从认知心理角度看二语习得中的语言迁移
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摘要
近半个世纪的语言学界的研究表明语言迁移现象是不可回避的，而且它确实从某些方面影响了二语习得。(Ellis, 1994; Odlin, 1989)。语言迁移已经越来越成为许多语言学家和心理学家所共同关注的问题。近半个世纪的语言迁移研究已经取得了显著成就，然而，还有很多问题急待研究者的解决：(1)交际和学习迁移的区分问题；(2)两种语言的比较问题(Ellis, 1994: 340)；(3)怎样从理论上认识学习者如何以及何时受母语影响等问题。本文作者试图探讨的是第三个问题。基于Kellerman提出的心理类型(psychotypology)和典型性(prototypicality)(这里的心理类型其实质就是心理距离)理论以及另一个重要的基本理论：标记性理论(markedness theory)，作者建构了自己的理论框架，试图从认知心理角度来探讨语言迁移。
作者提出的理论框架侧重于学习者的心理类型和典型性的相互作用。由于学习者的心理类型随着其二语知识的积累而改变，这种相互作用构成了一个非常复杂的语言迁移过程。本文作者摄取了学习者初学某一语言项目这一横断面，试图从心理类型，典型性和标记性这三个方面对一些语言结构的迁移现象作相对静态的分析，从中找到一些规律性的东西。
为了证明这个理论框架的合理性，作者分析了中国学生学习英语时在某些句法结构方面的语言迁移现象。结果作者的分析证明了这一理论框架：对于某个语言点，当学习者的心理距离较远时，这个语言点就不会发生迁移或减少它在中介语中的使用甚至发生回避现象；当
学习者的心理距离较近时，会发生以下两种情况：（）当心理距离与
实际距离相一致时，将会发生该语言点的正迁移。Q）当心理距离与
实际距离不一致时，将会发生该语言点的负迁移即产生偏误。
Language transfer can have an important impact on second language acquisition (Ellis, 1994; Odlin, 1989). It has received more and more attention from researchers and teachers in this field. A review of the studies on language transfer shows that there have been considerable advances made in the study of language transfer. However, there are still a number of problems faced by transfer researchers: (1) the problem of how to distinguish communication and learning transfer, (2) the problem of how to compare two languages, (Ellis, 1992: 340) and (3) the theoretical understanding of how and when learners draw on their L1. The author of this thesis just attempts to probe into the third proble1m of language transfer. On the basis of Kellerman's theory of "prototypicality" and "psychotypology" and another basic and important theory: markedness theory, the author proposes her own theoretical framework so as to predict the language transfer from a cognitive and psychological perspective.
The framework proposed focuses on the interaction of learner's prototypicality and psychotypology. This interaction between psychotypology and prototypicality results in an extremely complex process, especially as learners' psychotypologies change with experience. The author focuses on the cases of learners who begin to learn certain language items, trying to decode the complex process in light of
pschotypology, prototypicality, and markedness theory.
In order to verify and validate the framework, the author analyzes language transfer in terms of some syntactic structures in context of Chinese students learning English as L2. The framework is supported by the analysis: in respect of certain linguistic property, when the psychotypology of learners is distant, there will be no transfer occurring on the one hand, and on the other hand there will be underproduction or even avoidance; when the psychotypology of learners is close, it will be divided into two cases. (1) When the psychotypology accords with the actual language distance, there will be positive transfer of the correspondent L1 item. (2) When the psychotypology differs from or even contradicts the actual language distance, there will be negative transfer of the correspondent L1 item.
作者提出的理论框架侧重于学习者的心理类型和典型性的相互作用。由于学习者的心理类型随着其二语知识的积累而改变，这种相互作用构成了一个非常复杂的语言迁移过程。本文作者摄取了学习者初学某一语言项目这一横断面，试图从心理类型，典型性和标记性这三个方面对一些语言结构的迁移现象作相对静态的分析，从中找到一些规律性的东西。
为了证明这个理论框架的合理性，作者分析了中国学生学习英语时在某些句法结构方面的语言迁移现象。结果作者的分析证明了这一理论框架：对于某个语言点，当学习者的心理距离较远时，这个语言点就不会发生迁移或减少它在中介语中的使用甚至发生回避现象；当
学习者的心理距离较近时，会发生以下两种情况：（）当心理距离与
实际距离相一致时，将会发生该语言点的正迁移。Q）当心理距离与
实际距离不一致时，将会发生该语言点的负迁移即产生偏误。
Language transfer can have an important impact on second language acquisition (Ellis, 1994; Odlin, 1989). It has received more and more attention from researchers and teachers in this field. A review of the studies on language transfer shows that there have been considerable advances made in the study of language transfer. However, there are still a number of problems faced by transfer researchers: (1) the problem of how to distinguish communication and learning transfer, (2) the problem of how to compare two languages, (Ellis, 1992: 340) and (3) the theoretical understanding of how and when learners draw on their L1. The author of this thesis just attempts to probe into the third proble1m of language transfer. On the basis of Kellerman's theory of "prototypicality" and "psychotypology" and another basic and important theory: markedness theory, the author proposes her own theoretical framework so as to predict the language transfer from a cognitive and psychological perspective.
The framework proposed focuses on the interaction of learner's prototypicality and psychotypology. This interaction between psychotypology and prototypicality results in an extremely complex process, especially as learners' psychotypologies change with experience. The author focuses on the cases of learners who begin to learn certain language items, trying to decode the complex process in light of
pschotypology, prototypicality, and markedness theory.
In order to verify and validate the framework, the author analyzes language transfer in terms of some syntactic structures in context of Chinese students learning English as L2. The framework is supported by the analysis: in respect of certain linguistic property, when the psychotypology of learners is distant, there will be no transfer occurring on the one hand, and on the other hand there will be underproduction or even avoidance; when the psychotypology of learners is close, it will be divided into two cases. (1) When the psychotypology accords with the actual language distance, there will be positive transfer of the correspondent L1 item. (2) When the psychotypology differs from or even contradicts the actual language distance, there will be negative transfer of the correspondent L1 item.
引文
[1] Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[2] Odlin, T. 1989. Language Transfer[M]. Cambridge University Press.
[3] Ellis,R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[4] Gass S. and Selinker L. 1992. Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.
[5] Kellerman, E. 1986. An eye for an eye: crosslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2 lexicon [A] in Kellerman and Sharwood Smith (eds.).
[6] Fries, C. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language[M]. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
[7] Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics 20.259-270.
[8] Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers[M]. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michiga.
[9] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974a."Natural sequences in child second language acquisition"[J]. Language Learning 24: 37-53.
[10] Hyltenstam, K. 1984. "The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisiton: the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses"[A] in Andersen (ed.)
[11] Eckman, F. 1977. "Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis"[J]. Language Learning 27:315-30
[12] Corder, S.P. 1992. A Role for the Mother Tongue [A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.19-45.
[13] Kellerman, E. 1979. "Transfer and non-transfer: where are we now?"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2:37-57.
[14] 陈月红，中国学生对英语关系从句的习得[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(4)：11-15．
[15] Alexander L．G．何其莘，新概念英语1[C]．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997．
[16] Celce-Murcia, Marianne & Larsen-Freeman, Diane, 1983. The Grammar Book [M]. Newbury House Publishers. Inc.
[17] Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1973. A University Grammar of English [M]. London: Longman Group Limited.
[1] Alexander L. G. 何其莘，新概念英语1[C]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997.
[2] Celce-Murcia, Marianne & Larsen-Freeman, Diane, 1983. The Grammar Book [M]. Newbury House Publishers. Inc.
[3] Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax[M]. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press.
[4] Croft, W. 1990. Typology and Universals[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[5] Corder, S.P. 1992. A Role for the Mother Tongue [A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.19-45.
[6] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974a."Natural sequences in child second language acquisition"[J]. Language Learning 24: 37-53.
[7] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974b. "A new perspective on the creative construction process in child second language acquisition"[J].Language Learning 24: 253-278.
[8] Eckman, F. 1977. "Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis"[J]. Language Learning 27:315-30
[9] Eckman, F. 1986. Markedness [C].New York: Plenum Press.
[10] Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[11] Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[12] Fries, C. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language[M]. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
[13] Gass S. and Selinker L. 1992. Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.
[14] Greenberg, W. 1966. Universals of Language (2~(nd) edition). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press.
[15] Gundel, J. & Tarone, E. 1992. Language Transfer and the Acquisition of Pronouns. [A] In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benj amins, p.87-100.
[16] Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics 20.259-270.
[17] Hyltenstam, K. 1984. "The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisiton: the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses"[A] in Andersen (ed.)
[18] Kellerman, E. 1977. "Towards a characterization of the strategies of transferin second language learning" [J]. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin2:58-145.
[19] Kellerman, E. 1978. "Giving learners a break: native language intuitions as a source of predictions about transferability" [J]. Working Papers on Bilingualism 15: 59-92.
[20] Kellerman, E. 1979. "Transfer and non-transfer: where are we now?"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2:37-57.
[21] Kellerman, E. 1983. Now you see it, now you don't [A] in Gass and Selinker (eds.).
[22] Kellerman, E. 1985. "Dative alternation and the analysis of data: a rely to Mazurkewich" Language Learning 35:91-106.
[23] Kellerman, E. 1986. An eye for an eye: crosslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2 lexicon [A] in Kellerman and Sharwood Smith (eds.).
[24] Kellerman, E. 1987. Aspects of transferability in second language acquisition[M].University of Nijmegen.
[25] Kellerman, E. 1989. The imperfect conditional [A]. in Hyltenstam and Obler (eds.).
[26] Kellerman, E. 1991. Compensatory strategies in second language research: a critique, a revision,and some (non-) implications for the classroom [A]. in Phillipson et al. (eds.).
[27] Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning[M]. Oxford: Pergamon.
[28] Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers[M]. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michiga.
[29] Leather, J. and A. Jmes. 1991. "The acquisition of second language speech"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13: 305-41.
[30] Lee, W. 1968. Thoughts on contrastive linguistics in the context of language teaching [A]. in Alatis (ed.).
[31] Martin, G. 1980. "English language acquisition: the effect of living with an American family"[J]. TESOL Quarterly 14: 388-90.
[32] Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1973. A University Grammar of English [M]. London: Longman Group Limited.
[33] Ringbom,H and R. Palmberg. 1976. Errors made by Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns in the Learning of English [C].Abo, Finland: Dept. of English.
[34] Schachter, J. 1974."An error in error analysis"[J]. Language Learning 27: 205-214.
[35] Sjoholm, K. 1979.Do Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns use different strategies in the learning of English as a foreign language?[A].in Palmberg (ed.).
[36] Odlin, T. 1989. Language Transfer[M]. Cambridge University Press. Stockwell, R. and J. Bowen. 1965. The Sounds of English and Spanish [M]. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
[37] White, L. 1992 Universal Grammar: Is It Just a New Name for Old Problems?[A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.217-232.
[38] Zobl, H.1983."Markedness and the projection problem"[J]. Language Learning 33: 293-313.
[39] Zobl, H.1984. Cross-language generalizations and the contrastive dimension of the interlanguage hypothesis [A]. in Davis et al. (eds.).
[40] 陈月红，中国学生对英语关系从句的习得[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(4)：11-15．
[41] 戴炜栋，王栋，语言迁移研究：问题与思考[J]．外国语，2002(6)：1-9．
[42] 郭翠，第二语言习得中的语言迁移研究[J]．天津外国语学院学报，2001(2)：18-23．
[43] 桂诗春，认知与外语学习[J]．外语教学与研究，1992(4)：2-9．
[44] 蒋祖康，第二语言习得研究[M]．北京：外语与教学研究出版社，1999．
[45] 许余龙，对比语言学概论[M]．上海：上海外语教育出版社，1992．
[46] 寮菲，第二语言习得中母语迁移现象分析[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(2)：58-64．
[47] 沈家煊，类型学中的标记模式[J]．外语教学与研究，1997(1)：1-10．
汤红娟，由“口紫”一词引发的思考一论标记理论与学地道英语[J]．基础教育外语教学研究，2001(5-6)：45-46．
[48] 司联合，过渡语研究中的几个问题[J]．外语教学，2001(9)：41-44．
[49] 苏留华，母语迁移对第二语言学习的影响[J]．北京第二外国语学院学报，2000(4)：44-52．
[50] 王文宇，语言迁移现象研究的回顾与思考[J]．外语教学，1999(1)：6-12
[2] Odlin, T. 1989. Language Transfer[M]. Cambridge University Press.
[3] Ellis,R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[4] Gass S. and Selinker L. 1992. Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.
[5] Kellerman, E. 1986. An eye for an eye: crosslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2 lexicon [A] in Kellerman and Sharwood Smith (eds.).
[6] Fries, C. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language[M]. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
[7] Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics 20.259-270.
[8] Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers[M]. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michiga.
[9] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974a."Natural sequences in child second language acquisition"[J]. Language Learning 24: 37-53.
[10] Hyltenstam, K. 1984. "The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisiton: the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses"[A] in Andersen (ed.)
[11] Eckman, F. 1977. "Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis"[J]. Language Learning 27:315-30
[12] Corder, S.P. 1992. A Role for the Mother Tongue [A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.19-45.
[13] Kellerman, E. 1979. "Transfer and non-transfer: where are we now?"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2:37-57.
[14] 陈月红，中国学生对英语关系从句的习得[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(4)：11-15．
[15] Alexander L．G．何其莘，新概念英语1[C]．北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997．
[16] Celce-Murcia, Marianne & Larsen-Freeman, Diane, 1983. The Grammar Book [M]. Newbury House Publishers. Inc.
[17] Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1973. A University Grammar of English [M]. London: Longman Group Limited.
[1] Alexander L. G. 何其莘，新概念英语1[C]. 北京：外语教学与研究出版社，1997.
[2] Celce-Murcia, Marianne & Larsen-Freeman, Diane, 1983. The Grammar Book [M]. Newbury House Publishers. Inc.
[3] Chomsky, N. 1965. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax[M]. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press.
[4] Croft, W. 1990. Typology and Universals[M]. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
[5] Corder, S.P. 1992. A Role for the Mother Tongue [A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.19-45.
[6] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974a."Natural sequences in child second language acquisition"[J]. Language Learning 24: 37-53.
[7] Dulay, H. and M. Burt. 1974b. "A new perspective on the creative construction process in child second language acquisition"[J].Language Learning 24: 253-278.
[8] Eckman, F. 1977. "Markedness and the contrastive analysis hypothesis"[J]. Language Learning 27:315-30
[9] Eckman, F. 1986. Markedness [C].New York: Plenum Press.
[10] Ellis, R. 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[11] Ellis, R. 1994. The Study of Second Language Acquisition[M]. Oxford University Press.
[12] Fries, C. 1945. Teaching and Learning English as a Foreign Language[M]. Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press.
[13] Gass S. and Selinker L. 1992. Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins.
[14] Greenberg, W. 1966. Universals of Language (2~(nd) edition). Cambridge, Mass.: MIT press.
[15] Gundel, J. & Tarone, E. 1992. Language Transfer and the Acquisition of Pronouns. [A] In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benj amins, p.87-100.
[16] Harris, Z. 1954. Transfer grammar [J]. International Journal of American Linguistics 20.259-270.
[17] Hyltenstam, K. 1984. "The use of typological markedness conditions as predictors in second language acquisiton: the case of pronominal copies in relative clauses"[A] in Andersen (ed.)
[18] Kellerman, E. 1977. "Towards a characterization of the strategies of transferin second language learning" [J]. Interlanguage Studies Bulletin2:58-145.
[19] Kellerman, E. 1978. "Giving learners a break: native language intuitions as a source of predictions about transferability" [J]. Working Papers on Bilingualism 15: 59-92.
[20] Kellerman, E. 1979. "Transfer and non-transfer: where are we now?"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 2:37-57.
[21] Kellerman, E. 1983. Now you see it, now you don't [A] in Gass and Selinker (eds.).
[22] Kellerman, E. 1985. "Dative alternation and the analysis of data: a rely to Mazurkewich" Language Learning 35:91-106.
[23] Kellerman, E. 1986. An eye for an eye: crosslinguistic constraints on the development of the L2 lexicon [A] in Kellerman and Sharwood Smith (eds.).
[24] Kellerman, E. 1987. Aspects of transferability in second language acquisition[M].University of Nijmegen.
[25] Kellerman, E. 1989. The imperfect conditional [A]. in Hyltenstam and Obler (eds.).
[26] Kellerman, E. 1991. Compensatory strategies in second language research: a critique, a revision,and some (non-) implications for the classroom [A]. in Phillipson et al. (eds.).
[27] Krashen, S. 1981. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning[M]. Oxford: Pergamon.
[28] Lado, R. 1957. Linguistics Across Cultures: Applied Linguistics for Language Teachers[M]. Ann Arbor, Michigan: University of Michiga.
[29] Leather, J. and A. Jmes. 1991. "The acquisition of second language speech"[J]. Studies in Second Language Acquisition 13: 305-41.
[30] Lee, W. 1968. Thoughts on contrastive linguistics in the context of language teaching [A]. in Alatis (ed.).
[31] Martin, G. 1980. "English language acquisition: the effect of living with an American family"[J]. TESOL Quarterly 14: 388-90.
[32] Quirk, R. Greenbaum, S. Leech, G. and Svartvik, J. 1973. A University Grammar of English [M]. London: Longman Group Limited.
[33] Ringbom,H and R. Palmberg. 1976. Errors made by Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns in the Learning of English [C].Abo, Finland: Dept. of English.
[34] Schachter, J. 1974."An error in error analysis"[J]. Language Learning 27: 205-214.
[35] Sjoholm, K. 1979.Do Finns and Swedish-speaking Finns use different strategies in the learning of English as a foreign language?[A].in Palmberg (ed.).
[36] Odlin, T. 1989. Language Transfer[M]. Cambridge University Press. Stockwell, R. and J. Bowen. 1965. The Sounds of English and Spanish [M]. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
[37] White, L. 1992 Universal Grammar: Is It Just a New Name for Old Problems?[A]. In Gass S. and Selinker L. (eds): Language Transfer in Language Learning[C]: Philadelphia: J. Benjamins, p.217-232.
[38] Zobl, H.1983."Markedness and the projection problem"[J]. Language Learning 33: 293-313.
[39] Zobl, H.1984. Cross-language generalizations and the contrastive dimension of the interlanguage hypothesis [A]. in Davis et al. (eds.).
[40] 陈月红，中国学生对英语关系从句的习得[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(4)：11-15．
[41] 戴炜栋，王栋，语言迁移研究：问题与思考[J]．外国语，2002(6)：1-9．
[42] 郭翠，第二语言习得中的语言迁移研究[J]．天津外国语学院学报，2001(2)：18-23．
[43] 桂诗春，认知与外语学习[J]．外语教学与研究，1992(4)：2-9．
[44] 蒋祖康，第二语言习得研究[M]．北京：外语与教学研究出版社，1999．
[45] 许余龙，对比语言学概论[M]．上海：上海外语教育出版社，1992．
[46] 寮菲，第二语言习得中母语迁移现象分析[J]．外语教学与研究，1998(2)：58-64．
[47] 沈家煊，类型学中的标记模式[J]．外语教学与研究，1997(1)：1-10．
汤红娟，由“口紫”一词引发的思考一论标记理论与学地道英语[J]．基础教育外语教学研究，2001(5-6)：45-46．
[48] 司联合，过渡语研究中的几个问题[J]．外语教学，2001(9)：41-44．
[49] 苏留华，母语迁移对第二语言学习的影响[J]．北京第二外国语学院学报，2000(4)：44-52．
[50] 王文宇，语言迁移现象研究的回顾与思考[J]．外语教学，1999(1)：6-12