旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制研究
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摘要
目前,我国民主政治建设、立法推动、战略推进、政府职能转变以及各级政府旅游行政部门的实践已经为旅游目的地治理中公众参与奠定了基础。但是,其理论构建和实践机制还不完善。基于此,本文引入新公共管理理论、治理理论、公众参与理论等对旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制进行研究,并结合案例调研结果提出相应的实践框架。
通过对国内外旅游目的地治理研究和公众参与旅游目的地公共事务研究相关文献的综述,并根据上述相关理论,本文界定了旅游目的地公共事务、旅游目的地治理、旅游目的地治理中的公众参与等概念及其内涵。在此基础上,本文提出旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制要包括动力机制、实现机制、保障机制三个方面。
具体来说,旅游目的地治理中公众参与的动力机制是基于公众与政府双重视角的,由推力机制和拉力机制共同构成的整体性机制。其中,推力机制包括旅游业地位的提高、目的地公众参与意识的强化、目的地公众需求表达和整合的需要等五个因素；拉力机制包括目的地发展环境的复杂性、目的地公共事务的广泛性、目的地内外部平衡发展的需要、政府职能转变及其对公众参与的需要等八个因素,而旅游目的地治理的4E(经济、效率、效能、公平)目标和旅游目的地可持续发展则兼具推力与拉力之双重动力。
旅游目的地治理中公众参与的实现机制是一个由参与主体、客体、层次、方式、过程、结果共六个维度构成的整合性机制,其有效实施包括参与选择、参与过程、参与结果三个方面。首先,参与主体包括居民、社区组织、旅游企业、旅游从业人员、旅游者、非政府组织、教育机构、研究机构、媒体、专家学者等；参与客体(游目的地公共事务)包括旅游立法与执法、旅游政策制定与实施、旅游规划制定与实施、目的地品牌化等18类；参与层次包括告知、咨询、民意支持、资源支持、协作(协商／合作)、授权、公众自主,并可划分为低度、中度、深度三个综合性层次；参与方式有政府信息公开、关键公众接触、名义小组、共同生产等40多种。针对参与选择的有效实施,本文根据旅游目的地公共事务的专业性程度、公众支持的重要性程度、时间限制程度三个维度,基于与之相应的7个问题提出了“基于参与选择的旅游目的地治理中公众参与实现机制实施模型”。进一步来看,旅游目的地治理中公众参与的过程是一个持续性进程,其有效实施的核心要素是全程性参与、公平性参与、参与程序合法、政府有效回应。而旅游目的地治理中公众参与的结果则是以4E目标的实现为核心,涵盖公众输出与输入、政府输入与输出及它们之间的互动机制。
旅游目的地治理中公众参与的保障机制涉及到参与型政治文化构建、服务型政府建设、公众参与能力提升、制度供给、有效的激励机制等。其中政治文化是基础,其他几个方面则是激发并使公众保持参与热情的保障。
在上述研究基础上,本文选择山东省“文化圣地、度假天堂”旅游品牌的重要依托城市——青岛市、济宁市及其所下辖的中国优秀旅游城市即墨市、曲阜市、邹城市为案例,对当地旅游行政部门工作人员和个体公众中的居民进行自填问卷式调查,并利用SPSS19.0软件对调研数据统计与分析。调研结果表明,当地旅游目的地公共事务执行主要需要公众的深度参与和中度参与；参与过程中全程性参与、公平性参与、参与程序提前取得公众认可为公众所重视;政府人员看重政府输入和4E目标实现等参与结果,而公众则关注对实际参与过程的感知满意及表达权范畴的参与结果；当地公众的权利意识已经形成,但是其公共精神不足,他们接受公众参与知识教育培训和接受组织化参与的意愿尚需强化;政府人员已经认可公众参与旅游公共事务,并正在积极推动政府信息公开,但是当地公众参与旅游公共事务的制度供给不足；公众依次看重对参与结果的影响力、政府提供便利条件、经济报酬／补偿、奖励等激励手段。
本文基于旅游目的地整体层面创新性提出了由动力机制、实现机制、保障机制构成的旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制,具体创新点主要有：1.引入公共管理等相关学科的理论,界定和阐释了在旅游目的地情境中公共事务、治理、公众参与、公众参与机制等相关概念及其内涵；2.突破以往研究中单纯工具性目标导向或价值性目标导向的研究思路,引入“推拉”理论,基于公众与政府的双重视角,提出了整合性的旅游目的地治理中公众参与的动力机制模型；3.超越以往研究中提出的单维度、三维度、四维度,首次构建了基于六维度的旅游目的地治理中公众参与实现机制模型;4.将托马斯的随机决策模型由两维度扩展为三维度,并对其中的具体实施步骤进行了修正与扩充,从而提出了兼顾公共决策性事务和公共行动性事务的公众参与实践框架。
The democratic political development, legislation promoting, strategy propulsion, duty transformation of government and the practices of tourism administrative departments at all levels have established the foundation of public participation in destination governance in China. But its theory and practice is insufficient at present. Therefore this paper introduces the public management theory, governance theory, public participation theory to research the mechanism of public participation in destination governance and its practice framework.
Based on the reviews of the existing research achievements on destination governance and public participation in destination public affairs, this paper analyzes the concepts and connotations of destination public affairs, destination governance, and public participation in destination governance. At the same time, this paper puts forward that the mechanism of public participation in destination governance is composed of three dimensions:dynamic mechanism, implementation mechanism and guarantee mechanism.
Specifically, its dynamic mechanism is composed of pushing mechanism and pulling mechanism. Firstly, the pushing mechanism includes five factors, such as the status rising of tourism in the public's life, the improvement of the public's consciousness of participation, the requirement of the expression and integration of public demands. Secondly, the pulling mechanism includes eight factors, such as the complexity of destination surroundings, the diversity of destination public affairs, the requirement of destination's balanced development, the duty transformation of governments and their needs for public participation. Moreover,4E (Economy, Efficiency, Effectiveness, Equity) objects and the sustainable development of destination are bidirectional dynamics.
Its implementation mechanism is an integration mechanism, which is composed of the subject, object, level, way, process and result of public participation. And its execution depends on the effective execution of three aspects:public participation choice, process and result. Firstly, public participation subjects are composed of residents, community organizations, tourism enterprises, tourism workers, tourists, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions, research institutions, media and specialists. Public participation objects are composed of eighteen classes, such as tourism legislation and law enforcement, tourism policy formulation and implementation, destination branding. Public participation levels include low, moderate and high degree, which are composed of informing, consultation, public opinion support, resource support, collaboration (negotiation/cooperation), power delegating, and public autonomy. Public participation ways cover more than forty different ways, such as government information publicity, key contact, nominal group, civic meeting and coproduction. Based on the professional degree, the importance of the public's support, time limit degree and the corresponding seven questions, this paper constructs the model for the effective execution of public participation choice. Furthermore, the process of public participation in destination governance is a continuous process, whose key effective execution factors are full process, fairness, legal and legitimate procedure, government's effective response. The results of public participation in destination governance are4E-centered and include the public's output and input, government's input and output. Its effective execution depends on the fully achievement of the above factors.
Its guarantee mechanism involves the construction of participative political culture and service-oriented government, the enhancement of the public's participation ability, institutional supply and the establishment of an effective incentive mechanism. Furthermore, the political culture is the foundation of its guarantee mechanism and the other aspects are guarantees to stimulate and keep the public's enthusiasm for participating in destination public affairs.
Based on the above researches, this paper chooses five Chinese excellent tour cities (Qingdao, Jining, Jimo, Qufu, Zoucheng) as examples to carry out self-administered questionnaire survey in personnel of the administrative department of tourism and the public (residents). The survey data is analyzed by SPSS19.0. Survey results show that, destination public affairs mainly need the high level and moderate level public participation; the public pay more attention to the following factors:full process, fairness and legitimate procedure; governmental personnel more approve the participation results of government's input and4E, the public more approve the participation results of satisfaction with participation activities and the factors belonging to their participation rights; the public's consciousnesses of rights have been formed, but their public spirits, their willingness to accept education for public participation and organized participation are insufficient; governmental personnel have accepted public participation in tourism public affairs and are trying to promote government information publicity, but the institution supply is inadequate; the public regard the influence on participation result, government providing convenient conditions, economic return/compensation and governmental reward as important incentives.
This paper's innovation mainly lies in four points:Firstly, introducing the theories of public management to define and interpret the concepts and connotations of public affairs, governance, the mechanism of public participation in the context of tourist destination for the first time; Secondly, changing the one-way thought to two-way and introducing the push and pull theory to newly construct an integrative model for the dynamic mechanism of public participation in destination governance; Thirdly, constructing the implementation mechanism of public participation in destination governance which is composed of six dimensions for the first time; Fourthly, expanding Thomas's model to three dimensions and amending its operation steps to construct a model for the operation of the implementation mechanism which applies to both public decision affairs and public action affairs.
通过对国内外旅游目的地治理研究和公众参与旅游目的地公共事务研究相关文献的综述,并根据上述相关理论,本文界定了旅游目的地公共事务、旅游目的地治理、旅游目的地治理中的公众参与等概念及其内涵。在此基础上,本文提出旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制要包括动力机制、实现机制、保障机制三个方面。
具体来说,旅游目的地治理中公众参与的动力机制是基于公众与政府双重视角的,由推力机制和拉力机制共同构成的整体性机制。其中,推力机制包括旅游业地位的提高、目的地公众参与意识的强化、目的地公众需求表达和整合的需要等五个因素；拉力机制包括目的地发展环境的复杂性、目的地公共事务的广泛性、目的地内外部平衡发展的需要、政府职能转变及其对公众参与的需要等八个因素,而旅游目的地治理的4E(经济、效率、效能、公平)目标和旅游目的地可持续发展则兼具推力与拉力之双重动力。
旅游目的地治理中公众参与的实现机制是一个由参与主体、客体、层次、方式、过程、结果共六个维度构成的整合性机制,其有效实施包括参与选择、参与过程、参与结果三个方面。首先,参与主体包括居民、社区组织、旅游企业、旅游从业人员、旅游者、非政府组织、教育机构、研究机构、媒体、专家学者等；参与客体(游目的地公共事务)包括旅游立法与执法、旅游政策制定与实施、旅游规划制定与实施、目的地品牌化等18类；参与层次包括告知、咨询、民意支持、资源支持、协作(协商／合作)、授权、公众自主,并可划分为低度、中度、深度三个综合性层次；参与方式有政府信息公开、关键公众接触、名义小组、共同生产等40多种。针对参与选择的有效实施,本文根据旅游目的地公共事务的专业性程度、公众支持的重要性程度、时间限制程度三个维度,基于与之相应的7个问题提出了“基于参与选择的旅游目的地治理中公众参与实现机制实施模型”。进一步来看,旅游目的地治理中公众参与的过程是一个持续性进程,其有效实施的核心要素是全程性参与、公平性参与、参与程序合法、政府有效回应。而旅游目的地治理中公众参与的结果则是以4E目标的实现为核心,涵盖公众输出与输入、政府输入与输出及它们之间的互动机制。
旅游目的地治理中公众参与的保障机制涉及到参与型政治文化构建、服务型政府建设、公众参与能力提升、制度供给、有效的激励机制等。其中政治文化是基础,其他几个方面则是激发并使公众保持参与热情的保障。
在上述研究基础上,本文选择山东省“文化圣地、度假天堂”旅游品牌的重要依托城市——青岛市、济宁市及其所下辖的中国优秀旅游城市即墨市、曲阜市、邹城市为案例,对当地旅游行政部门工作人员和个体公众中的居民进行自填问卷式调查,并利用SPSS19.0软件对调研数据统计与分析。调研结果表明,当地旅游目的地公共事务执行主要需要公众的深度参与和中度参与；参与过程中全程性参与、公平性参与、参与程序提前取得公众认可为公众所重视;政府人员看重政府输入和4E目标实现等参与结果,而公众则关注对实际参与过程的感知满意及表达权范畴的参与结果；当地公众的权利意识已经形成,但是其公共精神不足,他们接受公众参与知识教育培训和接受组织化参与的意愿尚需强化;政府人员已经认可公众参与旅游公共事务,并正在积极推动政府信息公开,但是当地公众参与旅游公共事务的制度供给不足；公众依次看重对参与结果的影响力、政府提供便利条件、经济报酬／补偿、奖励等激励手段。
本文基于旅游目的地整体层面创新性提出了由动力机制、实现机制、保障机制构成的旅游目的地治理中的公众参与机制,具体创新点主要有：1.引入公共管理等相关学科的理论,界定和阐释了在旅游目的地情境中公共事务、治理、公众参与、公众参与机制等相关概念及其内涵；2.突破以往研究中单纯工具性目标导向或价值性目标导向的研究思路,引入“推拉”理论,基于公众与政府的双重视角,提出了整合性的旅游目的地治理中公众参与的动力机制模型；3.超越以往研究中提出的单维度、三维度、四维度,首次构建了基于六维度的旅游目的地治理中公众参与实现机制模型;4.将托马斯的随机决策模型由两维度扩展为三维度,并对其中的具体实施步骤进行了修正与扩充,从而提出了兼顾公共决策性事务和公共行动性事务的公众参与实践框架。
The democratic political development, legislation promoting, strategy propulsion, duty transformation of government and the practices of tourism administrative departments at all levels have established the foundation of public participation in destination governance in China. But its theory and practice is insufficient at present. Therefore this paper introduces the public management theory, governance theory, public participation theory to research the mechanism of public participation in destination governance and its practice framework.
Based on the reviews of the existing research achievements on destination governance and public participation in destination public affairs, this paper analyzes the concepts and connotations of destination public affairs, destination governance, and public participation in destination governance. At the same time, this paper puts forward that the mechanism of public participation in destination governance is composed of three dimensions:dynamic mechanism, implementation mechanism and guarantee mechanism.
Specifically, its dynamic mechanism is composed of pushing mechanism and pulling mechanism. Firstly, the pushing mechanism includes five factors, such as the status rising of tourism in the public's life, the improvement of the public's consciousness of participation, the requirement of the expression and integration of public demands. Secondly, the pulling mechanism includes eight factors, such as the complexity of destination surroundings, the diversity of destination public affairs, the requirement of destination's balanced development, the duty transformation of governments and their needs for public participation. Moreover,4E (Economy, Efficiency, Effectiveness, Equity) objects and the sustainable development of destination are bidirectional dynamics.
Its implementation mechanism is an integration mechanism, which is composed of the subject, object, level, way, process and result of public participation. And its execution depends on the effective execution of three aspects:public participation choice, process and result. Firstly, public participation subjects are composed of residents, community organizations, tourism enterprises, tourism workers, tourists, non-governmental organizations, educational institutions, research institutions, media and specialists. Public participation objects are composed of eighteen classes, such as tourism legislation and law enforcement, tourism policy formulation and implementation, destination branding. Public participation levels include low, moderate and high degree, which are composed of informing, consultation, public opinion support, resource support, collaboration (negotiation/cooperation), power delegating, and public autonomy. Public participation ways cover more than forty different ways, such as government information publicity, key contact, nominal group, civic meeting and coproduction. Based on the professional degree, the importance of the public's support, time limit degree and the corresponding seven questions, this paper constructs the model for the effective execution of public participation choice. Furthermore, the process of public participation in destination governance is a continuous process, whose key effective execution factors are full process, fairness, legal and legitimate procedure, government's effective response. The results of public participation in destination governance are4E-centered and include the public's output and input, government's input and output. Its effective execution depends on the fully achievement of the above factors.
Its guarantee mechanism involves the construction of participative political culture and service-oriented government, the enhancement of the public's participation ability, institutional supply and the establishment of an effective incentive mechanism. Furthermore, the political culture is the foundation of its guarantee mechanism and the other aspects are guarantees to stimulate and keep the public's enthusiasm for participating in destination public affairs.
Based on the above researches, this paper chooses five Chinese excellent tour cities (Qingdao, Jining, Jimo, Qufu, Zoucheng) as examples to carry out self-administered questionnaire survey in personnel of the administrative department of tourism and the public (residents). The survey data is analyzed by SPSS19.0. Survey results show that, destination public affairs mainly need the high level and moderate level public participation; the public pay more attention to the following factors:full process, fairness and legitimate procedure; governmental personnel more approve the participation results of government's input and4E, the public more approve the participation results of satisfaction with participation activities and the factors belonging to their participation rights; the public's consciousnesses of rights have been formed, but their public spirits, their willingness to accept education for public participation and organized participation are insufficient; governmental personnel have accepted public participation in tourism public affairs and are trying to promote government information publicity, but the institution supply is inadequate; the public regard the influence on participation result, government providing convenient conditions, economic return/compensation and governmental reward as important incentives.
This paper's innovation mainly lies in four points:Firstly, introducing the theories of public management to define and interpret the concepts and connotations of public affairs, governance, the mechanism of public participation in the context of tourist destination for the first time; Secondly, changing the one-way thought to two-way and introducing the push and pull theory to newly construct an integrative model for the dynamic mechanism of public participation in destination governance; Thirdly, constructing the implementation mechanism of public participation in destination governance which is composed of six dimensions for the first time; Fourthly, expanding Thomas's model to three dimensions and amending its operation steps to construct a model for the operation of the implementation mechanism which applies to both public decision affairs and public action affairs.
引文
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⑧ Legitimacy的含义是对统治权及其模式的认可,即公众对相关主体之权力的认可与赞同(见王周户.公众参与的理论与实践.北京：法律山版社,2011.46,49.)。国内学者对其的主要译法是合法性和正当性,其中合法性在国内公众参与相关文献中最常使用,因此本文使用合法性之译法。
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② 公共产品与服务供给包括生产和安排(提供)两个环节。传统的理论与实践主张政府既是生产者,又是安排者(提供者)；而新公共管理理论、治理理论等新理论则强调生产和安排(提供)的分离,政府作为安排者(提供者)主要承担公共产品与服务供给的生产安排、资金筹措、绩效评价等,并承担一些特殊公共服务的直接生产,如国防、气象等,其他公共产品与服务的具体生产则可由私营部门、非政府组织等多元化主体来承担(陈振明等.公共服务导论.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.118-119；李爽.旅游公共服务供给机制研究：[博士学位论文].厦门：厦门大学,2008；埃莉诺·奥斯特罗姆,拉里·施罗德,苏珊·温.制度激励与可持续发展——基础设施政策透视,毛寿龙.上海：上海三联书店,2000.86.)。
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② 公民社会是与国家、市场相并列的社会结构的第三元。其包括公民社会组织和个体公民,具体包括独立的公民、独立理念的公共知识分子、不完全被政府控制的媒体、非政府组织(蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.21.)。
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② 蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.5.
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④ 蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.5.
⑤ 选举属于代议制民主范畴,不属于公众参与。对于激进式(本文作者加)街头行动(如游行、示威、罢工)以及个人和组织的维权行动(如重庆钉子户事件),蔡定剑先生认为它们缺少互动性和规范性,并基于我国国情考虑而未将之归属为公众参与(蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.6-7.)；但亦有研究将之纳入到非制度化参与之中(中央编译局比较政治与经济研究中心,北京大学中国政府创新研究中心.公共参与手册——参与改变命运.北京：社会科学文献出版社,2009.7.)。本文的观点是,的确国内有一些公众参与活动最初是由街头行动、个人或组织的维权行动而激发和催化的(如乌坎村事件)；但那些激进式的街头行动和维权行动往往表现为单边、无序、非理性甚至破坏性,且其动机、行动机制等较为复杂,同时很多时候其未必是公共利益导向,因此其本身不应归属到公众参与范畴。
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Arnstein在2009年的新模型中认为研究数据收集若是采取对话形式则属于咨询,而纯粹量化形式则属于其第一参与层次。因为后者不考虑个体公众主动说什么,且缺少持续性。但是,本文认为咨询应包括政府及其委托机构的研究数据收集。主要理由有两点：一、现有问卷调查多附加有开放性问题,因此公众是拥有一定的自由表达机会的：二、即使是纯粹量化者其本质也是政府主动取得公众的意见、偏好等相关信息,是一种公众信息输入政府决策体系的方式而要高于政府的信息输出。
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③ Lee K M. Public participation in regional tourism planning:[Master Dissertation]. Christchurch: Lincoln University,1996.
④ 侯国林.基于社区参与的湿地生态旅游可持续开发模式研究——以盐城海滨湿地国家级自然保护区为例：[博士学位论文].南京：南京师范大学,2006.
⑤ Barber B. Strong Democracy:Participatory politics for a new age. Berkeley:the Univer sity of California Press,1986.
⑤ 约翰·克莱顿·托马斯.公共决策中的公民参与：公共管理者的新技能与新策略,孙柏瑛.北京：中国人民大学出版社,2001.81-142.
① Rowe G, Frewer L J. Public participation pethods:a framework for evaluation. Science Technology Human Values,2005,25(3):3-29.
② Marc Gramberger. Citizen as Partners:OECD handbook on information, consultation an d public participation in policymaking. Paris:OECD,2001.61-63.
③ 王锡锌.行政过程中公众参与的制度实践.北京：中国法制出版社,2008.236.
④ 伦德纳·奥兰托诺.环境管理与影响评价,郭怀成、梅凤乔.北京：化学工业出版社,2004.369.
⑤ 蔡定剑.欧洲公众参与的理论与实践——从城市规划视角.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.26-27.
⑥ 曹丽晓.城乡规划中的公众参与在英国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.98-145.
⑦ 史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.
① 中央编译局比较政治与经济研究中心,北京大学中国政府创新研究中心.公共参与手册——参与改变命运.北京：社会科学文献出版社,2009.163-176.
② Lee K M. Public participation in regional tourism planning:[Master Dissertation]. Christchurch: Lincoln University,1996.
③ Shani A, Pizam A. Community participation in tourism planning and development, in:Uysal M, M, Perude R, Sirgy M J, eds. Handbook of Tourism and Quality-of-Life Research:Enhancing the Lives of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities. Dordrecht, Heidelberg, Lodon, New York: Springer,2012:547-564.
① 杨兴柱,陆林,王群.旅游规划公众参与的核心内容初步研究.人文地理,2006(4)：62-68.
② 侯国林.基于社区参与的湿地生态旅游可持续开发模式研究——以盐城海滨湿地国家级自然保护区为例：[博士位论文].南京：南京师范大学,2006.
① 唐玲萍.对社区参与旅游发展的再思考.旅游论坛,2008,1(2)：304-308; Pearce P, Moscardo G, Ross G. Tourism Community Relationship. New York:Pergamon,1996:184.
② Ioppolo G, Saija G, Salomone R. From coastal management to environmental management:the sustainable eco-tourism program for the mid-western coast of Sardinia (Italy). Land Use Policy 2013,31(1):460-471.
③ 陈芳.公共服务中的公民参与——基于多层次制度分析框架的检验.北京：中国社会科学出版社,2011.201-203.
④ 陈振明等.公共服务导论.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.234-235.
① 关键公众接触是公众参与的基本形式之一,是指政府向公众中的“关键人物”征询建议(Hendee J C, Lucas R C, Tracy R H, et al. Methods for acquiring public input, in:Pierce J C, Doerken H R, eds. Water politics and public involvement. Ann Arbor:Ann Arbor Science Publisher,1976.125-144.)。其针对的是公众中的一小部分个体,通常是最核心利益相关者组织或团体的领导人(约翰·克莱顿·托马斯.公共决策中的公民参与：公共管理者的新技能与新策略,孙柏瑛.北：中国人民大学出版社,2001.82-86)。
② 公民评审团是指公共事务涉及到的公众中通过抽签形式确定的少数代表(通常几人到二十几人不等)自愿参与公共议事(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
③ 公共论坛的目的是在一项新的公共政策未最终完全确立和执行之前,最大可能地征求可能会被新政策触及的社会各方意见,同时向所有公众开放。但其不同与行政协商,其也未必会达成共识(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
④ 公众培训是指对公众进行旅游目的地公共事务有关知识及其相关决策或执行方案等的培训和说明,以使其理解并支持；公众奖励是指通过评选和表彰参与旅游目的地公共事务者,以激励公众参与的实际行动。
⑤ 公开方案/计划等征集是指政府通过网络、报纸、电视等途径向公众征集有关旅游目的地公共事务的计划、行动方案等,以获得公众的知识、技能等资源的投入,从而更好的执行该事务和减少政府在此方面的成本。国内常见的有旅游目的地口号、形象标识、规划和开发创意方案等征集。
① 角色扮演与游戏模拟是指让公众扮演旅游规划中相关主体的角色,并通过旅游活动游戏(TAG,一种棋盘游戏)来模拟旅游业发展对小型社区的经济和环境影响,从而在游戏中就旅游规划的相关问题进行企业、公众与规划者之间的模拟合作与观点沟通。其亦可应用到旅游目的地公共事务的决策和执行之中(Loukissas P G Public participation in community tourism planning:a gaming simulation approach. Journal of Travel R.esearch,1983,22(1):18-23.)。
② 公众协商会议是指政府在推行一项公共政策之前,就政策内容同自愿或抽签确定的当地公众代表(一般十几到二十几人)进行协商,并以达成一致协议为目标。其中共识会议一般是针对国家范围内的事务,公民法官则一般是针对地方范围内的事务(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
③ 社区规划伙伴关系是指将旅游目的地社区成员组织起来,共同为完善社区的生活设施,提高生活质量而努力。其可以就环境、公共空间等问题进行决策,负责社区资讯,并有权批准小型的社区工程。国外一般由议员、公共组织、社区居民代表、警察、非政府组织以及其他志愿成员等组成(曹丽晓.城乡规划中的公众参与在英国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.98-145.)。
④ 共同生产是指公众与政府共同承担旅游公共事务,共同生产出满意的公共政策等结果。对公众来说,其表现为公众为提高自身所需的旅游公共产品或服务的质量或数量而自愿从事的生产行为——消费者生产行为,其实现的基本方式有个体和团体、集体共同生产三种(Brudney J L, England R E. Toward a definition of the coproduction concept. Public Administration review,1983,43(1):59-65.)。其包括公众向政府发出协助要求、公众为政府提供的协助、两者之间的匹配(Brudney J L, England R E. Urban policy making and subjective service evaluation:are they compatible?. Public Administration review,1982,42(2):127-135;陈振明等.公共服务导论.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.234-235.)。
⑤ 共同提供是指非政府组织等参与旅游目的地公共事务而提供公共产品与服务,其与共同生产相比更加强调公众的时间和资金贡献(Ferris J M. Coprovision:Citizen time and money donations in the public service provision. Public Administration review,1984,44(4):324-333.)。
⑥ 志愿行动是指公众基于公益性目的参与旅游目的地公共事务,其特征是志愿者本身并不是相应旅游公共事务的直接受益者。
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③ 管制俘获是指在某一政策或决策中具有较大或较直接利益的强势组织和个人通过对管制机构施加影响而使最终政策或决策有利于其利益实现的现象,而在此过程中其他人的利益(特别是那些未经组织化的分散性个体的利益)得不到保障或受损(Dalbo E. Regulatory capture:a review. Oxford Review of Economic policy,2006,22(2):203-225.)。
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⑤ 此种现象在国内听证会中已经多有出现(听证会“逢听必涨”引质疑提公信力需多管齐下.人民日报,2011-10-26.),如2004年杭州针对自来水用户征收污水处理费听证中参与之公众就因缺少专业知识而发出的声音有限(石路.政府公共决策与公民参与.北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008.177.)；国外学者Siemer和Decker也提出如果参与者在参与前没有获得充足的信息,那么其所提出的意见就会受到限制(王凤.公众参与环保行为机理研究.北京：中国环境科学出版社,2008.53.)。
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⑧ Legitimacy的含义是对统治权及其模式的认可,即公众对相关主体之权力的认可与赞同(见王周户.公众参与的理论与实践.北京：法律山版社,2011.46,49.)。国内学者对其的主要译法是合法性和正当性,其中合法性在国内公众参与相关文献中最常使用,因此本文使用合法性之译法。
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② 蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.5.
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④ 蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.5.
⑤ 选举属于代议制民主范畴,不属于公众参与。对于激进式(本文作者加)街头行动(如游行、示威、罢工)以及个人和组织的维权行动(如重庆钉子户事件),蔡定剑先生认为它们缺少互动性和规范性,并基于我国国情考虑而未将之归属为公众参与(蔡定剑.公众参与及其在中国的兴起.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.6-7.)；但亦有研究将之纳入到非制度化参与之中(中央编译局比较政治与经济研究中心,北京大学中国政府创新研究中心.公共参与手册——参与改变命运.北京：社会科学文献出版社,2009.7.)。本文的观点是,的确国内有一些公众参与活动最初是由街头行动、个人或组织的维权行动而激发和催化的(如乌坎村事件)；但那些激进式的街头行动和维权行动往往表现为单边、无序、非理性甚至破坏性,且其动机、行动机制等较为复杂,同时很多时候其未必是公共利益导向,因此其本身不应归属到公众参与范畴。
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② 王素洁.乡村旅游可持续发展决策中的利益相关者关系研究——基于社会网络视角：[博士学位论文].天津：南开大学,2009.
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② 本文采用的是张雅君基于狭义的非政府组织概念所界定的“中国NGO”范畴(张雅君.“中国NGO”的发展现状研究：[硕士学位论文].上海：上海社会科学院,2011.),并根据苏雨桐的研究补充了工商登记的NGO、在中国活动的国外NGO两类组织(苏雨桐.非政府组织在公众参与中的作用.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.288-313)。
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④ 旅游公共服务是指其狭义范畴,即目的地为旅游者供给的公共产品与服务的总称,其包括旅游公共信息、旅游要素保障、旅游公共安全三类(李爽.旅游公共服务供给机制研究：[博士学位论文].厦门：厦门大学,2008.),旅游公共服务供给相关的公共事务即为生产与提供此三类公共服务的事务。本研究根据事务的属性将其中的旅游公共景观建设与保护和旅游节事组织、城市的自然生态环境优化、城市一般便利设施建设分别调整到目的地营销、旅游产品开发与管理、旅游环境维护、旅游基础设施等事务类别中;将旅游志愿者服务和旅游教育培训分别单列为独立的旅游公共事务类型。
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Arnstein在2009年的新模型中认为研究数据收集若是采取对话形式则属于咨询,而纯粹量化形式则属于其第一参与层次。因为后者不考虑个体公众主动说什么,且缺少持续性。但是,本文认为咨询应包括政府及其委托机构的研究数据收集。主要理由有两点：一、现有问卷调查多附加有开放性问题,因此公众是拥有一定的自由表达机会的：二、即使是纯粹量化者其本质也是政府主动取得公众的意见、偏好等相关信息,是一种公众信息输入政府决策体系的方式而要高于政府的信息输出。
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① 关键公众接触是公众参与的基本形式之一,是指政府向公众中的“关键人物”征询建议(Hendee J C, Lucas R C, Tracy R H, et al. Methods for acquiring public input, in:Pierce J C, Doerken H R, eds. Water politics and public involvement. Ann Arbor:Ann Arbor Science Publisher,1976.125-144.)。其针对的是公众中的一小部分个体,通常是最核心利益相关者组织或团体的领导人(约翰·克莱顿·托马斯.公共决策中的公民参与：公共管理者的新技能与新策略,孙柏瑛.北：中国人民大学出版社,2001.82-86)。
② 公民评审团是指公共事务涉及到的公众中通过抽签形式确定的少数代表(通常几人到二十几人不等)自愿参与公共议事(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
③ 公共论坛的目的是在一项新的公共政策未最终完全确立和执行之前,最大可能地征求可能会被新政策触及的社会各方意见,同时向所有公众开放。但其不同与行政协商,其也未必会达成共识(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
④ 公众培训是指对公众进行旅游目的地公共事务有关知识及其相关决策或执行方案等的培训和说明,以使其理解并支持；公众奖励是指通过评选和表彰参与旅游目的地公共事务者,以激励公众参与的实际行动。
⑤ 公开方案/计划等征集是指政府通过网络、报纸、电视等途径向公众征集有关旅游目的地公共事务的计划、行动方案等,以获得公众的知识、技能等资源的投入,从而更好的执行该事务和减少政府在此方面的成本。国内常见的有旅游目的地口号、形象标识、规划和开发创意方案等征集。
① 角色扮演与游戏模拟是指让公众扮演旅游规划中相关主体的角色,并通过旅游活动游戏(TAG,一种棋盘游戏)来模拟旅游业发展对小型社区的经济和环境影响,从而在游戏中就旅游规划的相关问题进行企业、公众与规划者之间的模拟合作与观点沟通。其亦可应用到旅游目的地公共事务的决策和执行之中(Loukissas P G Public participation in community tourism planning:a gaming simulation approach. Journal of Travel R.esearch,1983,22(1):18-23.)。
② 公众协商会议是指政府在推行一项公共政策之前,就政策内容同自愿或抽签确定的当地公众代表(一般十几到二十几人)进行协商,并以达成一致协议为目标。其中共识会议一般是针对国家范围内的事务,公民法官则一般是针对地方范围内的事务(史春玉.参与民主在法国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.165-176.)。
③ 社区规划伙伴关系是指将旅游目的地社区成员组织起来,共同为完善社区的生活设施,提高生活质量而努力。其可以就环境、公共空间等问题进行决策,负责社区资讯,并有权批准小型的社区工程。国外一般由议员、公共组织、社区居民代表、警察、非政府组织以及其他志愿成员等组成(曹丽晓.城乡规划中的公众参与在英国.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与——欧洲的制度与经验.北京：法律出版社,2009.98-145.)。
④ 共同生产是指公众与政府共同承担旅游公共事务,共同生产出满意的公共政策等结果。对公众来说,其表现为公众为提高自身所需的旅游公共产品或服务的质量或数量而自愿从事的生产行为——消费者生产行为,其实现的基本方式有个体和团体、集体共同生产三种(Brudney J L, England R E. Toward a definition of the coproduction concept. Public Administration review,1983,43(1):59-65.)。其包括公众向政府发出协助要求、公众为政府提供的协助、两者之间的匹配(Brudney J L, England R E. Urban policy making and subjective service evaluation:are they compatible?. Public Administration review,1982,42(2):127-135;陈振明等.公共服务导论.北京：北京大学出版社,2011.234-235.)。
⑤ 共同提供是指非政府组织等参与旅游目的地公共事务而提供公共产品与服务,其与共同生产相比更加强调公众的时间和资金贡献(Ferris J M. Coprovision:Citizen time and money donations in the public service provision. Public Administration review,1984,44(4):324-333.)。
⑥ 志愿行动是指公众基于公益性目的参与旅游目的地公共事务,其特征是志愿者本身并不是相应旅游公共事务的直接受益者。
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① 蔡强.守望家园：城市规划中的公众参与.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.163;王周户.公众参与的理论与实践.北京：法律出版社,2011.139.
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③ Lawrence R L, Deagen D A. Choosing public participation methods for natural resources:a context-specific guide. Society and Natural Resources,2001,14(10):857-872.
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② Daniels S E, Lawrence R L, Alig R J. Decision-making and ecosystem-based management: applying the Vroom-Yetton model to public participation strategy. Environmental Impact Assessment Review,1996(16):13-30.'
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① 王锡锌.公众参与和行政过程——一个理念和制度分析的框架.北京：中国民主法制出版社,2007.195；王周户.公众参与的理论与实践.北京：法律出版社,2011.276.
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① Thomas J C. Public involvement and governmental effectiveness:a decision-making model for public managers. Administration & society,1993,24(4):444-469; Thomas J C. Public participation in public decisions:New skills and strategies for public managers. San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1995.39-83.
② Lawrence R L, Deagen D A. Choosing public participation methods for natural resources:a context-specific guide. Society and Natural Resources,2001,14(10):857-872,
① Furia L D, Jones J W. The effectiveness of provisions and quality of practices concerning public participation in EIA in Italy. Environmental Impact Assessment Review,2000,20(4): 457-479.
② 韩沙沙.论环境规划中的公众参与.环境导报,2001(3)：13-14.
③ 管制俘获是指在某一政策或决策中具有较大或较直接利益的强势组织和个人通过对管制机构施加影响而使最终政策或决策有利于其利益实现的现象,而在此过程中其他人的利益(特别是那些未经组织化的分散性个体的利益)得不到保障或受损(Dalbo E. Regulatory capture:a review. Oxford Review of Economic policy,2006,22(2):203-225.)。
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① 王周户.公众参与的理论与实践.北京：法律出版社,2011.285-286.
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③ 文彤,陈杰忻.公众参与旅游规划的思考——来自香港大澳的调查启示.旅游学刊,2009,24(7)：66-70.
① Baker W H, Addams H L, Davis B. Critical factors for enhancing municipal public hearings. Public Administration Review,2005,65(4):490-499.
② 张群.立法听证：公民参与立法的途径.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.38-39.
③ 蔡强.守望家园：城市规划中的公众参与.见：蔡定剑,编.公众参与：风险社会的制度建设.北京：法律出版社,2009.142.
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⑤ 此种现象在国内听证会中已经多有出现(听证会“逢听必涨”引质疑提公信力需多管齐下.人民日报,2011-10-26.),如2004年杭州针对自来水用户征收污水处理费听证中参与之公众就因缺少专业知识而发出的声音有限(石路.政府公共决策与公民参与.北京：社会科学文献出版社,2008.177.)；国外学者Siemer和Decker也提出如果参与者在参与前没有获得充足的信息,那么其所提出的意见就会受到限制(王凤.公众参与环保行为机理研究.北京：中国环境科学出版社,2008.53.)。
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