被用作战争武器的性暴力研究
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摘要
尽管对于妇女的战时性暴力由来已久,但直到20世纪90年代国际社会才开始认识到除了被作为战利品以外,性暴力有时候也能被当作战争工具来使用。冷战后的族群战争就是其中最为显著的一例。
“用作战争武器的性暴力”是指一方的武装团体针对敌对群体的平民所实施的具有系统性、普遍性,并经过正式策划的性暴力。这种暴力并不是随机的行为,而是作为一项有意识的政策被广泛地执行。这就意味着在特定的背景下,性暴力是一个政治事件,是军事和民族主义议程的一部分。
在冷战后的族群战争中,性暴力的工具性主要体现在它经常被国家或非国家的族群武装团体视作清洗和灭绝敌对族群的有力手段：一方面,它是实现强制驱逐的一种方式,能够迫使生活在某一地区的敌对族群人口为躲避一再发生的性暴力而背井离乡；另一方而,它也能改造族群的文化精神和血缘肉体,不仅起到破坏敌对族群成员的家庭和社区结构、打击其民族精神和士气的作用,而且还能阻止族群内生育,并在敌对族群人口内部传播艾滋病及其他性传播疾病。
尽管性暴力的实施者多是族群武装团体中的普通武装分子,但将其用作战争武器的主要策划者和获益者却是族群精英。这背后的原因主要有两点：其一,冷战后族群战争爆发的背景使得身份建构的重要性变得异常突出,而性暴力能同时影响到敌对双方族群身份的建构——强化施暴族群的认同并破坏受害族群的身份,因此对族群精英来说其使用具有极大的杀伤力；其二,性暴力能给那些缺乏系统军事训练的普通族群成员带来较高的物质回报和较低的战争风险,于是也被族群精英利用来鼓励更多追随者加入武装冲突,从而推动战争不断扩大和升级,并在这个过程中攫取权力、财富和对领土的控制。
发生在90年代初的波黑内战以及目前仍在刚果(金)东部基伍地区蔓延的图西-胡图族群武装冲突是冷战后族群战争的代表,也是对妇女的性暴力被广泛用作战争武器的典型案例。其中的性暴力不仅在数量上触目惊心,而且其残暴程度和背后的战争目的已经引起了国际社会的广泛关注。本文正是结合了这两个案例,来揭示被作为战争武器的性暴力的特征以及族群精英在背后扮演的角色。
In spite of long history, wartime sexual violence against women was never recognized as a weapon of war until 1990s. In most cases, it was only regarded as an inevitable side effect of war and thus drew little attention to its seriousness and importance. In post cold war era, more and more wartime sexual violence was revealed extremely brutal and even entailing some strategic purposes. It is only then that the prevalence of such atrocities became an issue in both academia and civil society. Among all of the related cases, sexual violence in post cold war ethnic conflicts are undoubtedly the most prominent ones.
"Rape as a weapon of war" refers to sexual violence as having a systematic, pervasive, and officially orchestrated aspect, emphasising that rapes are not random acts, but appear to be carried out as deliberate policy. It is a claim that rape, in some contexts is a "political event", located within militaristic or nationalist agendas and requiring substantive analysis and action.
In post cold war ethnic conflicts, the utility of sexual violence was mainly on its effectiveness as a means of ethnic cleansing and genocide:on one hand, it can be employed as a tool of forced expulsion, which coerces the innocent civilians to leave their homeland and avoid the recurring humiliation and misery; on the other hand, it may also reshape the cultural spirit and ethnic make-up of the next generation of the targeted group, which not only destroys the social structure and resistance morale of ethnic rivals, but also prohibits the intra-ethnic propagation and spreads HIV and other STD (sexually transmitted diseases) in hostile group.
Although the inflicters of most sexual violence are ordinary militants in armed groups, the real planners and beneficiaries of such atrocities are ethnic elites. Two reasons may explain their intentions. First, the timing and conditions of these ethnic wars emphasize the importance of identity construction, which can be easily fulfilled through sexual violence. Also, the high return yet low risk of sexual violence is attractive to those elites, which can be adopted to encourage more ethnic followers never receiving professional military training to join in the hostilities and thus facilitate the escalation and extension of conflicts.
It is reasonable to consider the civil war of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the continuing Hutu-Tutsi ethnic conflicts in Kivu areas of DRC as representatives of post cold war ethnic conflicts. In both cases, not only is the number of victims of sexual violence startling, but also the brutal nature and the entailing purposes behind the atrocities have been concerned by the international community. The following thesis tries to make clear of the characteristics of such weaponalized sexual violence and show the roles played by the ethnic elites in these humanitarian tragedies.
“用作战争武器的性暴力”是指一方的武装团体针对敌对群体的平民所实施的具有系统性、普遍性,并经过正式策划的性暴力。这种暴力并不是随机的行为,而是作为一项有意识的政策被广泛地执行。这就意味着在特定的背景下,性暴力是一个政治事件,是军事和民族主义议程的一部分。
在冷战后的族群战争中,性暴力的工具性主要体现在它经常被国家或非国家的族群武装团体视作清洗和灭绝敌对族群的有力手段：一方面,它是实现强制驱逐的一种方式,能够迫使生活在某一地区的敌对族群人口为躲避一再发生的性暴力而背井离乡；另一方而,它也能改造族群的文化精神和血缘肉体,不仅起到破坏敌对族群成员的家庭和社区结构、打击其民族精神和士气的作用,而且还能阻止族群内生育,并在敌对族群人口内部传播艾滋病及其他性传播疾病。
尽管性暴力的实施者多是族群武装团体中的普通武装分子,但将其用作战争武器的主要策划者和获益者却是族群精英。这背后的原因主要有两点：其一,冷战后族群战争爆发的背景使得身份建构的重要性变得异常突出,而性暴力能同时影响到敌对双方族群身份的建构——强化施暴族群的认同并破坏受害族群的身份,因此对族群精英来说其使用具有极大的杀伤力；其二,性暴力能给那些缺乏系统军事训练的普通族群成员带来较高的物质回报和较低的战争风险,于是也被族群精英利用来鼓励更多追随者加入武装冲突,从而推动战争不断扩大和升级,并在这个过程中攫取权力、财富和对领土的控制。
发生在90年代初的波黑内战以及目前仍在刚果(金)东部基伍地区蔓延的图西-胡图族群武装冲突是冷战后族群战争的代表,也是对妇女的性暴力被广泛用作战争武器的典型案例。其中的性暴力不仅在数量上触目惊心,而且其残暴程度和背后的战争目的已经引起了国际社会的广泛关注。本文正是结合了这两个案例,来揭示被作为战争武器的性暴力的特征以及族群精英在背后扮演的角色。
In spite of long history, wartime sexual violence against women was never recognized as a weapon of war until 1990s. In most cases, it was only regarded as an inevitable side effect of war and thus drew little attention to its seriousness and importance. In post cold war era, more and more wartime sexual violence was revealed extremely brutal and even entailing some strategic purposes. It is only then that the prevalence of such atrocities became an issue in both academia and civil society. Among all of the related cases, sexual violence in post cold war ethnic conflicts are undoubtedly the most prominent ones.
"Rape as a weapon of war" refers to sexual violence as having a systematic, pervasive, and officially orchestrated aspect, emphasising that rapes are not random acts, but appear to be carried out as deliberate policy. It is a claim that rape, in some contexts is a "political event", located within militaristic or nationalist agendas and requiring substantive analysis and action.
In post cold war ethnic conflicts, the utility of sexual violence was mainly on its effectiveness as a means of ethnic cleansing and genocide:on one hand, it can be employed as a tool of forced expulsion, which coerces the innocent civilians to leave their homeland and avoid the recurring humiliation and misery; on the other hand, it may also reshape the cultural spirit and ethnic make-up of the next generation of the targeted group, which not only destroys the social structure and resistance morale of ethnic rivals, but also prohibits the intra-ethnic propagation and spreads HIV and other STD (sexually transmitted diseases) in hostile group.
Although the inflicters of most sexual violence are ordinary militants in armed groups, the real planners and beneficiaries of such atrocities are ethnic elites. Two reasons may explain their intentions. First, the timing and conditions of these ethnic wars emphasize the importance of identity construction, which can be easily fulfilled through sexual violence. Also, the high return yet low risk of sexual violence is attractive to those elites, which can be adopted to encourage more ethnic followers never receiving professional military training to join in the hostilities and thus facilitate the escalation and extension of conflicts.
It is reasonable to consider the civil war of Bosnia-Herzegovina and the continuing Hutu-Tutsi ethnic conflicts in Kivu areas of DRC as representatives of post cold war ethnic conflicts. In both cases, not only is the number of victims of sexual violence startling, but also the brutal nature and the entailing purposes behind the atrocities have been concerned by the international community. The following thesis tries to make clear of the characteristics of such weaponalized sexual violence and show the roles played by the ethnic elites in these humanitarian tragedies.
引文
1 Simon, Jennifer. UN Appoints Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict [EB/OL]. Webs ite of White House,2010-2-10: .
2 Center for Systematic Peace. Global Conflict Trends [EB/OL]. Website of CSP,2011-3-15:
3联合国.妇女、暴力与武装冲突[EB/OL].联合国网站,2010-12-20：
4 Kelly, Jocelyn. Rape in War:Motives of Militia in DRC [EB/OL]. Special Report of United States Institute of Peace,2010-5-28:
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7联合国安理会.第1820(2008)号决议[EB/OL]联合国网站,2008-6-19：
8 Farwell, Nancy. War Rape:New Conceptualizations and Responses [J]. Affilia 2004,19(4):389.
9“切特尼克”(chetnik)原来是二战期间支持南斯拉夫王国、并反对克罗地亚纳粹傀儡政权的塞尔维亚抵抗组织,被认为是塞尔维亚民族主义的代表。在这里,塞族武装用“切特尼克”指代塞族人。所谓“切特尼克”的孩子,就是塞族人的后代。
10 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:115-116
11 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:.
12 Singh, Anita. Women, Conflict and Darfur:A Case Study Critical Concepts in International Security [J]. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, summer 2007,9(4):1-26.
13刘一楠.刚果(金)大规模强奸案受害者逾500人,包括男性[EB/OL]凤凰网，2010-9-9：
14联合国安理会.第1325(2000)号决议[EB/OL]联合国网站,2000-10-31：
15联合国安理会.第1820(2008)号决议[EB/OL].联合国网站，2008-6-19：
16联合国.联合中秘书长关于暴力侵害妇女的数据库[EB/OL].联合国网站,2010-12-23：
17 UN Department of Public Information. Secretary-General Appoints Margot Wallstrom of Sweden as Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict [EB/OL]. UN website,2010-2-2:
18 Horowitz, Donald L.. Ethnic Groups in Conflict [M]. California:University of California Press, 2000:140-184.
19 Lake, David A. and Rothchild, Donald. Containing Fear:The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):41-75.
20 Kaufman, Stuart J.. Modem Hatred:The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,2001:1-47.
21 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War"[J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1): 42-70.
22主要包括张晓玲.妇女与人权[M].北京：新华出版社,1998:Franco, Jean. Rape:a Weapon of War [J]. Social Text 91, Summer 2007,25(2):23-37; UN Economic and Social Council. Contemporary Forms of Slavery: Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practice during Armed Conflict [EB/OL]. Website of UNHCHR,1998-6-22:; UN. Ending Violence against Women:from Words to Action [EB/OL]. Website of UN,2006-10-9: :Farr, Vanessa et.al.. Sexed Pistols:the Gendered Impacts of Small Arms and Light Weapons [M]. Tokyo:United Nations University Press,2009:81-106; IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground: Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1: .; Human Rights Watch. Shattered Lives:Sexual Violence during the Rwanda Genocide and Aftermath [EB/OL]. Website of HRW,1996:; Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo: Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute,2009-8: 等
23主要文献有Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "rape as a weapon of war" [J]. Fern Leg Stud,2009,17: 145-163:Human Rights Watch. Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity:A Digest of the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda [EB/OL]. Website of HRW,2009:; Farwell, Nancy. War Rape:New Conceptualizations and Responses [J]. Affilia 2004,19(4):389-403; Dallman, Ashley. Prosecuting Conflict-Related Sexual Violence at the International Criminal Court [J]. SIPRI Insights on Peace and Security,2009/1:1-16; Lindsey, Charlotte. Rape and Other Forms of Sexual Violence [A]. In Vlachova, Marie and Biason, Lea. Women in an Insecure World, Violence against Women Facts, Figure and Analysis [M]. Geneva: Geneva Center for the Democratic Control of Armed Forces (DCAF),2005:113-129.
24主要文献有克内则威克.情感的民族主义[A].见陈顺馨,戴锦华.妇女、民族与女性主义[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2004:143-153; Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist, 2000,102(1):27-41; Schafer, Rita. Masculinity and Civil Wars in Africa:New Approaches to overcoming Sexual Violence in War [EB/OL]. Programme Promoting Gender Equality and Women's Rights,2009-1:; Schott, Robin May. Gender and "Postmodern War" [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11 (4):19-29.
25 Singh, Anita. Women, Conflict and Darfur:A Case Study Critical Concepts in International Security [J]. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, summer 2007,9(4):9-10.
26李英桃.“小人鱼”的安全问题[J].世界经济与政治,2004,2：18.
27陈顺馨.导言一：女性主义对民族主义的介入[A].陈顺馨,戴锦华.妇女、民族与女性主义[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2002：9.
28同上，p.9.
29李英桃.女性主义国际关系学[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2006,11：63.
30 Steans, Jill. Gender and International Relations:An Introduction [M]. Cambridge:Polity Press, 1998:67.
31J.安·蒂克纳.国际关系理论中的认同：女性视角[A].见约瑟夫·拉彼得,弗里德里希·克拉托赫维尔.文化和认同：国际关系回归理论[M].金烨,译.杭州：浙江人民出版社,2003：214.
32李英桃.女性主义国际关系学[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2006,11：64-64.
33 Brown, Michael E.. The Causes of Internal Conflict:An Overview [A]. In Brown, Michael E.. Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict [M]. Cambridge:MIT press,1996:19-20.
34尽管二战结束后的远东军事法庭有过关于日军对中国妇女性暴力问题的讨论,但在最后的审判中日军指挥官并没有因为性暴力而被判战争罪。
35 Copenlon, Rhonda. Surfacing Gender:Reconceptualizing Crimes against Women in Time of War [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:198.
36 Taras, Raymond C. and Ganguly, Rajat. Understanding Ethnic Conflict:the International Dimension [M]. Pearson Education Inc.,2008:1.
37李世光,刘大群,凌岩.国际刑事法院罗马规约评释(上册)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：61.
38 Kaufman, Stuart J.. Modern Hatred:The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,2001:25.
39 Dertwinkel, Tim. Disaggregated Perspectives on Civil War and Ethnic Conflicts:Prospects of an Emerging Research Agenda [EB/OL]. Paper prepared for the interdisciplinary conference on "The Roots of Civil War and Conflicts and their Influence on Transformations of State and Civil Society Institutions" at the Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark,2008-11-14:, p.3
40 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.38.
41 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War" [J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1):53.
42李世光,刘大群,凌岩.国际刑事法院罗马规约评释(上册)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：57-58.
43同上,第62-66页
44同上,第67页；Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M], Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:3.
45陈冬颖、徐萍.亚美尼业大屠杀：难以盖棺定论的种族火绝[EB/OL].凤凰网,2010-3-5：.
46 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:82.
47 Hoare, Marko Attila. Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia:The Partisans and the Chetniks,1941-1943 [M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006:20.
48 Cyprus:Photo Archive [EB/OL]. Website of Kypros-net,2010-12-26:
49 BBC. Rwanda:How the genocide happened [EB/OL]. BBC news,2008-12-8:
50 The History Place. Genocide in the 20th Century [EB/OL]. Website of the History Place,2000:;联合国.联合国举行斯雷布雷尼察大屠杀15周年纪念活动[EB/OL].联合国新闻,2010-7-12：.
51 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:6-7.
52 Horowitz, Donald L.. Ethnic Groups in Conflict [M]. California:University of California Press, 2000:175-176.
53 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:83-84.
54持有这种观点的主要是联合国、相关非政府组织和部分西方学者,具体可参见TheSecretary-General. Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization [EB/OL]. U.N. GAOR,46th Sess, Supp. No.1, at 10, U.N. Doc. A/46/1,1991-9-13::International Commission on Intervention and State Sovereignty. The Responsibility to Protect [EB/OL].Website of ICISS,2004: ; The Secretary-General. Secretary-General's High-level Panel Report [EB/OL]. Website of UN Office of High Commissioner of Human Rights,2004-12-2: ; Waxman, Matthew C., Intervention to Stop Genocide and Mass Atrocities:International Norms and U.S. Policy [EB/OL]. Council Special Report No.49, Website of Council on Foreign Relations, 2009-10:等
55 Uppsala Conflict Data Program. UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset v.4-2009,1946 2008 [EB/OL]. Website of Uppsala Conflict Data Program,2010-7-16:
56 Dertwinkel, Tim. Disaggregated Perspectives on Civil War and Ethnic Conflicts:Prospects of an Emerging Research Agenda [EB/OL]. Paper prepared for the interdisciplinary conference on "The Roots of Civil War and Conflicts and their Influence on Transformations of State and Civil Society Institutions" at the Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark,2008-11-14:, pp.2-3
57 Center for the Study of Civil War. Armed Conflict Versions 4-2009:Conflict by Type (graph) [EB/OL]. Website of CSCW,2009:
58 Genocide Watch. Current Countries at Risk of Genocide, Politicide, or Mass Atrocities [EB/OL]. Website of Genocide Watch,2010:.
59【美】苏珊·布朗米勒.违背我们的意愿[M].祝吉芳,译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2006： 27.
60 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:.; WHO. Sexual Violence [EB/OL]. Website of WHO,2010-10-12:
61 Farr, Kathryn. Extreme War Rape in Today's Civil War-Torn States:A Contextual and Comparative Analysis [J]. Gender Issues,2009,26(1):1-41.
62 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline and Stanley, Penny. Rape in War:Lessons of the Balkan Conflicts in the 1990s [A]. In Booth, Ken. The Kosovo Tragedy:the Human Rights Dimensions [M]. London: Routledge,2000:73-74.
63 Isikozlu. Elvan and Millard, Ananda S.. Towards a Typology of Wartime Rape [EB/OL]. Bonn International Center for Conversion,2010-10-18:, p.17.
64 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline and Stanley, Penny. Rape in War:Lessons of the Balkan Conflicts in the 1990s [A]. In Booth, Ken. The Kosovo Tragedy:the Human Rights Dimensions [M]. London: Routledge,2000:70.
65【美】苏珊·布朗米勒.违背我们的意愿[M].祝吉芳,译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2006： 28-81.
66同上,第31,34页
61 Survivors Fund. Rape as a Weapon [EB/OL]. Website of Surf,2010-11-20:
68 Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J]. Fern Leg Stud,2009,17:145-163; Isikozlu, Elvan and Millard, Ananda S.. Towards a Typology of Wartime Rape [EB/OL]. Bonn International Center for Conversion,2010-10-18:.
69 Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J], Fern Leg Stud,2009,17:149
70 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):30.
71被用作战争武器的性暴力并没有涵盖冷战之后族群战争中所有的性暴力,也没有任何证据表明作为战利品的性暴力已经过时。正如Buss在《反思“被用作战争武器的性暴力”》文中所提出的那样,“被用作战争武器的性暴力”这个概念容易让人们忽视战时性暴力的复杂性,而仅关注那些有明确身份含义的行为。例如在卢旺达问题国际特别刑事法庭的判例中明确将胡图族男性对图西族妇女大规模、有目的的性暴力视作是战争罪、反人类罪或种族灭绝罪的一部分,但这并不等于在卢旺达大屠杀中不存在胡图族男性对胡图族女性,图西族男性对胡图族女性,甚至胡图族男性对图西族男性的性暴力,也不意味着所有胡图族男性对图西族女性的性暴力都是种族清洗或灭绝的一部分。[参见Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J]. Fem Leg Stud,2009,17:145-163.]换言之,本文在这里提“被用作战争武器的性暴力”仅仅是选取了冷战后族群战争中性暴力的某一个具有典型性的特例,当然这个特例不能被视作例外。
72刘一楠.刚果(金)大规模强奸案受害者逾500人,包括男性[EB/OL].凤凰网，2010-9-9：
73同上
74这一点与作为战利品的性暴力有所不同。在那些企图赚取便宜或者发泄个人情绪和欲望的性暴力发生以后,施暴者往往会杀害受害者来灭口,幸存者少之又少。以南京大屠杀为例，一名日本派驻南京的114师团的士兵田锁公三回忆说：“强奸后,我们还会杀死她们。一旦她们拔腿就逃,我们让她们走。然后我们会从她们背后‘嘣’的一声把子弹射向她们,结束她们的性命。”各级官员不仅催促士兵在城市里串通强奸妇女,而且警告他们完事后要把这些妇女处理掉,以消灭罪证。“当你完事之后,要么付钱给她们,要么在偏僻的地方把她们杀死,”一个长官告诉他的部下。——参见【美】张纯如.南京大屠杀[M].马志行等,译.北京：东方出版社,2005：42-43.
75 Gingerich, Tara and Leaning, Jennifer. The Use of Rape as a Weapon of War in the Conflict in Darfur, Sudan [EB/OL]. Prepare for U.S. Agency for International Development/OTI,2004-10:, p.18.
76 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:167.
77 Hayden, Robert M., Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):31.
78 Skjelsb(?)k, Inger. Sexual Violence and War:Mapping Out a Complex Relationship [J]. European Journal of International Relations,2001, Vol.7(2):222.
79 Plumper. Thomas and Neumayer, Eric. The Unequal Burden of War:The Effect of Armed Conflict on the Geneder Gap in Life Expectancy [J]. International Organization, Summer 2006, 60(3):735; Singh, Anita. Women, Conflict and Darfur:A Case Study Critical Concepts in International Security [J]. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, summer 2007,9(4):6.
80 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:..
81 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):32.
82 UN. Sexual Violence:A Tool of War [EB/OL]. Website of UN,2010-12-20:
83在一些国家堕胎是违法行为,例如刚果(金)。在这些国家内,因强奸而怀孕的妇女不得不生下她们的孩子。
84 Survivors Fund. Rape as a Weapon [EB/OL]. Website of Surf,2010-11-20:
85 Brouwer, Anne-Marie de. Sexual Violence against Women during the Genocide in Rwanda and its Aftermath [EB/OL].Solace Ministries International Conference (Einigen, Switzerland), 2007-4-30:.
86波斯尼亚穆斯林族(Bosniak或Bosnian Muslim),简称穆族。穆族人主要是指历史上生活在波斯尼业和黑塞哥维那附近代,并在15、16世纪在奥斯曼土耳其帝国治下皈依伊斯兰教的斯拉夫人。铁托时期的南斯拉夫为了压制国内大塞尔维亚主义,采取了分化塞尔维亚人的政策,将信仰伊斯兰教的斯拉夫人从塞尔维亚人和克罗地亚人中分离出来,形成了一个单一族群,即穆斯林族。但是南宪法不允许以波斯尼业人来称呼他们,而只能以他们的宗教信仰作为其身份的标识("Muslim by Nationality")。南斯拉夫解体以后,波黑宪法和选举法都已采纳“波斯尼亚人”(Bosniak)的说法,以此取代被认为带有歧视性的、否定其族群特性的“穆斯林族”(Muslim)的称呼,波斯尼亚人也正式成为了前南斯拉夫地区的一个主体族群。但由于大多数文献和国际新闻中仍使用“穆族”,故本文也暂以“穆族”来称呼波斯尼亚的穆斯林人。
87 PBS. U.N. Official:Thousands of Bosnia Rape Cases Still Unsolved [EB/OL]. PBS website, 2010-12-3:
88 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):356.
89 Ibid.., p.356.
90 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:116.
91 Iacobelli, Teresa. The'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:277.
92 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:159.
93 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:269.
94 Ibid., p.276.
95 Ibid., p.275.
96 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M], Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:152.
97 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
98 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
99 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
100 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160.
101 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
102 Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1996:97-98.
103 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
104 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:169.
105 这里的“切特尼克”与二战中塞尔维亚民族主义组织“切特尼克”没有关系。他们只是借用了这个名字,以表达对后者的崇拜,并强调自己作为塞尔维亚武装的身份。Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,1996:62.
106 Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1996:62.
107 Ibid., p.62.
108 Copenlon, Rhonda. Surfacing Gender:Reconceptualizing Crimes against Women in Time of War [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:206.
109 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273-275.
110 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998.20(2):358-359.
111 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:75.
112 Iacobelli, Teresa. The'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina
through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273-275.
113 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):359.
114 Ibid., p.363.
115 ICTY. Case Information Sheet:Foca (IT-96-23 and 23/1) Kunarac, Kovac & Vukovic [EB/OL], Website of ICTY,2008:
116 ICTY. Gang Rape, Torture and Enslavement of Muslim Women Charged in ICTY's First Indictment Dealing Specifically with Sexual Offences [EB/OL]. Website of ICTY,1996-6-27:, p.2.
117 Ibid., p.3.
118 ICTY. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Case No.:IT-96-23-PT: The Prosecutor of the Tribunal against Dragol Jub Kunarac & Radomir Kovac [EB/OL]. Website of ICTY,1999-8-27:.
119 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:267.
130 Ibid., p.268.
121 Manning, Rachel. The Destruction of Women and Girls through Systematic Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo:A Multifaceted Political and Social Examination [D]. Saskatoon:University of Saskatchewan,2008:, pp.50-51.
122 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.7.
123 Doctor without Borders. Democratic Republic of Congo:Rape as a Weapon in North Kivu [EB/OL]. MSF Website,2006-7-19:
124 Manning, Rachel. The Destruction of Women and Girls through Systematic Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo:A Multifaceted Political and Social Examination [D]. Saskatoon:University of Saskatchewan,2008:, p.70.
123 Pratt, Marion, et al. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:, p.9.
126 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.16.
127 Pratt, Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. US AID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:, p.13.
128 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:, pp.40-41.
129 Ibid., p.24.
130 Ibid., pp.15-20.
131 Ibid., p.26.
132 VDAY. Sexual Violence in the DRC:Background [EB/OL]. Website of V-Day,2010-10-20:.
133 Gaestel, Allyn. Sexual Violence in Democratic Republic of Congo Exacerbates National AIDS Epidemic [EB/OL]. Website of Media Global,2010-2-11:.
134 Ibid..
135 Pratt, Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:, p.12.
136 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:, p.25.
137 CBS. Congo's War, Women's Holocaust [EB/OL]. CBS news website,2008-1-11:
138 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.6.
139 Aids Free World. Mass Rapes in the Congo Made the Headlines in August [EB/OL]. Website of Aids Free World,2010-11-1:.
140 Heaton, Laura. Tackling the FDLR Command Center...in Germany [EB/OL]. Website of Enough,2009-10-28:
141 UNFPA. From Conflict and Crisis to Renewal:Generations of Change-State of World Population 2010 [EB/OL]. United Nations Population Fund Website,2010-10-20:, p.29.
142 Aids Free World. Rape in the Congo:A Story of Monumental UN Failure [EB/OL]. Website of Aids Free World,2010-9-16:.
143 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.17
144 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:, pp.15-21
145 Darfur:Violence against Women [EB/OL]. New Internationalist,2007-6:
146 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
147 Sampson, Steve. African Ethnic Nightmare [EB/OL]. Website of Knowledge News,2008:.
148 Morokvasic-Muller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press,2004:142.
149 Farr, Kathryn. Extreme War Rape in Today's Civil War-Torn States:A Contextual and Comparative Analysis [J]. Gender Issues,2009,26(1):5.
150 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):30-31.
151 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):31.
152 Diken.Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
153 Kalyvas, Stathis N.. The Logic of Violence in Civil War [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2006:65.
154 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
155 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):32.
156参见Diken.Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
157 Plumper, Thomas and Neumayer, Eric. The Unequal Burden of War:The Effect of Armed Conflict on the Geneder Gap in Life Expectancy [J]. International Organization, Summer 2006, 60(3):734-735.
158 Morokvasic-Miiller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press,2004:144.
159在这里有一个令人困惑却普遍存在的观念：通过族群间强暴所生育的孩子在女性受害者以及所属族群石看来是“私生子”(bastards),但在施暴者的眼里,这样的孩子确实属于施暴民族的血统纯正的后代。——参见Morokvasic-Muller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA: University of California Press,2004:144.
160 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL], Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:, p.29.
161 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):8.
162 Morokvasic-Miiller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press, 2004:138-139.
163 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:262.
164 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):28-29.
163 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160-161.
166 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:118.
167 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:75.
168 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160-161.
169 Ibid., p.161.
170 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):367.
171 Zalihic-Kaurin, Azra. The Muslim Women [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press, 1994:173.
l72Ibid., p.171.
173 Ibid., p.173.
174 UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. DRC:Special Report on War and Peace in the Kivus [EB/OL]. Website of Reseau Documentaire International,2004-8-10:.
175 French, Howard W. Kagame's Hidden War in the Congo [EB/OL]. Website of New York Review of Books,2009-9-24:
176 BBC. Rwanda:How the genocide happened [EB/OL]. BBC website,2008-12-8:.
177 McGreal, Chris. We have to kill Tutsis wherever they are [EB/OL]. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:.
178 Museum of Learning. Hutu Ten Commandments:Text [EB/OL]. Website of Museum of Learning,2011-3-26:.
179 McGreal, Chris. We have to kill Tutsis wherever they are [EB/OL]. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:.
180 Tutsi [EB/OL]. Website of the Titi Tudorancea Bulletin,2010-10-5:
181 Pratt. Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:, p.80.
182 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
183尽管在战争中因为性暴力而被判刑的武装分子少之又少,但仍有个别这样的先例。在刚果(金),一个因为性暴力而入狱的前政府军士兵在接受采访时承认,他对自己的行为感到后悔,因为他因此遭到了惩罚。——参见Mawathe, Anne. Haunted by Congo Rape Dilemma [EB/OL]. BBC News,2010-5-15:.
184 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M], Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:148-154.
185 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War" [J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1): 50.
186 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:168.
187 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
188 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:76.
189 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:169.
190 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:270-271.
191 French, Howard W. Kagame's Hidden War in the Congo [EB/OL]. Website of New York Review of Books,2009-9-24:
192 McGreal, Chris. We have to Kill Tutsis Wherever They are. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:.
193 Never again Coalition. Congo:A Quick View [EB/OL]. Website of Never Again Coalition, 2009:.
194 See Pole Institute. Guerillas in the Mist:The Congolese Experience of the FDLR War in Eastern Congo and the Role of the International Community (translated in English by Anna Gyorgy) [EB/OL]. Website of Pole Institute,2010-2:, p.41-46.
195 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.37.
196 McGreal, Chris. We have to Kill Tutsis Wherever They are. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:.
197 Manning, Rachel. The Destruction of Women and Girls through Systematic Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo:A Multifaceted Political and Social Examination [D]. Saskatoon:University of Saskatchewan,2008:, pp.94-110.
198 Chiwengo, Ngwarsungu. When Wounds and Corpses Fail to Speak:Narratives of Violence and Rape in Congo (DRC) [J]. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East,2008, 28(1):80.
199王军.民族主义与国际关系[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2009：134.
200 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:262.
201 Pont, Yannick. Bosnia and Herzegovina:Trying to Keep the Country Together [EB/OL]. Website of European Centre for Conflict Prevention,2002:.
202 Peace Direct. Conflict Areas:Bosnia-Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Insight on Conflict, 2011-1-15:
203 The History Place. Genocide in the 20th Century [EB/OL]. Website of the History Place,2000:
204 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:159.
205 Washington Post. Bosnia and Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Washington Post,1998-10:.
206 The Role of UN During and After the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Central and East European International Studies Association,2011-1-24:
207 Washington Post. Bosnia and Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Washington Post,1998-10:.
208 CIA. The World Fact Book:Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. CIA website,2011-2-1:.
209 Ibid..
210 Ibid..
211刚果(金)东部地区的族群冲突十分复杂,不仅胡图-图西族人口间积怨颇深,其他如赫马族、冷杜族、俾格米人之间也有着各种矛盾,武装冲突时有发生。而除了这里提到的FDLR和CNDP之外,在这一地区势力强大,并受到较多关注的另一支主要力量是Mai Mai武装(在斯瓦西里语中是“水、水”的意思)。这是一支信奉巫术,并试图推翻刚果(金)政府的武装力量,在当地做了大量屠杀平民、强奸、虐待等事情,在国际社会上也是臭名昭著。此外,活跃在这一地区的其他各种中小规模的武装力量更是不计其数。由于本文主要想围绕 胡图-图西族群冲突展开,因此对于除胡图-图西族以外的族群及其武装不再予以关注,也不考察胡图族和图西族武装与刚果(金)政府军的冲突和交战。但这并不意味着刚果(金)东部的主要冲突就是围绕着胡图-图西的种族仇恨展开。
212 Human Rights Watch. Always on the Run:the Vicious Cycle of Displacement in Eastern Congo [EB/OL], Website of HRW,2010-9:, p.1
213 2000年后,Interaganwe吸收了大量在卢旺达大屠杀后逃到刚果(金)的胡图族难民后,整编为解放卢旺达民主力量,即Forces democratiques de liberation du Rwanda,简称FDLR。
214 Rice, Xan. Fertile Land the Prize that Could Reignite Ethnic Conflict in DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of Guardian,2010-8-26:.
215 US Holocaust Memorial Museum. Current Situation:DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of US Holocaust Memorial Museum,2010-1-5:
216 Human Rights Watch. World Report 2010-Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) [EB/OL]. UNHCR website,2010:.
217 Ibid..
218 Rice, Xan. Fertile Land the Prize that Could Reignite Ethnic Conflict in DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of Guardian,2010-8-26:.
219 Ibid..
220 Ibid..
221 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.38.
222 Heaton, Laura. Tackling the FDLR Command Center...in Germany [EB/OL]. Website of Enough,2009-10-28:
223 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:, p.7.
224 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:, p.6.
225 BBC. UN Official Calls DR Congo "Rape Capital of the World" [EB/OL]. BBC news, 2010-4-28:.
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3联合国.妇女、暴力与武装冲突[EB/OL].联合国网站,2010-12-20：
4 Kelly, Jocelyn. Rape in War:Motives of Militia in DRC [EB/OL]. Special Report of United States Institute of Peace,2010-5-28:
5 Carment, David. The International Dimensions of Ethnic Conflict:Concepts, Indicators, and Theory [J]. Journal of Peace Research, May 1993,30(2):137-150.
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7联合国安理会.第1820(2008)号决议[EB/OL]联合国网站,2008-6-19：
8 Farwell, Nancy. War Rape:New Conceptualizations and Responses [J]. Affilia 2004,19(4):389.
9“切特尼克”(chetnik)原来是二战期间支持南斯拉夫王国、并反对克罗地亚纳粹傀儡政权的塞尔维亚抵抗组织,被认为是塞尔维亚民族主义的代表。在这里,塞族武装用“切特尼克”指代塞族人。所谓“切特尼克”的孩子,就是塞族人的后代。
10 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:115-116
11 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:
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13刘一楠.刚果(金)大规模强奸案受害者逾500人,包括男性[EB/OL]凤凰网，2010-9-9：
14联合国安理会.第1325(2000)号决议[EB/OL]联合国网站,2000-10-31：
15联合国安理会.第1820(2008)号决议[EB/OL].联合国网站，2008-6-19：
16联合国.联合中秘书长关于暴力侵害妇女的数据库[EB/OL].联合国网站,2010-12-23：
17 UN Department of Public Information. Secretary-General Appoints Margot Wallstrom of Sweden as Special Representative on Sexual Violence in Conflict [EB/OL]. UN website,2010-2-2:
18 Horowitz, Donald L.. Ethnic Groups in Conflict [M]. California:University of California Press, 2000:140-184.
19 Lake, David A. and Rothchild, Donald. Containing Fear:The Origins and Management of Ethnic Conflict [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):41-75.
20 Kaufman, Stuart J.. Modem Hatred:The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,2001:1-47.
21 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War"[J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1): 42-70.
22主要包括张晓玲.妇女与人权[M].北京：新华出版社,1998:Franco, Jean. Rape:a Weapon of War [J]. Social Text 91, Summer 2007,25(2):23-37; UN Economic and Social Council. Contemporary Forms of Slavery: Systematic Rape, Sexual Slavery and Slavery-like Practice during Armed Conflict [EB/OL]. Website of UNHCHR,1998-6-22:
23主要文献有Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "rape as a weapon of war" [J]. Fern Leg Stud,2009,17: 145-163:Human Rights Watch. Genocide, War Crimes and Crimes against Humanity:A Digest of the Case Law of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda [EB/OL]. Website of HRW,2009:
24主要文献有克内则威克.情感的民族主义[A].见陈顺馨,戴锦华.妇女、民族与女性主义[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2004:143-153; Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist, 2000,102(1):27-41; Schafer, Rita. Masculinity and Civil Wars in Africa:New Approaches to overcoming Sexual Violence in War [EB/OL]. Programme Promoting Gender Equality and Women's Rights,2009-1:
25 Singh, Anita. Women, Conflict and Darfur:A Case Study Critical Concepts in International Security [J]. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, summer 2007,9(4):9-10.
26李英桃.“小人鱼”的安全问题[J].世界经济与政治,2004,2：18.
27陈顺馨.导言一：女性主义对民族主义的介入[A].陈顺馨,戴锦华.妇女、民族与女性主义[M].北京：中央编译出版社,2002：9.
28同上，p.9.
29李英桃.女性主义国际关系学[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2006,11：63.
30 Steans, Jill. Gender and International Relations:An Introduction [M]. Cambridge:Polity Press, 1998:67.
31J.安·蒂克纳.国际关系理论中的认同：女性视角[A].见约瑟夫·拉彼得,弗里德里希·克拉托赫维尔.文化和认同：国际关系回归理论[M].金烨,译.杭州：浙江人民出版社,2003：214.
32李英桃.女性主义国际关系学[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2006,11：64-64.
33 Brown, Michael E.. The Causes of Internal Conflict:An Overview [A]. In Brown, Michael E.. Nationalism and Ethnic Conflict [M]. Cambridge:MIT press,1996:19-20.
34尽管二战结束后的远东军事法庭有过关于日军对中国妇女性暴力问题的讨论,但在最后的审判中日军指挥官并没有因为性暴力而被判战争罪。
35 Copenlon, Rhonda. Surfacing Gender:Reconceptualizing Crimes against Women in Time of War [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:198.
36 Taras, Raymond C. and Ganguly, Rajat. Understanding Ethnic Conflict:the International Dimension [M]. Pearson Education Inc.,2008:1.
37李世光,刘大群,凌岩.国际刑事法院罗马规约评释(上册)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：61.
38 Kaufman, Stuart J.. Modern Hatred:The Symbolic Politics of Ethnic War [M]. New York: Cornell University Press,2001:25.
39 Dertwinkel, Tim. Disaggregated Perspectives on Civil War and Ethnic Conflicts:Prospects of an Emerging Research Agenda [EB/OL]. Paper prepared for the interdisciplinary conference on "The Roots of Civil War and Conflicts and their Influence on Transformations of State and Civil Society Institutions" at the Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark,2008-11-14:
40 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
41 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War" [J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1):53.
42李世光,刘大群,凌岩.国际刑事法院罗马规约评释(上册)[M].北京：北京大学出版社,2006：57-58.
43同上,第62-66页
44同上,第67页；Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M], Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:3.
45陈冬颖、徐萍.亚美尼业大屠杀：难以盖棺定论的种族火绝[EB/OL].凤凰网,2010-3-5：
46 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:82.
47 Hoare, Marko Attila. Genocide and Resistance in Hitler's Bosnia:The Partisans and the Chetniks,1941-1943 [M]. Oxford:Oxford University Press,2006:20.
48 Cyprus:Photo Archive [EB/OL]. Website of Kypros-net,2010-12-26:
49 BBC. Rwanda:How the genocide happened [EB/OL]. BBC news,2008-12-8:
50 The History Place. Genocide in the 20th Century [EB/OL]. Website of the History Place,2000:
51 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:6-7.
52 Horowitz, Donald L.. Ethnic Groups in Conflict [M]. California:University of California Press, 2000:175-176.
53 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:83-84.
54持有这种观点的主要是联合国、相关非政府组织和部分西方学者,具体可参见TheSecretary-General. Report of the Secretary-General on the Work of the Organization [EB/OL]. U.N. GAOR,46th Sess, Supp. No.1, at 10, U.N. Doc. A/46/1,1991-9-13:
55 Uppsala Conflict Data Program. UCDP/PRIO Armed Conflict Dataset v.4-2009,1946 2008 [EB/OL]. Website of Uppsala Conflict Data Program,2010-7-16:
56 Dertwinkel, Tim. Disaggregated Perspectives on Civil War and Ethnic Conflicts:Prospects of an Emerging Research Agenda [EB/OL]. Paper prepared for the interdisciplinary conference on "The Roots of Civil War and Conflicts and their Influence on Transformations of State and Civil Society Institutions" at the Department of Border Region Studies, University of Southern Denmark,2008-11-14:
57 Center for the Study of Civil War. Armed Conflict Versions 4-2009:Conflict by Type (graph) [EB/OL]. Website of CSCW,2009:
58 Genocide Watch. Current Countries at Risk of Genocide, Politicide, or Mass Atrocities [EB/OL]. Website of Genocide Watch,2010:
59【美】苏珊·布朗米勒.违背我们的意愿[M].祝吉芳,译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2006： 27.
60 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:
61 Farr, Kathryn. Extreme War Rape in Today's Civil War-Torn States:A Contextual and Comparative Analysis [J]. Gender Issues,2009,26(1):1-41.
62 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline and Stanley, Penny. Rape in War:Lessons of the Balkan Conflicts in the 1990s [A]. In Booth, Ken. The Kosovo Tragedy:the Human Rights Dimensions [M]. London: Routledge,2000:73-74.
63 Isikozlu. Elvan and Millard, Ananda S.. Towards a Typology of Wartime Rape [EB/OL]. Bonn International Center for Conversion,2010-10-18:
64 Kennedy-Pipe, Caroline and Stanley, Penny. Rape in War:Lessons of the Balkan Conflicts in the 1990s [A]. In Booth, Ken. The Kosovo Tragedy:the Human Rights Dimensions [M]. London: Routledge,2000:70.
65【美】苏珊·布朗米勒.违背我们的意愿[M].祝吉芳,译.南京：江苏人民出版社,2006： 28-81.
66同上,第31,34页
61 Survivors Fund. Rape as a Weapon [EB/OL]. Website of Surf,2010-11-20:
68 Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J]. Fern Leg Stud,2009,17:145-163; Isikozlu, Elvan and Millard, Ananda S.. Towards a Typology of Wartime Rape [EB/OL]. Bonn International Center for Conversion,2010-10-18:
69 Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J], Fern Leg Stud,2009,17:149
70 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):30.
71被用作战争武器的性暴力并没有涵盖冷战之后族群战争中所有的性暴力,也没有任何证据表明作为战利品的性暴力已经过时。正如Buss在《反思“被用作战争武器的性暴力”》文中所提出的那样,“被用作战争武器的性暴力”这个概念容易让人们忽视战时性暴力的复杂性,而仅关注那些有明确身份含义的行为。例如在卢旺达问题国际特别刑事法庭的判例中明确将胡图族男性对图西族妇女大规模、有目的的性暴力视作是战争罪、反人类罪或种族灭绝罪的一部分,但这并不等于在卢旺达大屠杀中不存在胡图族男性对胡图族女性,图西族男性对胡图族女性,甚至胡图族男性对图西族男性的性暴力,也不意味着所有胡图族男性对图西族女性的性暴力都是种族清洗或灭绝的一部分。[参见Buss, Doris E.. Rethinking "Rape as a Weapon of War"[J]. Fem Leg Stud,2009,17:145-163.]换言之,本文在这里提“被用作战争武器的性暴力”仅仅是选取了冷战后族群战争中性暴力的某一个具有典型性的特例,当然这个特例不能被视作例外。
72刘一楠.刚果(金)大规模强奸案受害者逾500人,包括男性[EB/OL].凤凰网，2010-9-9：
73同上
74这一点与作为战利品的性暴力有所不同。在那些企图赚取便宜或者发泄个人情绪和欲望的性暴力发生以后,施暴者往往会杀害受害者来灭口,幸存者少之又少。以南京大屠杀为例，一名日本派驻南京的114师团的士兵田锁公三回忆说：“强奸后,我们还会杀死她们。一旦她们拔腿就逃,我们让她们走。然后我们会从她们背后‘嘣’的一声把子弹射向她们,结束她们的性命。”各级官员不仅催促士兵在城市里串通强奸妇女,而且警告他们完事后要把这些妇女处理掉,以消灭罪证。“当你完事之后,要么付钱给她们,要么在偏僻的地方把她们杀死,”一个长官告诉他的部下。——参见【美】张纯如.南京大屠杀[M].马志行等,译.北京：东方出版社,2005：42-43.
75 Gingerich, Tara and Leaning, Jennifer. The Use of Rape as a Weapon of War in the Conflict in Darfur, Sudan [EB/OL]. Prepare for U.S. Agency for International Development/OTI,2004-10:
76 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:167.
77 Hayden, Robert M., Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):31.
78 Skjelsb(?)k, Inger. Sexual Violence and War:Mapping Out a Complex Relationship [J]. European Journal of International Relations,2001, Vol.7(2):222.
79 Plumper. Thomas and Neumayer, Eric. The Unequal Burden of War:The Effect of Armed Conflict on the Geneder Gap in Life Expectancy [J]. International Organization, Summer 2006, 60(3):735; Singh, Anita. Women, Conflict and Darfur:A Case Study Critical Concepts in International Security [J]. Journal of Military and Strategic Studies, summer 2007,9(4):6.
80 IRIN In-Depth. Our Bodies-Their Battle Ground:Gender-based Violence in Conflict Zones [EB/OL]. Website of IRIN,2004-9-1:
81 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):32.
82 UN. Sexual Violence:A Tool of War [EB/OL]. Website of UN,2010-12-20:
83在一些国家堕胎是违法行为,例如刚果(金)。在这些国家内,因强奸而怀孕的妇女不得不生下她们的孩子。
84 Survivors Fund. Rape as a Weapon [EB/OL]. Website of Surf,2010-11-20:
85 Brouwer, Anne-Marie de. Sexual Violence against Women during the Genocide in Rwanda and its Aftermath [EB/OL].Solace Ministries International Conference (Einigen, Switzerland), 2007-4-30:
86波斯尼亚穆斯林族(Bosniak或Bosnian Muslim),简称穆族。穆族人主要是指历史上生活在波斯尼业和黑塞哥维那附近代,并在15、16世纪在奥斯曼土耳其帝国治下皈依伊斯兰教的斯拉夫人。铁托时期的南斯拉夫为了压制国内大塞尔维亚主义,采取了分化塞尔维亚人的政策,将信仰伊斯兰教的斯拉夫人从塞尔维亚人和克罗地亚人中分离出来,形成了一个单一族群,即穆斯林族。但是南宪法不允许以波斯尼业人来称呼他们,而只能以他们的宗教信仰作为其身份的标识("Muslim by Nationality")。南斯拉夫解体以后,波黑宪法和选举法都已采纳“波斯尼亚人”(Bosniak)的说法,以此取代被认为带有歧视性的、否定其族群特性的“穆斯林族”(Muslim)的称呼,波斯尼亚人也正式成为了前南斯拉夫地区的一个主体族群。但由于大多数文献和国际新闻中仍使用“穆族”,故本文也暂以“穆族”来称呼波斯尼亚的穆斯林人。
87 PBS. U.N. Official:Thousands of Bosnia Rape Cases Still Unsolved [EB/OL]. PBS website, 2010-12-3:
88 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):356.
89 Ibid.., p.356.
90 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:116.
91 Iacobelli, Teresa. The'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:277.
92 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:159.
93 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:269.
94 Ibid., p.276.
95 Ibid., p.275.
96 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M], Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:152.
97 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
98 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
99 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
100 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160.
101 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
102 Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1996:97-98.
103 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273.
104 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:169.
105 这里的“切特尼克”与二战中塞尔维亚民族主义组织“切特尼克”没有关系。他们只是借用了这个名字,以表达对后者的崇拜,并强调自己作为塞尔维亚武装的身份。Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press,1996:62.
106 Allen, Beverly. Rape Warfare:The Hidden Genocide in Bosnia-Herzegovina and Croatia [M]. Minneapolis:University of Minnesota Press,1996:62.
107 Ibid., p.62.
108 Copenlon, Rhonda. Surfacing Gender:Reconceptualizing Crimes against Women in Time of War [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:206.
109 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273-275.
110 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998.20(2):358-359.
111 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:75.
112 Iacobelli, Teresa. The'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina
through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:273-275.
113 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):359.
114 Ibid., p.363.
115 ICTY. Case Information Sheet:Foca (IT-96-23 and 23/1) Kunarac, Kovac & Vukovic [EB/OL], Website of ICTY,2008:
116 ICTY. Gang Rape, Torture and Enslavement of Muslim Women Charged in ICTY's First Indictment Dealing Specifically with Sexual Offences [EB/OL]. Website of ICTY,1996-6-27:
117 Ibid., p.3.
118 ICTY. The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia Case No.:IT-96-23-PT: The Prosecutor of the Tribunal against Dragol Jub Kunarac & Radomir Kovac [EB/OL]. Website of ICTY,1999-8-27:
119 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:267.
130 Ibid., p.268.
121 Manning, Rachel. The Destruction of Women and Girls through Systematic Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo:A Multifaceted Political and Social Examination [D]. Saskatoon:University of Saskatchewan,2008:
122 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
123 Doctor without Borders. Democratic Republic of Congo:Rape as a Weapon in North Kivu [EB/OL]. MSF Website,2006-7-19:
124 Manning, Rachel. The Destruction of Women and Girls through Systematic Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of Congo:A Multifaceted Political and Social Examination [D]. Saskatoon:University of Saskatchewan,2008:
123 Pratt, Marion, et al. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:
126 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
127 Pratt, Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. US AID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:
128 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:
129 Ibid., p.24.
130 Ibid., pp.15-20.
131 Ibid., p.26.
132 VDAY. Sexual Violence in the DRC:Background [EB/OL]. Website of V-Day,2010-10-20:
133 Gaestel, Allyn. Sexual Violence in Democratic Republic of Congo Exacerbates National AIDS Epidemic [EB/OL]. Website of Media Global,2010-2-11:
134 Ibid..
135 Pratt, Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:
136 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:
137 CBS. Congo's War, Women's Holocaust [EB/OL]. CBS news website,2008-1-11:
138 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
139 Aids Free World. Mass Rapes in the Congo Made the Headlines in August [EB/OL]. Website of Aids Free World,2010-11-1:
140 Heaton, Laura. Tackling the FDLR Command Center...in Germany [EB/OL]. Website of Enough,2009-10-28:
141 UNFPA. From Conflict and Crisis to Renewal:Generations of Change-State of World Population 2010 [EB/OL]. United Nations Population Fund Website,2010-10-20:
142 Aids Free World. Rape in the Congo:A Story of Monumental UN Failure [EB/OL]. Website of Aids Free World,2010-9-16:
143 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
144 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:
145 Darfur:Violence against Women [EB/OL]. New Internationalist,2007-6:
146 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
147 Sampson, Steve. African Ethnic Nightmare [EB/OL]. Website of Knowledge News,2008:
148 Morokvasic-Muller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press,2004:142.
149 Farr, Kathryn. Extreme War Rape in Today's Civil War-Torn States:A Contextual and Comparative Analysis [J]. Gender Issues,2009,26(1):5.
150 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):30-31.
151 Hayden, Robert M.. Rape and Rape Avoidance in Ethno-National Conflicts:Sexual Violence in Liminalized States [J]. American Anthropologist,2000,102(1):31.
152 Diken.Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
153 Kalyvas, Stathis N.. The Logic of Violence in Civil War [M]. New York:Cambridge University Press,2006:65.
154 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
155 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):32.
156参见Diken.Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:124
157 Plumper, Thomas and Neumayer, Eric. The Unequal Burden of War:The Effect of Armed Conflict on the Geneder Gap in Life Expectancy [J]. International Organization, Summer 2006, 60(3):734-735.
158 Morokvasic-Miiller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press,2004:144.
159在这里有一个令人困惑却普遍存在的观念：通过族群间强暴所生育的孩子在女性受害者以及所属族群石看来是“私生子”(bastards),但在施暴者的眼里,这样的孩子确实属于施暴民族的血统纯正的后代。——参见Morokvasic-Muller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA: University of California Press,2004:144.
160 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL], Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:
161 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):8.
162 Morokvasic-Miiller, Mirjana. From Pillars of Yugoslavism to Targets of Violence:Interethnic Marriages in the Former Yugoslavia and Thereafter [A]. In Giles, Wenona and Hyndman, Jennifer. Sites of Violence:Gender and Conflict Zones [M]. CA:University of California Press, 2004:138-139.
163 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:262.
164 Snyder, Jack and Ballentine, Karen. Nationalism and the Marketplace of Ideas [J]. International Security, Fall 1996,21(2):28-29.
163 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160-161.
166 Diken,Bulent and Laustsen, Carsten. B.. Becoming Abject:Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Body and Society,2005.11:118.
167 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:75.
168 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:160-161.
169 Ibid., p.161.
170 Salzman, Todd A.. Rape Camps as a Means of Ethnic Cleansing:Religious, Cultural and Ethical Responses to Rape Victims in the Former Yugoslavia [J]. Human Rights Quaterly, May 1998,20(2):367.
171 Zalihic-Kaurin, Azra. The Muslim Women [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press, 1994:173.
l72Ibid., p.171.
173 Ibid., p.173.
174 UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs. DRC:Special Report on War and Peace in the Kivus [EB/OL]. Website of Reseau Documentaire International,2004-8-10:
175 French, Howard W. Kagame's Hidden War in the Congo [EB/OL]. Website of New York Review of Books,2009-9-24:
176 BBC. Rwanda:How the genocide happened [EB/OL]. BBC website,2008-12-8:
177 McGreal, Chris. We have to kill Tutsis wherever they are [EB/OL]. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:
178 Museum of Learning. Hutu Ten Commandments:Text [EB/OL]. Website of Museum of Learning,2011-3-26:
179 McGreal, Chris. We have to kill Tutsis wherever they are [EB/OL]. Website of the Guardian, 2008-5-16:
180 Tutsi [EB/OL]. Website of the Titi Tudorancea Bulletin,2010-10-5:
181 Pratt. Marion, et al.. Sexual Terrorism:Rape as a Weapon of War in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. USAID/DCHA Assessment Report,2004-1-9:
182 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
183尽管在战争中因为性暴力而被判刑的武装分子少之又少,但仍有个别这样的先例。在刚果(金),一个因为性暴力而入狱的前政府军士兵在接受采访时承认,他对自己的行为感到后悔,因为他因此遭到了惩罚。——参见Mawathe, Anne. Haunted by Congo Rape Dilemma [EB/OL]. BBC News,2010-5-15:
184 Stiglmayer, Alexandra. The Rapes in Bosnia-Herzegovina [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:the War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M], Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:148-154.
185 Muller, John. The Banality of "Ethnic War" [J]. International Security, summer 2000,25(1): 50.
186 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:168.
187 Card, Claudia. Rape as a Weapon of War [J]. Hypatia, Fall 1996,11(4):10.
188 MacKinnon, Catherine A.. Turning Rape into Pornography:Postmodern Genocide [A]. In Stiglmayer, Alexandra. Mass Rape:The War against Women in Bosnia-Herzegovina [M]. Lincoln and London:University of Nebraska Press,1994:76.
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198 Chiwengo, Ngwarsungu. When Wounds and Corpses Fail to Speak:Narratives of Violence and Rape in Congo (DRC) [J]. Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East,2008, 28(1):80.
199王军.民族主义与国际关系[M].杭州：浙江人民出版社,2009：134.
200 Iacobelli, Teresa. The 'Sum of Such Actions':Investigation Mass Rape in Bosnia-Herzegovina through a Case Study of Foca [A]. In Herzog, Dagmar. Brutality and Desire:War and Sexuality in Europe's Twentieth Century [M]. London:Palgrave Macmillan,2009:262.
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204 Naimark, Norman M.. Fries of Hatred:Ethnic Cleansing in Twentieth-Century Europe [M]. Cambridge:Harvard University Press,2001:159.
205 Washington Post. Bosnia and Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Washington Post,1998-10:
206 The Role of UN During and After the War in Bosnia-Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Central and East European International Studies Association,2011-1-24:
207 Washington Post. Bosnia and Herzegovina [EB/OL]. Website of Washington Post,1998-10:
208 CIA. The World Fact Book:Democratic Republic of Congo [EB/OL]. CIA website,2011-2-1:
209 Ibid..
210 Ibid..
211刚果(金)东部地区的族群冲突十分复杂,不仅胡图-图西族人口间积怨颇深,其他如赫马族、冷杜族、俾格米人之间也有着各种矛盾,武装冲突时有发生。而除了这里提到的FDLR和CNDP之外,在这一地区势力强大,并受到较多关注的另一支主要力量是Mai Mai武装(在斯瓦西里语中是“水、水”的意思)。这是一支信奉巫术,并试图推翻刚果(金)政府的武装力量,在当地做了大量屠杀平民、强奸、虐待等事情,在国际社会上也是臭名昭著。此外,活跃在这一地区的其他各种中小规模的武装力量更是不计其数。由于本文主要想围绕 胡图-图西族群冲突展开,因此对于除胡图-图西族以外的族群及其武装不再予以关注,也不考察胡图族和图西族武装与刚果(金)政府军的冲突和交战。但这并不意味着刚果(金)东部的主要冲突就是围绕着胡图-图西的种族仇恨展开。
212 Human Rights Watch. Always on the Run:the Vicious Cycle of Displacement in Eastern Congo [EB/OL], Website of HRW,2010-9:
213 2000年后,Interaganwe吸收了大量在卢旺达大屠杀后逃到刚果(金)的胡图族难民后,整编为解放卢旺达民主力量,即Forces democratiques de liberation du Rwanda,简称FDLR。
214 Rice, Xan. Fertile Land the Prize that Could Reignite Ethnic Conflict in DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of Guardian,2010-8-26:
215 US Holocaust Memorial Museum. Current Situation:DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of US Holocaust Memorial Museum,2010-1-5:
216 Human Rights Watch. World Report 2010-Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) [EB/OL]. UNHCR website,2010:
217 Ibid..
218 Rice, Xan. Fertile Land the Prize that Could Reignite Ethnic Conflict in DR Congo [EB/OL]. Website of Guardian,2010-8-26:
219 Ibid..
220 Ibid..
221 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
222 Heaton, Laura. Tackling the FDLR Command Center...in Germany [EB/OL]. Website of Enough,2009-10-28:
223 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Now, the World is Without Me:an Investigation of Sexual Violence in Eastern Democratic Republic of Congo[EB/OL]. A Report by the Harvard Humanitarian Initiative With Support from Oxfam America,2010-4:
224 Harvard Humanitarian Initiative. Characterizing Sexual Violence in the Democratic Republic of the Congo:Profiles of Violence, Community Responses, and Implications for the Protection of Women [EB/OL]. Harvard Humanitarian Initiative Final Report for the Open Society Institute, 2009-8:
225 BBC. UN Official Calls DR Congo "Rape Capital of the World" [EB/OL]. BBC news, 2010-4-28:
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