莎士比亚五部悲剧中的“死亡”主题研究
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摘要
本文以哲学命题“死亡”为切入口,对莎士比亚的《哈姆雷特》、《奥赛罗》、《李尔王》、《安东尼和克利欧佩特拉》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》等五部悲剧进行深入的文本分析,试图揭示已经成为西方文学传统的“死亡”主题,不仅是任何一部悲剧都可能涵括的,而且在莎氏悲剧中获得了最为深广的精神展开,即,“死亡”是对“生命”与“爱”的诠释,是“人性种种可能性”得以呈现的关键。
全文置于“人文主义批评”视野,以弗洛伊德的“爱欲”和“死亡本能”精神分析理论为主要依据,并借鉴安·塞·布雷德利“以人物为中心的批评模式”,依次解析了这五部莎氏悲剧中与“死亡”主题相关的三个层面:(1)“生存”与“死亡”,(2)“死亡”中的“自我”消解与“爱”之建立,(3)“生命中的死亡”与“死亡中的生命”。
论文具体分章如下。第一章为前言。在简略提示作为莎氏戏剧诞生背景的16世纪伊利莎白时代之后,对自亚里士多德以来“悲剧”概念的形成与发展做了概述,回顾了中西方具有代表性的数种“死亡观”,并由此引伸出弗洛伊德“爱欲”和“死亡本能”精神分析理论的出现、意义和内涵,为进一步阐述莎氏悲剧的实质奠定理论基础。
第二章进入“生存”与“死亡”层面问题的探讨。所涉文本为《哈姆雷特》、《李尔王》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,论证了哈姆雷特关于“存在”与“死亡”的哲学思考、李尔王对人的“自然性”的认识、罗密欧与朱丽叶在父权制度的压制下迫不及待地奔赴死亡并由此带动文本的加速度发展等。这些体现在剧中人物身上迥异而深刻的“死亡”态度均使潜意识下的“死亡本能”浮现在了行为和语言层面。
第三章对“爱欲”与“死亡本能”的冲突在悲剧人物身上的体现做出具体分析。论述了五部悲剧中种种情形复杂的“爱”是如何惊人地与潜伏在悲剧人物下意识中的“死亡本能”联系在一起的,有哈姆雷特因“俄狄浦斯情结”而对奥菲里亚所产生的扭曲却强烈的爱;有奥赛罗对德斯底蒙娜由爱而生痛惜、嫉妒而最终走向“执行正义”的爱;有李尔王对小女儿考地利亚超越父女之情的爱,有安东尼和克利欧佩特拉由性爱而转变、升华的精神之爱,有罗密欧与朱丽叶富有浪
With the philosophical proposition of death as a starting point, this dissertation is a comparative study of the treatment of death addressed in Shakespeare’s five tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet. Through the systematic and comprehensive textual analysis, I attempt to reveal that the theme of death is more than a literary motif embraced in any one tragedy. Actually, in Shakespearean tragedies this theme achieves its spiritual dimensions to the great possibility in width and depth. In the five tragedies under examination, death is the affirmative annotation to“love”and“life”, and our interpretation to it is the key to the presentation of“the possibilities of human nature”.
The dissertation is designed within the theoretical framework of“Humanist Criticism”. I approach the theme of death by adopting Freudian psychoanalysis of Eros and the death instinct. A. C. Bradley’s“character-centered criticism”is also applied for reference. By establishing the dissertation on the basis of theoretical framework and critical pattern, I explore in the article three research questions that are linked to the theme of death: 1) Is it the denial of death or the longing for death? 2) Is it the dissolution of individuality in death or the achievement of love in death? 3) Is it the death-in-life or the life-in-death?
The dissertation consists of five chapters. In the first chapter of Introduction, I make a brief mention of the sixteenth-century Elizabethan Age as a background factor that influences the shaping of the Shakespearean art. Then a compelling overview of the concept of“tragedy”is done to examine the beginning and the maturity of this great literary genre. Before further interpreting and justifying the substance of Shakespearean tragedies, I make a brief review of the major visions on death in Chinese and Western thoughts; the Freudian concepts of Eros and the death instinct are also induced in this chapter as a theoretical device to enter the discussion of the theme of death.
Chapter Two attempts to solve the question of“Is it the denial of death or
全文置于“人文主义批评”视野,以弗洛伊德的“爱欲”和“死亡本能”精神分析理论为主要依据,并借鉴安·塞·布雷德利“以人物为中心的批评模式”,依次解析了这五部莎氏悲剧中与“死亡”主题相关的三个层面:(1)“生存”与“死亡”,(2)“死亡”中的“自我”消解与“爱”之建立,(3)“生命中的死亡”与“死亡中的生命”。
论文具体分章如下。第一章为前言。在简略提示作为莎氏戏剧诞生背景的16世纪伊利莎白时代之后,对自亚里士多德以来“悲剧”概念的形成与发展做了概述,回顾了中西方具有代表性的数种“死亡观”,并由此引伸出弗洛伊德“爱欲”和“死亡本能”精神分析理论的出现、意义和内涵,为进一步阐述莎氏悲剧的实质奠定理论基础。
第二章进入“生存”与“死亡”层面问题的探讨。所涉文本为《哈姆雷特》、《李尔王》和《罗密欧与朱丽叶》,论证了哈姆雷特关于“存在”与“死亡”的哲学思考、李尔王对人的“自然性”的认识、罗密欧与朱丽叶在父权制度的压制下迫不及待地奔赴死亡并由此带动文本的加速度发展等。这些体现在剧中人物身上迥异而深刻的“死亡”态度均使潜意识下的“死亡本能”浮现在了行为和语言层面。
第三章对“爱欲”与“死亡本能”的冲突在悲剧人物身上的体现做出具体分析。论述了五部悲剧中种种情形复杂的“爱”是如何惊人地与潜伏在悲剧人物下意识中的“死亡本能”联系在一起的,有哈姆雷特因“俄狄浦斯情结”而对奥菲里亚所产生的扭曲却强烈的爱;有奥赛罗对德斯底蒙娜由爱而生痛惜、嫉妒而最终走向“执行正义”的爱;有李尔王对小女儿考地利亚超越父女之情的爱,有安东尼和克利欧佩特拉由性爱而转变、升华的精神之爱,有罗密欧与朱丽叶富有浪
With the philosophical proposition of death as a starting point, this dissertation is a comparative study of the treatment of death addressed in Shakespeare’s five tragedies: Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Antony and Cleopatra and Romeo and Juliet. Through the systematic and comprehensive textual analysis, I attempt to reveal that the theme of death is more than a literary motif embraced in any one tragedy. Actually, in Shakespearean tragedies this theme achieves its spiritual dimensions to the great possibility in width and depth. In the five tragedies under examination, death is the affirmative annotation to“love”and“life”, and our interpretation to it is the key to the presentation of“the possibilities of human nature”.
The dissertation is designed within the theoretical framework of“Humanist Criticism”. I approach the theme of death by adopting Freudian psychoanalysis of Eros and the death instinct. A. C. Bradley’s“character-centered criticism”is also applied for reference. By establishing the dissertation on the basis of theoretical framework and critical pattern, I explore in the article three research questions that are linked to the theme of death: 1) Is it the denial of death or the longing for death? 2) Is it the dissolution of individuality in death or the achievement of love in death? 3) Is it the death-in-life or the life-in-death?
The dissertation consists of five chapters. In the first chapter of Introduction, I make a brief mention of the sixteenth-century Elizabethan Age as a background factor that influences the shaping of the Shakespearean art. Then a compelling overview of the concept of“tragedy”is done to examine the beginning and the maturity of this great literary genre. Before further interpreting and justifying the substance of Shakespearean tragedies, I make a brief review of the major visions on death in Chinese and Western thoughts; the Freudian concepts of Eros and the death instinct are also induced in this chapter as a theoretical device to enter the discussion of the theme of death.
Chapter Two attempts to solve the question of“Is it the denial of death or
引文
1 Zesmer, M. David, Guide to Shakespeare. (New York: Barnes & Noble Books, 1976) 6.
2 Frye, Northrop et al., ed., The Harper Handbook to Literature, 2nd ed. (New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. 1997) 316.
3 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 4.
4 Ibid., 3.
5 Ibid., 16.
6 Ibid., 15.
7 Ibid.
8 Gurr, Andrew, Studying Shakespeare: An Introduction. (Great Britain: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., 1988) 47.
9 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 42.
10 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 15.
11 Ibid., 2.
12 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 79.
13 Ibid., 86.
14 Ibid., 96.
15 Vickers, Brian. ed,. “Samuel Johnson, edition of Shakespeare,” Shakespeare: The Critical Heritage, vol. 5. 1765-1774. (London, Henley and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1979) 60.
16 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 104.
17 Ibid., 103.
18 Ibid., 30.
19 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 2.
20 Ibid.
21 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 112-113.
22 Ibid., 30.
23 Foakes, R. A., Coleridge’s Criticism of Shakespeare. (Hampshire and London: Athlone Press Ltd., 1989) 23.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Park, Roy. “Lamb, Shakespeare and the Stage.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 33, Number 2. Summer 1982: 166.
27 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 3.
28 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 27.
29 Ibid., 29.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid., 35.
33 Ibid., 38.
34 Ibid., 47.
35 Ibid., 50.
36 Ibid., 48.
37 Ibid., 35.
38 These two lines are from Wordsworth’s poem. See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 44.
39 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 62.
40 See http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Epicurus/
41 See http: // philosophy. Lander. edu/ intro/determinism. html
42 Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967) 1.
43 Ibid.
44 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 309-310.
45 Freud, Sigmund, Freud’s Readings of The Unconscious and Arts. (Beijin: China Renmin Univesity Press, 1998) 39.
46 Ibid., 41.
47 Ibid., 42.
48 Ibid., 43.
49 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 311-314.
50 Freud asserts that the instinct of destruction, moderated and tamed, and, as it were, inhibited in its aim, must, when it is directed towards object, provide the ego with the satisfaction of its vital needs and with control over nature. See Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 313.
51 …even if Hamlet in his whole revenge does not appear a trace of shirking or cowering. He stabs at the eavesdropper behind the arras, sends his “school-fellows” to their death, fights with Laertes in the grave, and finally rushes on the king. Such a hero would have been formidable even to Othello and Macbeth. See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 104.
52 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 28.
53 Ibid., 32.
54 Frye, Northrop, Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967) 4.
55 Ibid., 5.
56 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 4.
57 The source of this conviction lies in what psychoanalysts call the ego ideal, which contains “a core of narcissistic omnipotence” and relies on a “magic belief in one’s invulnerability [to engender] physical courage and counteract realistic fears of injury and death.” See Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 7.
58 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 7.
59 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 381.
60 Ibid.
61 Freud has recourse … to … the principle of neuronal inertia. … the inertial state towards which the organism tends is not one of the pure organic quiescence and rest but the most fundamental state of quiescence possible, a condition of perfected and imperturbable peace and inorganic stasis — the condition of death. Such was the condition of the organism before it was disturbed by external forces and impelled into organic existence, and such is the condition it seeks forever to restore. See Russell, John, Hamlet and Narcissus (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995)147-148.
62 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 310-311.
63 Parris, Bernard J. “Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature” in Psychological Perspectives on Literature. (North Haven: The Shoe String Press, 1984) 155-181.
64 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 114.
65 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 28.
66 Ibid., 35.
67 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 32.
68 Prosser, Eleanor, Hamlet and Revenge. 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971) 163.
69 Ibid., 169.
70 Sacks, Claire & Whan, Edgar, ed., Hamlet: Enter Critic. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1960) 45.
71 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 107.
72 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 115.
73 参见祝勇编:《重读大师:一种谎言的真诚说法》。(北京:人民文学出版社,2001 年)230。
74 Gelven, Michael, A Commentary on Heidegger’s Being and Time. (Illinois: North Illinois University Press, 1989) 136.
75 Ibid.
76 参见祝勇编:《重读大师:一种谎言的真诚说法》。(北京:人民文学出版社,2001 年)230。
77 Ibid.
78 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 258.
79 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 187.
80 Ibid., 188.
81 Ibid., 187-188.
82 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 62.
83 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 285.
84 Ibid.
85 Ibid., 282.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 182.
89 Ibid., 198.
90 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 281.
91 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 68.
92 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 131.
93 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 307.
94 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 66.
95 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 131.
96 Ibid.
97 Capulet and Montague are virtual alter egos, as are Tybalt and Romeo, and in the opening brawl the opposed servants. Externalized, the doubling plays out fratricidal rivalry. Fully internalized in a vulnerable character, patriarchal conflicts may produce self-murder. And that, I maintain, is what finally destroys Romeo and Juliet. See Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press,1989) 137.
98 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 139.
99 Boorman, S. C., Human Conflict in Shakespeare. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1987) 142.
100 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 269.
101 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 49.
102 Ibid., 50.
103 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 316.
104 … the hypothesis that the life process of the individual leads for internal reasons to an abolition of chemical tensions, that is to say, to death, whereas union with the living substance of a different individual increases those tensions, introducing what my be described as fresh vital differences which must then be ‘lived off’. See Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 329.
105 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 329.
106 Freud defines the pleasure principle as “a tendency operating in the service of a function whose business it is to free the mental apparatus entirely from excitation or to keep the amount of excitation in it constant or to keep it as low as possible.” See Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 336.
107 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 337-338.
108 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 54.
109 Woman, as Tertullian declared, is the gateway to hell. To enter the womb is to embark on a journey that leads through death to devilish regions below. If the male traveler does not get quite that far, still he may suffer the Neopolitan bone-ache and fleshly rot that mark him as a creature meant for death. See Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 55.
110 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 487.
111 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 117.
112 Ibid.
113 As a child Hamlet had experienced the warmest affection for his mother, and this, as is always so, had contained elements of a disguised erotic quality, still more so in infancy. See Jump, John, ed., Shakespeare Hamlet: A Casebook. (Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1968) 53.
114 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 119.
115 Bloom, Harold, ed., William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986) 50.
116 Ibid., 59.
117 Ibid., 60.
118 Kaplan, Charles & William Davis eds., Criticism: Major Statements. (New York: Bedsord-St. Martin’s, 2000) 627.
119 Jump, John, ed., Shakespeare Hamlet: A Casebook. (Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1968) 32.
120 G. Wilson Knight, in his The Othello Music, says that Othello has not, indeed, the meditative or speculative imagination of Hamlet; but in the strictest sense of the word he is more poetic than Hamlet. Indeed, if one recalls Othello’s most famous speeches — those that begin, ‘Her father loved me’, ‘O now for ever’, ‘Never, Iago’, ‘Had it pleased Heaven’, ‘It is the cause’ … if one places side by side with these speeches an equal number by any other hero, one will not doubt that Othello is the greatest poet of them all. There is the same poetry in his casual phrases — like ‘These nine moons wasted’, ‘Keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust them’, ‘You chaste stars’, ‘It is a sword of Spain, the ice-brook’s temper’, ‘It is the very error of the moon’ … See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 178.
121 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 179.
122 Ibid., 168.
123 Ibid.
124 Ibid., 169-170.
125 Ibid., 190.
126 Ibid.
127 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 465.
128 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 193.
129 Ibid.
130 Potter, Nicholas, ed., William Shakespeare Othello. (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd., 2000) 72.
131 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 181.
132 Ibid.
133 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 436.
134 Potter, Nicholas, ed., William Shakespeare Othello. (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd., 2000) 73.
135 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 472.
136 Ibid., 449.
137 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 36.
138 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 449.
139 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 193.
140 Ibid.
141 Ibid., 170.
142 Ibid.
143 Ibid., 192-193.
144 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 96.
145 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 230.
146 Ibid., 269.
147 Ibid., 268.
148 Ibid., 270.
149 Ibid., 300.
150 Ibid., 303.
151 Ibid., 301.
152 Ibid., 263.
153 Ibid., 234.
154 Ibid.
155 Ibid., 304.
156 Ibid., 255.
157 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 67.
158 Ibid., 65.
159 Ibid., 140.
160 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 152.
161 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 49.
162 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 78.
163 Ibid.
164 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 217.
165 According to Liang Shiqiu, pole here signifies the soldier’s military flag, or the polestar (the North Star), or the colorful pole. See Shakespeare, William, Antony and Cleopatra. (Taipei: The Far East Book Company, 2001) 277.
166 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 151.
167 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 567.
168 In Antony and Cleopatra, Antony tells Lepidus: The higher Nilus swells / The more it promises; as it ebbs, the seedsman / Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, /And shortly comes to harvest. (Act 2, Scene 7) The Nile Valley is a kind of golden world or earthly paradise, a place of seed where things grow to their fullest effortlessly and without cultivation … As well as imaging a beneficent and intriguingly polymorphous sexuality in Egypt, overflowing Nilus also offers an analogue for the vitalizing effect of experiencing the swollen torrents of magnified human passions projected by the histrionically gifted queen. In contrast to the busily temporal world of Rome, Egypt is an eternal realm, which transfixes Romans in the endlessly recurrent and fertilising experience of love. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 214-215.
169 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 54.
170 Ibid.
171 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 191.
172 The validity of the imaginative vision as it is asserted in the poetry is a part of Shakespeare’s subject in Antony and Cleopatra…we are presented with lovers creating the image of their love, not with poet’s poetising. For the association of love with imagination or fancy is one of Shakespeare’s most persistent themes. Love in Shakespeare almost always creates its own imaginative versions of reality; and it is almost always forced to test its version against the realities acknowledged by the rest of the world. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 59.
173 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 124.
174 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: The Tragedies. (Hamshire and New York: PALGRAVE, 2001) 336.
175 Ibid.
176 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 568.
177 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 55.
178 Ibid.
179 Rackin, Phyllis, Shakespeare’s Tragedies. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978) 25.
180 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 93.
181 Ibid., 95.
182 As Freud aptly shows, puns and wordplay, figure prominently in dreams, and the like, rely on an accidental similarity of sounds, and disguise a repressed impulse while giving voice to it. See Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 342-343.
183 In Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio’s bawdy jokes can be seen elsewhere in the play. For example, in Act 2, Scene 2, he utters his most obscenely exuberant pitch: If love be blind, love cannot hit the mark. / Now will he sit under a medlar tree, / And wish his mistress were that kind of fruit / As maids call medlars, when they laugh alone. / O Romeo! that she were, O! that she were / An open et coetera, thou a poperin pear. According to Harold Bloom’s notes and Liang Shiqiu’s translation, Mercutio here refers to the sexual intercourse. See Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 95-97. See also See Shakespeare, William, Romeo and Juliet. (Taipei: The Far East Book Company, 2001) 241.
184 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 95.
185 Ibid., 100.
186 Rackin, Phyllis, Shakespeare’s Tragedies. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978) 31.
187 Fry, Christopher, Death Is A Kind of Love. (Cranberry Isles ·Maine: The Tidal Press, 1979) 16-17.
188 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 311.
189 参见诺尔曼·布朗著,冯川,伍厚恺译。《生与死的对抗》。(贵州:贵州人民出版社,1994年)95。
190 Fry, Christopher, Death Is A Kind of Love. (Cranberry Isles ·Maine: The Tidal Press, 1979) 12.
191 Reisner, Gavriel, The Death-Ego and the Vital Self: Romances of Desire in Literature and Psychoanalysis. (Ontario: Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp., 2003) 37.
192 Ibid.
193 Reisner, Gavriel, The Death-Ego and the Vital Self: Romances of Desire in Literature and Psychoanalysis. (Ontario: Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp., 2003) 36.
194 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 38.
195 Ibid.
196 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 103.
197 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Kentucky University Press, 1978) 93.
198 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 106.
199 Ibid.
200 Ibid.
201 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 24-25.
202 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 118.
203 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 142-143.
204 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 45-46.
205 Ibid., 45.
206 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 158.
207 Dolley, Christopher, ed., The Second Penguin Book of English Short Stories. (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1994) 157-158.
208 Gang, Zhu, Twentieth Century Western Critical Theories. (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001) 246.
209 Ibid.
210 Jackson, Dennis and Jackson, Brown Fleda, Critical Essays on D. H. Lawrence (Boston, Massachusetts: G. K. Hall & Co. 1988) 156.
211 Ibid.
212 Ibid.
213 Russell, John, Hamlet and Narcissus (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995) 119.
214 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 97.
215 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 186.
216 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Kentucky University Press, 1978) 166. 217 Ibid.
218 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 98.
219 Bradley, in his comment on Desdemona, invites our acknowledgement: Were we intended to remember, as we hear this last ‘falsehood’, that other falsehood, ‘It is not lost’, and to feel that, alike in the momentary child’s fear and the deathless woman’s love, Desdemona is herself and herself alone? See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 194.
220 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 187.
221 Ibid.
222 Nida Song interprets “to die upon a kiss” as that Othello will be able to achieve sexual union with Desdemona in death. See Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 56.
223 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1978)
163.
224 Ribner, Irving, Patters in Shakespearean Tragedy. (New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1960) 95-96.
225 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 180-181.
226 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 119.
227 Ibid., 97.
228 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 279.
229 Ibid., 290.
230 Ibid., 280.
231 Ibid., 298.
232 Ibid., 300.
233 Ibid.
234 Ibid., 241.
235 Ibid., 252.
236 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 240.
237 Farinata is a political leader from Dante’s era among the Heretics from the Sixth Circle of Hell. He is doomed to continue his intense obsession with Florentine politics. See http://www.sparknotes.com /poetry/inferno/section5.rhtml. See also Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 241.
238 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 263.
239 Ibid., 257.
240 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 47.
241 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 91.
242 Ibid.
243 Ibid., 91.
244 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 79.
245 Ibid.
246 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1978) 57.
247 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 242.
248 Ibid., 241.
249 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 80.
250 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 55.
251 Charney, Maurice. Shakespeare’s Roman Plays, (Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1961) 101.
252 The Egyptian world is rooted in the feminine principle … it is above all generative and highly erotic. It is also sensuous, anarchic, rooted in pleasure, play and sex … It is thus anti-civilization; yet it is the principle of life. The feminine principle rests on the ability to give birth; and many of Cleopatra’s images, or allusions to her or Egypt, concern fertility, whether of the “natural” or of the “monstrous”. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 266.
253 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 162.
254 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 82.
255 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 275.
256 Adelman, Janet, The Common Liar. (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1973) 156.
257 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 182.
258 As Martin Buber says: “There is no evil impulse till the impulse has been separated from the being.” See Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 156. At the same time, we should not read Cleopatra as a fallen woman. She is the incarnation of Egyptian value which is fully the pole of nature and procreation and beauty, as opposed to the power of force, imposition. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 266.
259 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 162.
260 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 87.
261 Binshan, Huang Short History of English Literature (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1991) 68.
262 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 73.
263 Ibid., 42.
264 参见方平著,《和莎士比亚交个朋友吧》(成都:四川人民出版社,1983 年)245。
265 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 144.
266 Sandler, Robert, ed., Northrop Frye on Shakespeare. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986) 32.
267 Ibid.
268 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 158.
269 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 84.
270 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 407.
271 Ibid.
272 Ibid.
273 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 90.
274 Ibid., 91.
275 Cunningham, James, Shakespeare’s Tragedies and Modern Critical Theory. (London: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1997) 11.
276 Ibid., 21.
277 Ibid., 11.
278 Ibid., 27.
279 Ibid., 26.
280 Ibid.
281 Ibid.
282 Ibid.
283 Freud, Sigmund, Freud’s Readings of The Unconscious and Arts. (Beijin: China Renmin Univesity Press, 1998) 20.
284 Ibid., 21.
285 “An ego thus educated has become 'reasonable'; it no longer lets itself be governed by the pleasure principle, but obeys the reality principle, which also at bottom seeks to obtain pleasure, but pleasure which is assured through taking account of reality, even though it is pleasure postponed and diminished” (Introductory Lectures 16.357) See http: // www. cla. purdue. Edu / English / theory / psychoanalysis / definitions / pleasureprinciple html.
286 See http: // www. cla. purdue. Edu / English / theory / psychoanalysis / freud5 mainframe.html.
287 Cunningham, James, Shakespeare’s Tragedies and Modern Critical Theory. (London: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1997) 26.
288 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Kentucky University Press, 1978) 3.
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2 Frye, Northrop et al., ed., The Harper Handbook to Literature, 2nd ed. (New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc. 1997) 316.
3 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 4.
4 Ibid., 3.
5 Ibid., 16.
6 Ibid., 15.
7 Ibid.
8 Gurr, Andrew, Studying Shakespeare: An Introduction. (Great Britain: Edward Arnold Publishers Ltd., 1988) 47.
9 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 42.
10 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 15.
11 Ibid., 2.
12 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 79.
13 Ibid., 86.
14 Ibid., 96.
15 Vickers, Brian. ed,. “Samuel Johnson, edition of Shakespeare,” Shakespeare: The Critical Heritage, vol. 5. 1765-1774. (London, Henley and Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1979) 60.
16 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 104.
17 Ibid., 103.
18 Ibid., 30.
19 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 2.
20 Ibid.
21 Draper, R. P. ed., Tragedy: Development in Criticism. (London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1980) 112-113.
22 Ibid., 30.
23 Foakes, R. A., Coleridge’s Criticism of Shakespeare. (Hampshire and London: Athlone Press Ltd., 1989) 23.
24 Ibid.
25 Ibid.
26 Park, Roy. “Lamb, Shakespeare and the Stage.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 33, Number 2. Summer 1982: 166.
27 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 3.
28 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 27.
29 Ibid., 29.
30 Ibid.
31 Ibid.
32 Ibid., 35.
33 Ibid., 38.
34 Ibid., 47.
35 Ibid., 50.
36 Ibid., 48.
37 Ibid., 35.
38 These two lines are from Wordsworth’s poem. See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 44.
39 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 62.
40 See http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Epicurus/
41 See http: // philosophy. Lander. edu/ intro/determinism. html
42 Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967) 1.
43 Ibid.
44 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 309-310.
45 Freud, Sigmund, Freud’s Readings of The Unconscious and Arts. (Beijin: China Renmin Univesity Press, 1998) 39.
46 Ibid., 41.
47 Ibid., 42.
48 Ibid., 43.
49 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 311-314.
50 Freud asserts that the instinct of destruction, moderated and tamed, and, as it were, inhibited in its aim, must, when it is directed towards object, provide the ego with the satisfaction of its vital needs and with control over nature. See Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 313.
51 …even if Hamlet in his whole revenge does not appear a trace of shirking or cowering. He stabs at the eavesdropper behind the arras, sends his “school-fellows” to their death, fights with Laertes in the grave, and finally rushes on the king. Such a hero would have been formidable even to Othello and Macbeth. See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 104.
52 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 28.
53 Ibid., 32.
54 Frye, Northrop, Fools of Time: Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. (Canada: University of Toronto Press, 1967) 4.
55 Ibid., 5.
56 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 4.
57 The source of this conviction lies in what psychoanalysts call the ego ideal, which contains “a core of narcissistic omnipotence” and relies on a “magic belief in one’s invulnerability [to engender] physical courage and counteract realistic fears of injury and death.” See Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 7.
58 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 7.
59 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 381.
60 Ibid.
61 Freud has recourse … to … the principle of neuronal inertia. … the inertial state towards which the organism tends is not one of the pure organic quiescence and rest but the most fundamental state of quiescence possible, a condition of perfected and imperturbable peace and inorganic stasis — the condition of death. Such was the condition of the organism before it was disturbed by external forces and impelled into organic existence, and such is the condition it seeks forever to restore. See Russell, John, Hamlet and Narcissus (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995)147-148.
62 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 310-311.
63 Parris, Bernard J. “Third Force Psychology and the Study of Literature” in Psychological Perspectives on Literature. (North Haven: The Shoe String Press, 1984) 155-181.
64 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 114.
65 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 28.
66 Ibid., 35.
67 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 32.
68 Prosser, Eleanor, Hamlet and Revenge. 2nd ed. (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1971) 163.
69 Ibid., 169.
70 Sacks, Claire & Whan, Edgar, ed., Hamlet: Enter Critic. (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1960) 45.
71 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 107.
72 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 115.
73 参见祝勇编:《重读大师:一种谎言的真诚说法》。(北京:人民文学出版社,2001 年)230。
74 Gelven, Michael, A Commentary on Heidegger’s Being and Time. (Illinois: North Illinois University Press, 1989) 136.
75 Ibid.
76 参见祝勇编:《重读大师:一种谎言的真诚说法》。(北京:人民文学出版社,2001 年)230。
77 Ibid.
78 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 258.
79 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 187.
80 Ibid., 188.
81 Ibid., 187-188.
82 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 62.
83 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 285.
84 Ibid.
85 Ibid., 282.
86 Ibid.
87 Ibid.
88 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 182.
89 Ibid., 198.
90 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 281.
91 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 68.
92 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 131.
93 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 307.
94 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 66.
95 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 131.
96 Ibid.
97 Capulet and Montague are virtual alter egos, as are Tybalt and Romeo, and in the opening brawl the opposed servants. Externalized, the doubling plays out fratricidal rivalry. Fully internalized in a vulnerable character, patriarchal conflicts may produce self-murder. And that, I maintain, is what finally destroys Romeo and Juliet. See Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press,1989) 137.
98 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 139.
99 Boorman, S. C., Human Conflict in Shakespeare. (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul Ltd., 1987) 142.
100 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 269.
101 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 49.
102 Ibid., 50.
103 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 316.
104 … the hypothesis that the life process of the individual leads for internal reasons to an abolition of chemical tensions, that is to say, to death, whereas union with the living substance of a different individual increases those tensions, introducing what my be described as fresh vital differences which must then be ‘lived off’. See Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 329.
105 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 329.
106 Freud defines the pleasure principle as “a tendency operating in the service of a function whose business it is to free the mental apparatus entirely from excitation or to keep the amount of excitation in it constant or to keep it as low as possible.” See Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 336.
107 Freud, Sigmund, On Metapsychology: The Theory of Psychoanalysis. vol. 11, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 337-338.
108 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 54.
109 Woman, as Tertullian declared, is the gateway to hell. To enter the womb is to embark on a journey that leads through death to devilish regions below. If the male traveler does not get quite that far, still he may suffer the Neopolitan bone-ache and fleshly rot that mark him as a creature meant for death. See Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 55.
110 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 487.
111 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 117.
112 Ibid.
113 As a child Hamlet had experienced the warmest affection for his mother, and this, as is always so, had contained elements of a disguised erotic quality, still more so in infancy. See Jump, John, ed., Shakespeare Hamlet: A Casebook. (Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1968) 53.
114 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 119.
115 Bloom, Harold, ed., William Shakespeare’s Hamlet. (New York: Chelsea House Publishers, 1986) 50.
116 Ibid., 59.
117 Ibid., 60.
118 Kaplan, Charles & William Davis eds., Criticism: Major Statements. (New York: Bedsord-St. Martin’s, 2000) 627.
119 Jump, John, ed., Shakespeare Hamlet: A Casebook. (Hampshire and London: Macmillan Press Ltd., 1968) 32.
120 G. Wilson Knight, in his The Othello Music, says that Othello has not, indeed, the meditative or speculative imagination of Hamlet; but in the strictest sense of the word he is more poetic than Hamlet. Indeed, if one recalls Othello’s most famous speeches — those that begin, ‘Her father loved me’, ‘O now for ever’, ‘Never, Iago’, ‘Had it pleased Heaven’, ‘It is the cause’ … if one places side by side with these speeches an equal number by any other hero, one will not doubt that Othello is the greatest poet of them all. There is the same poetry in his casual phrases — like ‘These nine moons wasted’, ‘Keep up your bright swords, for the dew will rust them’, ‘You chaste stars’, ‘It is a sword of Spain, the ice-brook’s temper’, ‘It is the very error of the moon’ … See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 178.
121 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 179.
122 Ibid., 168.
123 Ibid.
124 Ibid., 169-170.
125 Ibid., 190.
126 Ibid.
127 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 465.
128 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 193.
129 Ibid.
130 Potter, Nicholas, ed., William Shakespeare Othello. (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd., 2000) 72.
131 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 181.
132 Ibid.
133 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 436.
134 Potter, Nicholas, ed., William Shakespeare Othello. (Cambridge: Icon Books Ltd., 2000) 73.
135 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 472.
136 Ibid., 449.
137 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 36.
138 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 449.
139 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 193.
140 Ibid.
141 Ibid., 170.
142 Ibid.
143 Ibid., 192-193.
144 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 96.
145 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 230.
146 Ibid., 269.
147 Ibid., 268.
148 Ibid., 270.
149 Ibid., 300.
150 Ibid., 303.
151 Ibid., 301.
152 Ibid., 263.
153 Ibid., 234.
154 Ibid.
155 Ibid., 304.
156 Ibid., 255.
157 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 67.
158 Ibid., 65.
159 Ibid., 140.
160 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 152.
161 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 49.
162 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 78.
163 Ibid.
164 McEachern, Claire, ed., The Cambridge Companion to Shakespearean Tragedy. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. 2002) 217.
165 According to Liang Shiqiu, pole here signifies the soldier’s military flag, or the polestar (the North Star), or the colorful pole. See Shakespeare, William, Antony and Cleopatra. (Taipei: The Far East Book Company, 2001) 277.
166 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 151.
167 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 567.
168 In Antony and Cleopatra, Antony tells Lepidus: The higher Nilus swells / The more it promises; as it ebbs, the seedsman / Upon the slime and ooze scatters his grain, /And shortly comes to harvest. (Act 2, Scene 7) The Nile Valley is a kind of golden world or earthly paradise, a place of seed where things grow to their fullest effortlessly and without cultivation … As well as imaging a beneficent and intriguingly polymorphous sexuality in Egypt, overflowing Nilus also offers an analogue for the vitalizing effect of experiencing the swollen torrents of magnified human passions projected by the histrionically gifted queen. In contrast to the busily temporal world of Rome, Egypt is an eternal realm, which transfixes Romans in the endlessly recurrent and fertilising experience of love. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 214-215.
169 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 54.
170 Ibid.
171 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 191.
172 The validity of the imaginative vision as it is asserted in the poetry is a part of Shakespeare’s subject in Antony and Cleopatra…we are presented with lovers creating the image of their love, not with poet’s poetising. For the association of love with imagination or fancy is one of Shakespeare’s most persistent themes. Love in Shakespeare almost always creates its own imaginative versions of reality; and it is almost always forced to test its version against the realities acknowledged by the rest of the world. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 59.
173 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 124.
174 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: The Tragedies. (Hamshire and New York: PALGRAVE, 2001) 336.
175 Ibid.
176 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 568.
177 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 55.
178 Ibid.
179 Rackin, Phyllis, Shakespeare’s Tragedies. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978) 25.
180 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 93.
181 Ibid., 95.
182 As Freud aptly shows, puns and wordplay, figure prominently in dreams, and the like, rely on an accidental similarity of sounds, and disguise a repressed impulse while giving voice to it. See Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 342-343.
183 In Romeo and Juliet, Mercutio’s bawdy jokes can be seen elsewhere in the play. For example, in Act 2, Scene 2, he utters his most obscenely exuberant pitch: If love be blind, love cannot hit the mark. / Now will he sit under a medlar tree, / And wish his mistress were that kind of fruit / As maids call medlars, when they laugh alone. / O Romeo! that she were, O! that she were / An open et coetera, thou a poperin pear. According to Harold Bloom’s notes and Liang Shiqiu’s translation, Mercutio here refers to the sexual intercourse. See Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 95-97. See also See Shakespeare, William, Romeo and Juliet. (Taipei: The Far East Book Company, 2001) 241.
184 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 95.
185 Ibid., 100.
186 Rackin, Phyllis, Shakespeare’s Tragedies. (New York: Frederick Ungar Publishing Co., 1978) 31.
187 Fry, Christopher, Death Is A Kind of Love. (Cranberry Isles ·Maine: The Tidal Press, 1979) 16-17.
188 Freud, Sigmund, Civilization and Discontents. vol. 12, ed. Angela Richards, trans. from the German under the general editorship of James Strachey. (Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1984) 311.
189 参见诺尔曼·布朗著,冯川,伍厚恺译。《生与死的对抗》。(贵州:贵州人民出版社,1994年)95。
190 Fry, Christopher, Death Is A Kind of Love. (Cranberry Isles ·Maine: The Tidal Press, 1979) 12.
191 Reisner, Gavriel, The Death-Ego and the Vital Self: Romances of Desire in Literature and Psychoanalysis. (Ontario: Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp., 2003) 37.
192 Ibid.
193 Reisner, Gavriel, The Death-Ego and the Vital Self: Romances of Desire in Literature and Psychoanalysis. (Ontario: Rosemont Publishing & Printing Corp., 2003) 36.
194 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 38.
195 Ibid.
196 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 103.
197 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Kentucky University Press, 1978) 93.
198 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 106.
199 Ibid.
200 Ibid.
201 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 24-25.
202 Calderwood, L. James, Shakespeare and the Denial of Death. (Amherst: The University of Massachusetts Press, 1987) 118.
203 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 142-143.
204 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 45-46.
205 Ibid., 45.
206 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 158.
207 Dolley, Christopher, ed., The Second Penguin Book of English Short Stories. (Beijing: Foreign Language Press, 1994) 157-158.
208 Gang, Zhu, Twentieth Century Western Critical Theories. (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press,2001) 246.
209 Ibid.
210 Jackson, Dennis and Jackson, Brown Fleda, Critical Essays on D. H. Lawrence (Boston, Massachusetts: G. K. Hall & Co. 1988) 156.
211 Ibid.
212 Ibid.
213 Russell, John, Hamlet and Narcissus (Newark: University of Delaware Press, 1995) 119.
214 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 97.
215 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 186.
216 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Kentucky University Press, 1978) 166. 217 Ibid.
218 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 98.
219 Bradley, in his comment on Desdemona, invites our acknowledgement: Were we intended to remember, as we hear this last ‘falsehood’, that other falsehood, ‘It is not lost’, and to feel that, alike in the momentary child’s fear and the deathless woman’s love, Desdemona is herself and herself alone? See Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 194.
220 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 187.
221 Ibid.
222 Nida Song interprets “to die upon a kiss” as that Othello will be able to achieve sexual union with Desdemona in death. See Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 56.
223 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1978)
163.
224 Ribner, Irving, Patters in Shakespearean Tragedy. (New Jersey: Barnes & Noble, 1960) 95-96.
225 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 180-181.
226 Knight, G. Wilson, The Wheel of Fire: Interpretations Shakespearian Tragedy. (London: Methuen & Co Ltd., 1978) 119.
227 Ibid., 97.
228 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 279.
229 Ibid., 290.
230 Ibid., 280.
231 Ibid., 298.
232 Ibid., 300.
233 Ibid.
234 Ibid., 241.
235 Ibid., 252.
236 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 240.
237 Farinata is a political leader from Dante’s era among the Heretics from the Sixth Circle of Hell. He is doomed to continue his intense obsession with Florentine politics. See http://www.sparknotes.com /poetry/inferno/section5.rhtml. See also Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 241.
238 Bradley, A. C., Shakespearean Tragedy. Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth. (London: Penguin Books Ltd., 1991) 263.
239 Ibid., 257.
240 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 47.
241 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 91.
242 Ibid.
243 Ibid., 91.
244 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 79.
245 Ibid.
246 Foreman, Walter C. Jr. The Music of the Close. (Lexington: Kentucky University Press, 1978) 57.
247 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 242.
248 Ibid., 241.
249 Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 80.
250 Sen Gupta, S. C., Aspects of Shakespearian Tragedy. (Calcutta: Oxford University Press, 1977) 55.
251 Charney, Maurice. Shakespeare’s Roman Plays, (Cambridge, Massachusetts, and London, England: Harvard University Press, 1961) 101.
252 The Egyptian world is rooted in the feminine principle … it is above all generative and highly erotic. It is also sensuous, anarchic, rooted in pleasure, play and sex … It is thus anti-civilization; yet it is the principle of life. The feminine principle rests on the ability to give birth; and many of Cleopatra’s images, or allusions to her or Egypt, concern fertility, whether of the “natural” or of the “monstrous”. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 266.
253 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 162.
254 Song, Nida, Death in Shakespeare and Eugene O’Neill, diss. (Albany: State University of New York, 1988) 82.
255 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 275.
256 Adelman, Janet, The Common Liar. (New Haven & London: Yale University Press, 1973) 156.
257 Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 182.
258 As Martin Buber says: “There is no evil impulse till the impulse has been separated from the being.” See Brown, John Russell, ed., Shakespeare: Antony and Cleopatra. 2nd ed. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1988) 156. At the same time, we should not read Cleopatra as a fallen woman. She is the incarnation of Egyptian value which is fully the pole of nature and procreation and beauty, as opposed to the power of force, imposition. See Drakakis, John, ed., New Casebooks: Antony and Cleopatra. (Hampshire and London: The Macmillan Press Ltd., 1994) 266.
259 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 162.
260 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 87.
261 Binshan, Huang Short History of English Literature (Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press, 1991) 68.
262 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 73.
263 Ibid., 42.
264 参见方平著,《和莎士比亚交个朋友吧》(成都:四川人民出版社,1983 年)245。
265 Farrell, Kirby, Play, Death and Heroism in Shakespeare. (Chapel Hill and London: The University of North Carolina Press, 1989) 144.
266 Sandler, Robert, ed., Northrop Frye on Shakespeare. (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1986) 32.
267 Ibid.
268 Rozett, Martha Tuck. “The Comic Structures of Tragic Endings: The Suicide Scenes in Romeo and Juliet And Antony and Cleopatra.” Shakespeare Quarterly. Volume 36, Number 2. Summer 1985: 158.
269 Halio, Jay L., Romeo and Juliet: A Guide to the Play. (Westport: Greenwood Press, 1998) 84.
270 Andrews, F. John, Romeo and Juliet: Critical Essays. (New York & London: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1993) 407.
271 Ibid.
272 Ibid.
273 Bloom, Harold, Shakespeare: The Invention of The Human. (New York: Berkley Publishing Group, 1999) 90.
274 Ibid., 91.
275 Cunningham, James, Shakespeare’s Tragedies and Modern Critical Theory. (London: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1997) 11.
276 Ibid., 21.
277 Ibid., 11.
278 Ibid., 27.
279 Ibid., 26.
280 Ibid.
281 Ibid.
282 Ibid.
283 Freud, Sigmund, Freud’s Readings of The Unconscious and Arts. (Beijin: China Renmin Univesity Press, 1998) 20.
284 Ibid., 21.
285 “An ego thus educated has become 'reasonable'; it no longer lets itself be governed by the pleasure principle, but obeys the reality principle, which also at bottom seeks to obtain pleasure, but pleasure which is assured through taking account of reality, even though it is pleasure postponed and diminished” (Introductory Lectures 16.357) See http: // www. cla. purdue. Edu / English / theory / psychoanalysis / definitions / pleasureprinciple html.
286 See http: // www. cla. purdue. Edu / English / theory / psychoanalysis / freud5 mainframe.html.
287 Cunningham, James, Shakespeare’s Tragedies and Modern Critical Theory. (London: Associated University Presses, Inc., 1997) 26.
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http://www.quotationspage.com/quotes/Epicurus/
http://www.sparknotes.com /poetry/inferno/section5.rhtml
http://www.cla.purdue.Edu/English/theory/psychoanalysis/definitions/pleasureprinciple html.
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