城市地表覆被类型变化及城市热岛效应研究
|
摘要
本研究利用Landsat5卫星影像反演了嘉兴、湖州、绍兴地区1994年和2010年的不透水面、植被、水体、地面温度等主要地表参数，并对其空间分布格局进行深入分析，试图揭示16年间这三个城市土地利用和地表温度变化的动态特征，从而为杭州都市经济圈的城市规划和产业布局等研究提供相关依据和借鉴。研究发现：
（1）就2010年研究区现状来看，嘉兴市和绍兴市的地表覆被类型组成比重较为一致，不透水面：植被：水体=3：6：1，湖州市为2：6：2；湖州市各地表覆被景观分布格局最好，为1.73，嘉兴其次，为0.95，绍兴最差，为0.75；嘉兴市热岛面积比例最低，为6.15%，绍兴市与湖州市相差不大，分别为12.08%和12.26%。
（2）就2010年主城区现状来看，嘉兴市的面积最大，为72.36km~2，绍兴市其次，为53.64km~2，湖州市最小，为35.64km~2；湖州市主城区各地表覆被景观分布格局最好，为-1.46，绍兴最差，为-1.9；嘉兴市主城区热岛面积比例最低，为29.53%，绍兴市其次，为46.81%，湖州市最高，为78.31%。
（3）就研究区16年间变化来看，嘉兴市不透水面面积增加最快，增长2.26倍，湖州市和绍兴市相差不大，分别增长1.55倍和1.22倍；除了绍兴市因大规模竭泽造田使植被面积提高了1.43倍外，嘉兴和湖州植被面积均有不同程度的下降；3个城市研究区地表覆被景观分布格局均处于恶化趋势，其中，嘉兴市恶化程度最高，为-1.65，湖州市恶化程度最低，为-1.24；嘉兴市研究区热岛面积所占比重增加了4.6%，是原先的3.97倍；湖州市热岛面积比重增加了8.29%，是原先的3.08倍；绍兴市热岛面积比重增加了7.99%，是原先的3.08倍。
（4）就主城区16年间变化来看，嘉兴市主城区面积提高了5.58倍，湖州市提高了3倍，绍兴市提高了2.4倍；3个城市主城区范围内地表覆被景观分布格局均处于改善状态，其中，嘉兴市改善程度最高，为0.75，绍兴市改善程度最低，为0.14；16年间嘉兴市主城区热岛面积比重降低了26.83%，是原先的0.52倍；绍兴市热岛面积比重降低了10.54%，是原先的0.82倍；湖州市热岛面积比重增加了6.71%，是原先的1.09倍。
The dynamics of urban biophysical descriptors, represented mainly by impervious surface,vegetation and open water, can affect the quality of urban thermal environment (UTE). The studyfocuses on the quantitative relationship between impervious surface and land surface temperature(LST) because the impervious surface has for many years been recognized as an indicator of theintensity of the UTE and, with the advent of urban sprawl, become a key issue in urban habitathealth. The city’s biophysical properties of Jiaxing, Shaoxing and Huzhou, e. g., impervioussurface, vegetation and water, along with LST in1994and2009were retrieved from the LandsatTM images of the corresponding years. We want to reveal the dynamic character of land use andLST of these three cities, which could provided reference for city planning policies anddistribution of the Hangzhou Economic Circle.
(1) On present situation of the study area in2010, the various components of the proportionof land cover type of Jiaxing was nearly consistent with Shaoxing, the ratio of impervious surfaceto vegetation and water was3:6:1, which was2:6:2in Huzhou. Huzhou had the best landscapepattern of all. The area ratio of urban heat island (UHI) in Jiaxing was very low (about6.15%),which had little difference in Shaoxing and Huzhou, the ratio was12.08%and12.26%respectively.
(2) On present situation of the urban area in2010, the urban area of Jiaxing was72.36km~2,which was the biggest of all. Huzhou had the best landscape pattern of all. The area ratio of urbanheat island (UHI) in Jiaxing was very low (about29.53%), which was46.81%and78.31%respectively in Shaoxing and Huzhou,
(3) On the variance in study area during16years, the impervious surface area of Jiaxing grewfastest,2.26times than before, which had little difference in Shaoxing and Huzhou. Thevegetation area of Shaoxing increased in Shaoxing, which was decreased in Jiaxing and Huzhou.The landscape pattern of study area of all the three city was getting worse, which was worst inJiaxing. The area ratio of UHI in Jiaxing increased4.6%,3.97times than before.
(4) On the variance in urban area during16years, the urban area of Jiaxing grew fastest, which was5.58times than before. The landscape pattern of urban area of all the three city wasgetting better, which was best in Jiaxing. The area ratio of UHI in Jiaxing decreased26.83%,0.52times than before.
（1）就2010年研究区现状来看，嘉兴市和绍兴市的地表覆被类型组成比重较为一致，不透水面：植被：水体=3：6：1，湖州市为2：6：2；湖州市各地表覆被景观分布格局最好，为1.73，嘉兴其次，为0.95，绍兴最差，为0.75；嘉兴市热岛面积比例最低，为6.15%，绍兴市与湖州市相差不大，分别为12.08%和12.26%。
（2）就2010年主城区现状来看，嘉兴市的面积最大，为72.36km~2，绍兴市其次，为53.64km~2，湖州市最小，为35.64km~2；湖州市主城区各地表覆被景观分布格局最好，为-1.46，绍兴最差，为-1.9；嘉兴市主城区热岛面积比例最低，为29.53%，绍兴市其次，为46.81%，湖州市最高，为78.31%。
（3）就研究区16年间变化来看，嘉兴市不透水面面积增加最快，增长2.26倍，湖州市和绍兴市相差不大，分别增长1.55倍和1.22倍；除了绍兴市因大规模竭泽造田使植被面积提高了1.43倍外，嘉兴和湖州植被面积均有不同程度的下降；3个城市研究区地表覆被景观分布格局均处于恶化趋势，其中，嘉兴市恶化程度最高，为-1.65，湖州市恶化程度最低，为-1.24；嘉兴市研究区热岛面积所占比重增加了4.6%，是原先的3.97倍；湖州市热岛面积比重增加了8.29%，是原先的3.08倍；绍兴市热岛面积比重增加了7.99%，是原先的3.08倍。
（4）就主城区16年间变化来看，嘉兴市主城区面积提高了5.58倍，湖州市提高了3倍，绍兴市提高了2.4倍；3个城市主城区范围内地表覆被景观分布格局均处于改善状态，其中，嘉兴市改善程度最高，为0.75，绍兴市改善程度最低，为0.14；16年间嘉兴市主城区热岛面积比重降低了26.83%，是原先的0.52倍；绍兴市热岛面积比重降低了10.54%，是原先的0.82倍；湖州市热岛面积比重增加了6.71%，是原先的1.09倍。
The dynamics of urban biophysical descriptors, represented mainly by impervious surface,vegetation and open water, can affect the quality of urban thermal environment (UTE). The studyfocuses on the quantitative relationship between impervious surface and land surface temperature(LST) because the impervious surface has for many years been recognized as an indicator of theintensity of the UTE and, with the advent of urban sprawl, become a key issue in urban habitathealth. The city’s biophysical properties of Jiaxing, Shaoxing and Huzhou, e. g., impervioussurface, vegetation and water, along with LST in1994and2009were retrieved from the LandsatTM images of the corresponding years. We want to reveal the dynamic character of land use andLST of these three cities, which could provided reference for city planning policies anddistribution of the Hangzhou Economic Circle.
(1) On present situation of the study area in2010, the various components of the proportionof land cover type of Jiaxing was nearly consistent with Shaoxing, the ratio of impervious surfaceto vegetation and water was3:6:1, which was2:6:2in Huzhou. Huzhou had the best landscapepattern of all. The area ratio of urban heat island (UHI) in Jiaxing was very low (about6.15%),which had little difference in Shaoxing and Huzhou, the ratio was12.08%and12.26%respectively.
(2) On present situation of the urban area in2010, the urban area of Jiaxing was72.36km~2,which was the biggest of all. Huzhou had the best landscape pattern of all. The area ratio of urbanheat island (UHI) in Jiaxing was very low (about29.53%), which was46.81%and78.31%respectively in Shaoxing and Huzhou,
(3) On the variance in study area during16years, the impervious surface area of Jiaxing grewfastest,2.26times than before, which had little difference in Shaoxing and Huzhou. Thevegetation area of Shaoxing increased in Shaoxing, which was decreased in Jiaxing and Huzhou.The landscape pattern of study area of all the three city was getting worse, which was worst inJiaxing. The area ratio of UHI in Jiaxing increased4.6%,3.97times than before.
(4) On the variance in urban area during16years, the urban area of Jiaxing grew fastest, which was5.58times than before. The landscape pattern of urban area of all the three city wasgetting better, which was best in Jiaxing. The area ratio of UHI in Jiaxing decreased26.83%,0.52times than before.
引文
[1] KONOPACKI S, AKBARI H. Energy savings for heat-island reduction strategies in Chicago andHouston (including updates for Baton Rouge, Sacramento, and Salt Lake City)[J].2002. Draft FinalReport, LBNL-49638, University of California,Berkeley.
[2] ROSENFELD A H, AKBARI H, ROMM J J, et al.Cool communities: strategies for heat islandmitigation and smog reduction[J].Energy and Buildings.1998,28(1):51-62.
[3] KONDOH A, NISHIYAMA J.Changes in hydrological cycle due to urbanization in the suburb ofTokyo Metropolitan area, Japan[J].Advances in Space Research.2000,26(7):1173-1176.
[4] PONGRACZ R, BARTHOLY J, DEZSO Z.Remotely sensed thermal information applied to urbanclimate analysis[J].Advances in Space Research.2006,37(12):2191-2196.
[5] KIM Y H, BAIK J J.Spatial and temporal structure of the urban heat island in Seoul[J].Journal ofApplied Meteorology.2005,44(5):591-605.
[6] HUANG H, OOKA R, KATO S.Urban thermal environment measurements and numericalsimulation for an actual complex urban area covering a large district heating and cooling system insummer[J].Atmospheric Environment.2005,39(34):6362-6375.
[7] KIM Y H, BAIK J J.Maximum urban heat island intensity in Seoul[J].Journal of AppliedMeteorology.2002,41(6):651-659.
[8] MAGEE N, CURTIS J, WENDLER G.The urban heat island effect at Fairbanks, Alaska[J].Theoretical and Applied Climatology.1999,64(1):39-47.
[9] WONG N H, YU C.Study of green areas and urban heat island in a tropical city[J].HabitatInternational.2005,29(3):547-558.
[10] GIRIDHARAN R, GANESAN S, LAU S.Daytime urban heat island effect in high-rise andhigh-density residential developments in Hong Kong[J].Energy and Buildings.2004,36(6):525-534.
[11] GIRIDHARAN R, LAU S, GANESAN S.Nocturnal heat island effect in urban residentialdevelopments of Hong Kong[J].Energy and Buildings.2005,37(9):964-971.
[12] STANHILL G, KALMA J D.Solar dimming and urban heating at Hong Kong[J].Internationaljournal of climatology.1995,15(8):933-941.
[13] HAFNER J, KIDDER S Q.Urban heat island modeling in conjunction with satellite-derivedsurface/soil parameters[J].Journal of applied meteorology.1999,38(4):448-465.
[14] KLYSIK K, FORTUNIAK K.Temporal and spatial characteristics of the urban heat island of ód,Poland[J].Atmospheric Environment.1999,33(24-25):3885-3895.
[15] CHRISTEN A, VOGT R.Energy and radiation balance of a central European city[J].InternationalJournal of Climatology.2004,24(11):1395-1421.
[16] OFFERLE B, GRIMMOND C, FORTUNIAK K.Heat storage and anthropogenic heat flux inrelation to the energy balance of a central European city centre[J].International Journal ofClimatology.2005,25(10):1405-1419.
[17] SAILOR D J, LU L.A top–down methodology for developing diurnal and seasonalanthropogenic heating profiles for urban areas[J].Atmospheric Environment.2004,38(17):2737-2748.
[18] ICHINOSE T, SHIMODOZONO K, HANAKI K.Impact of anthropogenic heat on urban climatein Tokyo[J].Atmospheric Environment.1999,33(24-25):3897-3909.
[19] TAHA H.Urban climates and heat islands: albedo, evapotranspiration, and anthropogenicheat[J].Energy and buildings.1997,25(2):99-103.
[20] OFFERLE B, GRIMMOND C, FORTUNIAK K, et al.Temporal variations in heat fluxes over acentral European city centre[J].Theoretical and applied climatology.2006,84(1):103-115.
[21] VOOGT J A, GRIMMOND C.Modeling surface sensible heat flux using surface radiativetemperatures in a simple urban area[J].Journal of Applied Meteorology.2000,39(10):1679-1699.
[22] NICHOL J, WONG M S.Modeling urban environmental quality in a tropical city[J].Landscapeand urban planning.2005,73(1):49-58.
[23] LEMONSU A, MASSON V.Simulation of a summer urban breeze over Paris[J].Boundary-LayerMeteorology.2002,104(3):463-490.
[24] DUPONT S, OTTE T L, CHING J K S.Simulation of meteorological fields within and aboveurban and rural canopies with a mesoscale model[J].Boundary-Layer Meteorology.2004,113(1):111-158.
[25] KATO S, YAMAGUCHI Y.Analysis of urban heat-island effect using ASTER and ETM+Data:Separation of anthropogenic heat discharge and natural heat radiation from sensible heatflux[J].Remote Sensing of Environment.2005,99(1):44-54.
[26] TAKAHASHI K, YOSHIDA H, TANAKA Y, et al.Measurement of thermal environment inKyoto city and its prediction by CFD simulation[J].Energy and Buildings.2004,36(8):771-779.
[27] ARNFIELD A J.Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges ofenergy and water, and the urban heat island[J].International Journal of Climatology.2003,23(1):1-26.
[28] SPRONKEN-SMITH R A, OKE T R, LOWRY W P.Advection and the surface energy balanceacross an irrigated urban park[J].International Journal of Climatology.2000,20(9):1033-1047.
[29] KOLOKOTRONI M, GIANNITSARIS I, WATKINS R.The effect of the London urban heatisland on building summer cooling demand and night ventilation strategies[J].Solar Energy.2006,80(4):383-392.
[30] URANO A, ICHINOSE T, HANAKI K.Thermal environment simulation for three dimensionalreplacement of urban activity[J].Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics.1999,81(1):197-210.
[31] KIKEGAWA Y, GENCHI Y, KONDO H, et al.Impacts of city-block-scale countermeasuresagainst urban heat-island phenomena upon a building’s energy-consumption for air-conditioning[J].Applied Energy.2006,83(6):649-668.
[32] ASHIE Y, THANH CA V, ASAEDA T.Building canopy model for the analysis of urbanclimate[J].Journal of wind engineering and industrial aerodynamics.1999,81(1):237-248.
[33] YU C, HIEN W N.Thermal benefits of city parks[J].Energy and Buildings.2006,38(2):105-120.
[34] CA V T, ASAEDA T, ABU E M.Reductions in air conditioning energy caused by a nearbypark[J].Energy and Buildings.1998,29(1):83-92.
[35] TONG H, WALTON A, SANG J, et al.Numerical simulation of the urban boundary layer over thecomplex terrain of Hong Kong[J].Atmospheric Environment.2005,39(19):3549-3563.
[36] KIKEGAWA Y, GENCHI Y, YOSHIKADO H, et al.Development of a numerical simulationsystem toward comprehensive assessments of urban warming countermeasures including their impactsupon the urban buildings' energy-demands[J].Applied Energy.2003,76(4):449-466.
[37]段金龙，宋轩，张学雷.基于RS的郑州市城市热岛效应时空演变[J].应用生态学报.2011,22(001):165-170.
[38]黄聚聪，赵小锋，唐立娜，等.城市热力景观格局季节变化特征分析及其应用[J].生态环境学报.2011,20(2):304-310.
[39]彭文甫，周介铭，罗怀良，等.城市土地利用与地面热效应时空变化特征的关系——以成都市为例[J].自然资源学报.2011,26(10):1738-1749.
[40]袁金国.遥感图像数字处理[M].中国环境科学出版社,2006.
[41]范渭亮，杜华强，周国模，等.大气校正对毛竹林生物量遥感估算的影响[J].应用生态学报.2010(1):1-8.
[42] XU H.Modification of normalised difference water index (NDWI) to enhance open water featuresin remotely sensed imagery[J].International Journal of Remote Sensing.2006,27(14):3025-3033.
[43] JI L, ZHANG L, WYLIE B.Analysis of dynamic thresholds for the normalized difference waterindex.[J].PE&RS, Photogrammetric Engineering&Remote Sensing.2009,75(11):1307-1317.
[44] SOTI V, TRAN A, BAILLY J S, et al.Assessing optical earth observation systems for mappingand monitoring temporary ponds in arid areas[J].International Journal of Applied Earth Observationand Geoinformation.2009,11(5):344-351.
[45]李志刚，李小玉，高宾，等.基于遥感分析的锦州湾海域填海造地变化[J].应用生态学报.2011,22(4):943-949.
[46] HUETE A R.A soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI)[J].Remote sensing of environment.1988,25(3):295-309.
[47]徐涵秋.基于城市地表参数变化的城市热岛效应分析[J].生态学报.2011,31(14):3890-3901.
[48] QIN Z, KARNIELI A, BERLINER P.A mono-window algorithm for retrieving land surfacetemperature from Landsat TM data and its application to the Israel-Egypt border region[J].InternationalJournal of Remote Sensing.2001,22(18):3719-3746.
[49]丁凤，徐涵秋.基于Landsat TM的3种地表温度反演算法比较分析[J].福建师范大学学报:自然科学版.2008(001):91-96.
[50] FORMAN R T T. Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions[M]. Cambridge Univ Pr,1995.
[51]王仰麟.农业景观格局与过程研究进展[J].环境科学进展.1998,6(2):29-34.
[52]邬建国.景观生态学:格局,过程,尺度与等级[M].高等教育出版社,2000.
[53] VERBURG P H, SOEPBOER W, LIMPIADA R, et al.Land use change modelling at the regionalscale: the CLUE-S model[J].Environmental Management.2002,30(3):391-405.
[54] LI X, HE H S, BU R, et al.The adequacy of different landscape metrics for various landscapepatterns[J].Pattern Recognition.2005,38(12):2626-2638.
[55] LAUSCH A, HERZOG F.Applicability of landscape metrics for the monitoring of landscapechange: issues of scale, resolution and interpretability[J].Ecological indicators.2002,2(1-2):3-15.
[56] RAO K S, PANT R.Land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical micro watershedin the mid elevation zone of central Himalaya, India[J].Agriculture, ecosystems&environment.2001,86(2):113-124.
[57] VELDKAMP E, WEITZ A M, STARITSKY I G, et al.Deforestation trends in the Atlantic zone ofCosta Rica: a case study[J].Land Degradation&Development.1992,3(2):71-84.
[2] ROSENFELD A H, AKBARI H, ROMM J J, et al.Cool communities: strategies for heat islandmitigation and smog reduction[J].Energy and Buildings.1998,28(1):51-62.
[3] KONDOH A, NISHIYAMA J.Changes in hydrological cycle due to urbanization in the suburb ofTokyo Metropolitan area, Japan[J].Advances in Space Research.2000,26(7):1173-1176.
[4] PONGRACZ R, BARTHOLY J, DEZSO Z.Remotely sensed thermal information applied to urbanclimate analysis[J].Advances in Space Research.2006,37(12):2191-2196.
[5] KIM Y H, BAIK J J.Spatial and temporal structure of the urban heat island in Seoul[J].Journal ofApplied Meteorology.2005,44(5):591-605.
[6] HUANG H, OOKA R, KATO S.Urban thermal environment measurements and numericalsimulation for an actual complex urban area covering a large district heating and cooling system insummer[J].Atmospheric Environment.2005,39(34):6362-6375.
[7] KIM Y H, BAIK J J.Maximum urban heat island intensity in Seoul[J].Journal of AppliedMeteorology.2002,41(6):651-659.
[8] MAGEE N, CURTIS J, WENDLER G.The urban heat island effect at Fairbanks, Alaska[J].Theoretical and Applied Climatology.1999,64(1):39-47.
[9] WONG N H, YU C.Study of green areas and urban heat island in a tropical city[J].HabitatInternational.2005,29(3):547-558.
[10] GIRIDHARAN R, GANESAN S, LAU S.Daytime urban heat island effect in high-rise andhigh-density residential developments in Hong Kong[J].Energy and Buildings.2004,36(6):525-534.
[11] GIRIDHARAN R, LAU S, GANESAN S.Nocturnal heat island effect in urban residentialdevelopments of Hong Kong[J].Energy and Buildings.2005,37(9):964-971.
[12] STANHILL G, KALMA J D.Solar dimming and urban heating at Hong Kong[J].Internationaljournal of climatology.1995,15(8):933-941.
[13] HAFNER J, KIDDER S Q.Urban heat island modeling in conjunction with satellite-derivedsurface/soil parameters[J].Journal of applied meteorology.1999,38(4):448-465.
[14] KLYSIK K, FORTUNIAK K.Temporal and spatial characteristics of the urban heat island of ód,Poland[J].Atmospheric Environment.1999,33(24-25):3885-3895.
[15] CHRISTEN A, VOGT R.Energy and radiation balance of a central European city[J].InternationalJournal of Climatology.2004,24(11):1395-1421.
[16] OFFERLE B, GRIMMOND C, FORTUNIAK K.Heat storage and anthropogenic heat flux inrelation to the energy balance of a central European city centre[J].International Journal ofClimatology.2005,25(10):1405-1419.
[17] SAILOR D J, LU L.A top–down methodology for developing diurnal and seasonalanthropogenic heating profiles for urban areas[J].Atmospheric Environment.2004,38(17):2737-2748.
[18] ICHINOSE T, SHIMODOZONO K, HANAKI K.Impact of anthropogenic heat on urban climatein Tokyo[J].Atmospheric Environment.1999,33(24-25):3897-3909.
[19] TAHA H.Urban climates and heat islands: albedo, evapotranspiration, and anthropogenicheat[J].Energy and buildings.1997,25(2):99-103.
[20] OFFERLE B, GRIMMOND C, FORTUNIAK K, et al.Temporal variations in heat fluxes over acentral European city centre[J].Theoretical and applied climatology.2006,84(1):103-115.
[21] VOOGT J A, GRIMMOND C.Modeling surface sensible heat flux using surface radiativetemperatures in a simple urban area[J].Journal of Applied Meteorology.2000,39(10):1679-1699.
[22] NICHOL J, WONG M S.Modeling urban environmental quality in a tropical city[J].Landscapeand urban planning.2005,73(1):49-58.
[23] LEMONSU A, MASSON V.Simulation of a summer urban breeze over Paris[J].Boundary-LayerMeteorology.2002,104(3):463-490.
[24] DUPONT S, OTTE T L, CHING J K S.Simulation of meteorological fields within and aboveurban and rural canopies with a mesoscale model[J].Boundary-Layer Meteorology.2004,113(1):111-158.
[25] KATO S, YAMAGUCHI Y.Analysis of urban heat-island effect using ASTER and ETM+Data:Separation of anthropogenic heat discharge and natural heat radiation from sensible heatflux[J].Remote Sensing of Environment.2005,99(1):44-54.
[26] TAKAHASHI K, YOSHIDA H, TANAKA Y, et al.Measurement of thermal environment inKyoto city and its prediction by CFD simulation[J].Energy and Buildings.2004,36(8):771-779.
[27] ARNFIELD A J.Two decades of urban climate research: a review of turbulence, exchanges ofenergy and water, and the urban heat island[J].International Journal of Climatology.2003,23(1):1-26.
[28] SPRONKEN-SMITH R A, OKE T R, LOWRY W P.Advection and the surface energy balanceacross an irrigated urban park[J].International Journal of Climatology.2000,20(9):1033-1047.
[29] KOLOKOTRONI M, GIANNITSARIS I, WATKINS R.The effect of the London urban heatisland on building summer cooling demand and night ventilation strategies[J].Solar Energy.2006,80(4):383-392.
[30] URANO A, ICHINOSE T, HANAKI K.Thermal environment simulation for three dimensionalreplacement of urban activity[J].Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics.1999,81(1):197-210.
[31] KIKEGAWA Y, GENCHI Y, KONDO H, et al.Impacts of city-block-scale countermeasuresagainst urban heat-island phenomena upon a building’s energy-consumption for air-conditioning[J].Applied Energy.2006,83(6):649-668.
[32] ASHIE Y, THANH CA V, ASAEDA T.Building canopy model for the analysis of urbanclimate[J].Journal of wind engineering and industrial aerodynamics.1999,81(1):237-248.
[33] YU C, HIEN W N.Thermal benefits of city parks[J].Energy and Buildings.2006,38(2):105-120.
[34] CA V T, ASAEDA T, ABU E M.Reductions in air conditioning energy caused by a nearbypark[J].Energy and Buildings.1998,29(1):83-92.
[35] TONG H, WALTON A, SANG J, et al.Numerical simulation of the urban boundary layer over thecomplex terrain of Hong Kong[J].Atmospheric Environment.2005,39(19):3549-3563.
[36] KIKEGAWA Y, GENCHI Y, YOSHIKADO H, et al.Development of a numerical simulationsystem toward comprehensive assessments of urban warming countermeasures including their impactsupon the urban buildings' energy-demands[J].Applied Energy.2003,76(4):449-466.
[37]段金龙，宋轩，张学雷.基于RS的郑州市城市热岛效应时空演变[J].应用生态学报.2011,22(001):165-170.
[38]黄聚聪，赵小锋，唐立娜，等.城市热力景观格局季节变化特征分析及其应用[J].生态环境学报.2011,20(2):304-310.
[39]彭文甫，周介铭，罗怀良，等.城市土地利用与地面热效应时空变化特征的关系——以成都市为例[J].自然资源学报.2011,26(10):1738-1749.
[40]袁金国.遥感图像数字处理[M].中国环境科学出版社,2006.
[41]范渭亮，杜华强，周国模，等.大气校正对毛竹林生物量遥感估算的影响[J].应用生态学报.2010(1):1-8.
[42] XU H.Modification of normalised difference water index (NDWI) to enhance open water featuresin remotely sensed imagery[J].International Journal of Remote Sensing.2006,27(14):3025-3033.
[43] JI L, ZHANG L, WYLIE B.Analysis of dynamic thresholds for the normalized difference waterindex.[J].PE&RS, Photogrammetric Engineering&Remote Sensing.2009,75(11):1307-1317.
[44] SOTI V, TRAN A, BAILLY J S, et al.Assessing optical earth observation systems for mappingand monitoring temporary ponds in arid areas[J].International Journal of Applied Earth Observationand Geoinformation.2009,11(5):344-351.
[45]李志刚，李小玉，高宾，等.基于遥感分析的锦州湾海域填海造地变化[J].应用生态学报.2011,22(4):943-949.
[46] HUETE A R.A soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI)[J].Remote sensing of environment.1988,25(3):295-309.
[47]徐涵秋.基于城市地表参数变化的城市热岛效应分析[J].生态学报.2011,31(14):3890-3901.
[48] QIN Z, KARNIELI A, BERLINER P.A mono-window algorithm for retrieving land surfacetemperature from Landsat TM data and its application to the Israel-Egypt border region[J].InternationalJournal of Remote Sensing.2001,22(18):3719-3746.
[49]丁凤，徐涵秋.基于Landsat TM的3种地表温度反演算法比较分析[J].福建师范大学学报:自然科学版.2008(001):91-96.
[50] FORMAN R T T. Land mosaics: the ecology of landscapes and regions[M]. Cambridge Univ Pr,1995.
[51]王仰麟.农业景观格局与过程研究进展[J].环境科学进展.1998,6(2):29-34.
[52]邬建国.景观生态学:格局,过程,尺度与等级[M].高等教育出版社,2000.
[53] VERBURG P H, SOEPBOER W, LIMPIADA R, et al.Land use change modelling at the regionalscale: the CLUE-S model[J].Environmental Management.2002,30(3):391-405.
[54] LI X, HE H S, BU R, et al.The adequacy of different landscape metrics for various landscapepatterns[J].Pattern Recognition.2005,38(12):2626-2638.
[55] LAUSCH A, HERZOG F.Applicability of landscape metrics for the monitoring of landscapechange: issues of scale, resolution and interpretability[J].Ecological indicators.2002,2(1-2):3-15.
[56] RAO K S, PANT R.Land use dynamics and landscape change pattern in a typical micro watershedin the mid elevation zone of central Himalaya, India[J].Agriculture, ecosystems&environment.2001,86(2):113-124.
[57] VELDKAMP E, WEITZ A M, STARITSKY I G, et al.Deforestation trends in the Atlantic zone ofCosta Rica: a case study[J].Land Degradation&Development.1992,3(2):71-84.