿，1988，9。
51 姚龙坤，胡铭华，唐汉铃．开发酸法明胶，开拓国际市场．明胶科学与技术，1998，13(10)：85-88。
52 Fribourg. Proceedings of the Fifth IAG Conterence. Photographic Gelatin, 1988,9:3-33.
53 王师俊．关于明胶冻力的测定．明胶科学与技术．1998，18(2)：100-101。
54 朱洁，焦文荣．关于明胶冻力测定之已见．明胶科学与技术，1998，18(4)：209-211。
55 谷显均，刘素琴．提高明胶透明度的研究．明胶科学与技术，1993，13(4)：204-206。
56 李云龙。明胶的色泽。明胶科学与技术。1997，17(4)：206-207。
2 金桂仙，陈丽娟，彭必先．胶原／明胶的结构(构象)与性能研究．感光科学与光化学，1994(12)1：11-16。
3 王师俊．明胶．化学世界，1991，2：49-55。
4．蒋挺大，张春萍．胶原蛋白．化学工业出版社，2001：2-5。
5. Edgar S. Lower. Gelatin Science and Technology.1986,6 (2): 64-73。
6．傅晓敏，陈丽娟，彭必先．明胶分子量分布测定和表征的研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(3)：113-117，14(4)：170-183。
7．陈丽娟，王彤．SDS-PAGE法分离和表征明胶中的不同构象．明胶科学与技术，1993，13(1)：17-28。
8．朱肇阳．凝胶型糖果：明胶及明胶软糖(上)。食品工业，1992，2：2-6。
9．彭必先，陈丽娟．从胶原到明胶．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(1)：1-11。
10．黄明智，缪进康等．明胶浓溶液表面张力的研究．齐齐哈尔轻学院学报，1991，7(4)：71-77。
11．汪多仁．明胶．东南化工信息，1998，7：38-41。
12. Han Qing Yu, Herbert H.EFang. Acidogenesis of gelatin-rich wastewater in an upflow anaerobic reactor, influence of pH and temperature. Water Research, 2003(37)1:55-66.
13. Juyeon Lim, Sangsuk Oh, K.Wang-Ok Kim. The effects of Processing Conditions on the Properties Chicen Feetgelatin.Food Science and Biotechnology,2001,10(6):638-645.
14．林艺忠．明胶的应用及生产．化学世界，1998，5：4-6。
15 徐文达．明胶在冰淇淋生产上的应用．明胶科学与技术，2001，12(3)：21-25。
16 Germany: New Measures to Combat BSE Focus on Safe Gelatin Production. World Food Regulation Review,2001,10(11) :7.
17 Huang-Chien Liang, Wen-Hsiang Chang, Ko-Jung Lin. Genipin-crosslinked Gelatin Microspheres as a Drug Carrier for Intramuscularadministration: In Vitro and in Vivo Studies. Journal of Biomedical Materials Research. 2003, 65A: 271-282.
18 王显伦．凝聚法制备微胶囊技术研究．郑州粮食学院学报，1997，18(3)：29-34。
19 冷延国，黄明智．明胶微胶囊化技术研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1998，18(2)：57-65。
20 CE Quarterly List Published by the Journal of Mieroencap. Taylor and Francis, London.
21 Fender J.H. Photochenieal Solar Energy Conversion , an Assessment of Scientific Accomplish. Phys Chem, 1985,89(13):2730-2740.
22 Yoshoka J. Specific delivery of mitomyein to liver spleep and lung: Nano-and micropherieal carriers of gelatin. Int J Pharm, 1998, 81:131
23 Narayani.R., Int. J.Pharm. 1983,95(1-3):85-91
24 Cf. Quarterly List Published by the Journal of Microeneap. Taylor and Francis, London.
25 绀户朝治．微胶囊工艺学．轻工出版社，1989：34-35。
26 CP Stuff. Chem Companies Could Save Money Under Futures EPA Program. In the News, 2001,8:1-10.
27 谢昭然．我国食品添加剂工业现状及发展前景．中国化工信息，2002，11：1-12。
28 丁凤平．明胶酸法制胶工艺的研究．中国医药工业杂志，1991，22(10)：433-436。
29 丁凤平．单因素及正交试验法在酸法制备明胶中的应用．生化药物杂志，1991，4：29-34。
30 Fribourg. Proceedings of the Fifth lAG Conterenee. Photographic Gelatin, 1988,9:3-33.
31 P.Keopff, fourth Conference on Photogrtaphie Gelatin, Oxford, Sept., 1979, IAG Reports 1970-1982:197.
32 伊藤典一等．日写志．1988，51：490。
33 B.H.Tavernier, Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Conference. Sept ,1988,Fribourg.
34 T.Ohno, T.Ishikawa, H.Kobayashi, S.Mizusawa, Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Confrenee, Sept., 1988, Fribourg.
35 Bi-xian Peng, J.of Imaging Science and Technology, 1992,36(6):544.
36 M.Szues. Photographic Gelatin-Proceedings of the 5th IAG Conference. Sept,1988, Frigbourg.
37 T.Kobayshi, et al., J.Phot. Sci., 1992, 40(5,6):152.
38 N.Iton, Papers from the fourth IAG Conference, Fribourg, 1983:144.
39 傅晓敏，陈丽娟，彭必先．明胶分子量分布测定和表征的研究进展．明胶科学与技术，1994，14(3)：113118，170-182．
40 J.L.Cheve. IAG Reports 1965-1979,1971:34.
41 岩本国治．写真工业基础：银盐写真篇．1979：124。
42 L.D.Brabandere, etal., Photographic Gelatin Ⅱ. Edited by R.J.Cox, Academic Press, 1976:335.
43 R.J.Rose, S.S.Suarey, J.L.Bronson, The fourth Conference on Photographic Gelatin, Oxford, 1979.
44 J.J.Steckert, D.L.Kramer, J.S.Brand, J.Phot. Sci., 1992,40(5-6):134.
45 C.R.Maxey, M.R.Palmer. Photographic Gelatin Ⅱ,1976:27.
46 Yuzo Toda. Papers from the Fourth IAG Conference:173, Fribourg, Sept. 1983.
47 Chen Li-juan, Jia Yan-ming, Peng Bi-xian. Ibid:150.
48 S.Aoyagi, Photographic Gelatin, Proceedings of the Fifth IAG Conference, Pt. Ⅰ :174, Fribourg, Sept., 1988.
49 CP Stuff. Chem Companies Could Save Money Under Futures EPA Program. In the News, 2001,8:1-10.
50 R.Hinterwaldnerr(德)．明胶技术进展．IAG学术会议宣读稿，1988，9。
51 姚龙坤，胡铭华，唐汉铃．开发酸法明胶，开拓国际市场．明胶科学与技术，1998，13(10)：85-88。
52 Fribourg. Proceedings of the Fifth IAG Conterence. Photographic Gelatin, 1988,9:3-33.
53 王师俊．关于明胶冻力的测定．明胶科学与技术．1998，18(2)：100-101。
54 朱洁，焦文荣．关于明胶冻力测定之已见．明胶科学与技术，1998，18(4)：209-211。
55 谷显均，刘素琴．提高明胶透明度的研究．明胶科学与技术，1993，13(4)：204-206。
56 李云龙。明胶的色泽。明胶科学与技术。1997，17(4)：206-207。