市场机制驱动的网格资源调度和分配模型研究
摘要
网格的目标是实现对地理上广泛分布的大量异构资源进行共享。由于网格固有的异构性、分布性和动态性，传统的资源管理方法在网格环境中并不适用。此外，要吸引各类资源消费者和提供者加入网格，就必须满足他们各自的需求。将经济学原理，例如边际效用、Nash均衡等引入网格资源管理之中，能够很好地解决以上问题。在本文中，简略地列举了近10年来在分布式系统中使用经济学模型进行资源分配的相关研究成果，并且对目前开展得比较好的几个网格经济学研究项目进行了分析。在前人的工作基础上，本文做了以下工作：
(1)开放网格服务架构OGSA是Globus工作组基于Globus工具包和Web服务技术所提出的一种网格体系结构，基于OGSA架构，利用已经比较成熟的网格技术如Globus来构建高级服务是可行的。本文基于OGSA构造了一个网格经济学模型以及一个“信用机制”，使用户能够根据服务提供者的“信用”来优化选择。
(2)本文对网格资源拍卖机制进行了详细、深入的研究，在前人的研究基础上，基于预算因子以及冯．诺伊曼和摩根斯坦恩效用设计了一个价格上涨的网格资源拍卖机制；给出了个体用户的竞价策略；探讨了使用博弈论来优化个体竞价策略的可能性。
(3)全面地分析了使用模拟测试方法对网格经济学模型进行测试的相关研究项目，在此基础上，基于SimJava软件包，使用Java编程语言设计了一个网格经济学模型测试方案，对本文提出的机制进行了测试。
The goal of Grid is to realize share of homogeneous resources that locate all over the world. Because the Grid is homogeneous, distributed and dynamic, traditional methods of resource management will not function well in Grid environment. Moreover, in order to attract resource consumers and providers to attend the Grid, their needs must be meet. All these problems can be solved by using economic principles, such as marginal efficiency and Nash Equilibrium, in the management of resources in the Grid. In this article, relative research of last 10 years about using economic models in distributed systems will be listed, and analysis of several projects about Grid Economy will be found. Based on previous research, the major research works in this article are:
(1)OGSA, Open Grid Service Architecture, is an architecture advanced by Globus workgroup, whose foundation is Globus Toolkit and Web Services. Based on OGSA, a Grid economic model is constructed to introduce economic principle into Grid environment, and a credit mechanism is devised, allowing users to choose their favorite services according to the credit a service provider has. The model will be discussed in detail in the article.
(2) After a thorough, detailed discussion about Grid resource auction mechanisms, a new ascending auction mechanism of Grid resource based on budget factor and von Neumann-Morgenstern
utility function is devised. Individual user bidding process and the possibilities to use game theory to optimize the bidding decisions will be mentioned.
(3) A Grid economy model simulation will be founded upon SimJava toolkits, using Java to code, referring to relative researches.
(1)开放网格服务架构OGSA是Globus工作组基于Globus工具包和Web服务技术所提出的一种网格体系结构，基于OGSA架构，利用已经比较成熟的网格技术如Globus来构建高级服务是可行的。本文基于OGSA构造了一个网格经济学模型以及一个“信用机制”，使用户能够根据服务提供者的“信用”来优化选择。
(2)本文对网格资源拍卖机制进行了详细、深入的研究，在前人的研究基础上，基于预算因子以及冯．诺伊曼和摩根斯坦恩效用设计了一个价格上涨的网格资源拍卖机制；给出了个体用户的竞价策略；探讨了使用博弈论来优化个体竞价策略的可能性。
(3)全面地分析了使用模拟测试方法对网格经济学模型进行测试的相关研究项目，在此基础上，基于SimJava软件包，使用Java编程语言设计了一个网格经济学模型测试方案，对本文提出的机制进行了测试。
The goal of Grid is to realize share of homogeneous resources that locate all over the world. Because the Grid is homogeneous, distributed and dynamic, traditional methods of resource management will not function well in Grid environment. Moreover, in order to attract resource consumers and providers to attend the Grid, their needs must be meet. All these problems can be solved by using economic principles, such as marginal efficiency and Nash Equilibrium, in the management of resources in the Grid. In this article, relative research of last 10 years about using economic models in distributed systems will be listed, and analysis of several projects about Grid Economy will be found. Based on previous research, the major research works in this article are:
(1)OGSA, Open Grid Service Architecture, is an architecture advanced by Globus workgroup, whose foundation is Globus Toolkit and Web Services. Based on OGSA, a Grid economic model is constructed to introduce economic principle into Grid environment, and a credit mechanism is devised, allowing users to choose their favorite services according to the credit a service provider has. The model will be discussed in detail in the article.
(2) After a thorough, detailed discussion about Grid resource auction mechanisms, a new ascending auction mechanism of Grid resource based on budget factor and von Neumann-Morgenstern
utility function is devised. Individual user bidding process and the possibilities to use game theory to optimize the bidding decisions will be mentioned.
(3) A Grid economy model simulation will be founded upon SimJava toolkits, using Java to code, referring to relative researches.
引文
[1] Rajkumar Buyya, Economic-based Distributed Resource Management and Scheduling for Grid Computing, http://www.cs.mu.oz.au/～raj/thesis/, 2004-04-26
[2] Rich Wolski, James S.Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, Analyzing Market-based Resource Allocation Strategies for the Computational Grid, http://www.hipersofi.rice.edu/grads/publications/gc-jour.pdf, 2004-04-26
[3] Globus Project, http://www.globus.org
[4] Legion, http://www.cs.virginia.edu/～legion/
[5] I. Foster, C. Kesselman, and S.Tuecke, The Anatomy of the Grid: Enabling Scalable Virtual Organizations, International Journal of Supercomputer Applications, 15(3), Sage Publications, 2001, USA.
[6] R. Buyya, D. Abramson, and J. Giddy, An Economy Driven Resource Management Architecture for Global Computational Power Grids, Proceedings of the 2000 International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Processing Techniques and Applications (PDPTA 2000), June 26-29, 2000, Las Vegas, USA, CSREA Press, USA, 2000.
[7] R. Buyya, D. Abramson, and J. Giddy, Nimrod-G: An Architecture for a Resource Management and Scheduling System in a Global Computational Grid, The 4th International Conference on High Performance Computing in Asia-Pacific Region (HPC Asia 2000), May 2000, Beijing, China, IEEE Computer Society Press, USA.
[8] R. Buyya, S. Chapin, and D. DiNucci, Architectural Models for Resource Management in the Grid, First IEEE/ACM International Workshop on Grid Computing (GRID 2000), Springer Verlag LNCS Series, Germany, Dec.17, 2000, Bangalore, India.
[9] D. F. Ferguson, C. Nikolaou, J. Sairamesh, and Y.Yemini, Economic Models for Allocating Resources in Computer Systems, Market based Control of Distributed Systems, Ed. Scott Clearwater, World Scientific Press, 1996
[10] W. Smith, I. Foster, V. Taylor. Predicting Application Run Times Using Historical Information. Proc. IPPS/SPDP'98 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1998. ftp://ftp.globus.org/pub/globus/papers/runtime.pdf, 2004-04-26
[11] 都志辉、陈渝、刘鹏，《网格计算》，http://hpclab.cs.tsinghua.edu.cn/～duzh/book/grid.pdf, 2004-04-26
[12] Global Grid Forum, http://www.gridforum.org/
[13] 周惠中，《微观经济学》，上海：上海人民出版社，1997．8
[14]. Aurel A Lazar, Nemo Semret, Design and Analysis of the Progressiv e Second Price Auction for Network Bandwidth Sharing, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～aurel/papers/networking_games/telecomsystems.pdf, 2004-04-26
[15]. Errin W. Fulp and Douglas S. Reeves, Distributed Network Flow Control Based on Dynamic Competitive Markets, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Network Protocols, pages 119-128, 1998.
[16]. N.R. Bogan, Economic Allocation of Computation Time with Computation Markets, MIT Laboratory for Computer Science Technical Report 633, August 1994.
[17]. Nemo Semret, Market Mechanisms for Network Resource Sharing, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～nemo/thesis.pdf, 2004-04-26
[18]. Errin W.Fulp, Resource Allocation and Pricing for QoS Management in Computer Networks, Ph.D.Thesis, North Carolina State University 1999, http://www.cs.wfu.edu/～fulp/Papers/thesis.pdf, 2004-04-26
[19] S.Blake, D.Black, M.Carlson, E Davies et al, An Architecture for Differentiated Services, IETF rfc2475, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2475.txt?number=2475, 2004-04-26
[20] Nemo Semret, R. R.-F.Liao, A. T. Campbell, A. A. Lazar, Peering and Provisioning of Differentiated Internet Services, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/publications/2000/peerprov.pdf, 2004-04-26
[21] Nemo Semret, R. R.-F.Liao, A. T. Campbell, A. A. Lazar, Market Pricing of Differentiated Internet Services, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～campbell/papers/iwqos99b.pdf, 2004-04-26
[22] Jun Shu, Pravin Varaiya, Pricing Network Services, http://www.ieor.berkeley.edu/～jshu/md/jun_spac.pdf, 2004-04-26
[23]. Errin W. Fulp, Maximilian Ott, Daniel Reininger and Douglas S.Reeves, Paying for QoS: An Optimal Distributed Algorithm for Pricing Network Resources. Proceedings of the IEEE Sixth International Workshop on Quality of Service, pages 75-84, 1998
[24] Specification of Guaranteed Quality of Service, IETF rfc2212, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2212.txt?number=2212, 2004-04-26
[25] S.Jackson, QBank: A Resource Management Package for Parallel Computers, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Washington, USA, 2000.
[26] C. Neuman and G. Medvinsky, Requirements for Network Payment: The NetCheque Perspective, Proceedings of IEEE COMPCON'95: Technologies for the Information Superhighway, San Francisco, USA, March 1995.
[27] G. Medvinsky and C. Neuman, NetCash: A design for practical electronic currency on the Internet.Proceedings of 1st the ACM Conference on Computer and Communication Security, November 1993.
[28] Paypal, http:/Avww.paypall.com
[29] Nimrod/G, http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/～davida/nimrod/, 2004-04-26
[30] DSTC, Distributed System Technology Center, http://www.dstc.edu.au/, 2004-04-26
[31] Abramson, D., Giddy, J., Foster, I., and Kotler, L., High Performance Parametric Modeling with Nimrod/G: Killer Application for the Global Grid? 2000 International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium Cancun, Mexico
[32] Abramson, D., Sosic, R., Giddy, J. and Hall, B.Nimrod: A Tool for Performing Parametised Simulations using Distributed Workstations.The 4th IEEE Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing, Virginia, August 1995.
[33] W.Smith, V. Taylor, I Foster. Using Run-Time Predictions to Estimate Queue Wait Times and Improve Scheduler Performance. Proceedings of the IPPS/SPDP'99 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1999. http://www.globus.org/documentation/incoming/p.pdf, 2004-04-26
[34] GESA, Grid Economic Services Architecture Working Group, http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/～sjn5/GGF/gesa-wg.html, 2004-04-26
[35] S.Newhouse, LeSC, Grid Economic Services Architecture (GESA), http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/～sjn5/GGF/CompEconArch-GGF7.pdf, 2004-04-26
[36] Rich Wolski, James S. Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, G-commerce: Market Formulations Controlling Resource Allocation on the Computational Grid, http://www.hipersoft.rice.edu/grads/technical_reports/CS-00-450.pdf, 2004-04-26
[37] Rich Wolski, James S. Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, Analyzing Market-based Resource Allocation Strategies for the Computational Grid http://www.hipersoft.rice.edu/grads/publications/gc-jour.pdf, 2004-04-26
[38] 曹鸿强，肖侬，卢锡城，刘艳，一种基于市场机制的计算网格资源分配方法，计算机研究与发展，2002，39(8)：913～916(CAO Hong-Qiang, XIAO Nong, LU Xi-Cheng, LIU Yan. A market-based approach to allocate resources for computational grids.
Journal of Computer Research and Development(in Chinese), 2002, 39(8): 913～916)
[39] Ian Foster, Carl Kesselman, Jeffrey M. Nick, Steven Tuecke, The Physiology of the Grid: An Open Grid Services Architecture for Distributed Systems Integration. www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/ogsa_draft2.9_2002-06-22.pdf, 2004-04-26
[40] W.Smith, I.Foster, V. Taylor. Predicting Application Run Times Using Historical Information. Proc. IPPS/SPDP'98 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1998. ftp://ftp.globus.org/pub/globus/papers/runtime.pdf, 2004-04-26
[41] Web Services, www.w3.org/2002/ws/, 2004-04-26
[42] Liang-Jie Zhang, Qun Zhou, Jen-Yao Chung, Developing Grid computing applications, Part 2, http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/webservices/library/ws-grid2/, 2003-03-20
[43] Alexander Barmouta, Rajkumar Buyya, GridBank: A Grid Accounting Services Architecture (GASA) for Distributed Systems Sharing and Integration, www.cs.mu.oz.au/～raj/grids/papers/gridbank.pdf, 2004-04-26
[44] P.Preston McAfee and John McMillan. Auctions and bidding. Journal of Economic Literature, 25:699-738, 1987
[45] Michael P. Wellman, William E. Walsh, Peter R. Wurman, Jeffery K. MacKie-Mason, Auction Protocols for Decentralized Scheduling, http://www-personal.umich.edu/～jmm/papers/gebfinal.pdf, 2003-10-23
[46] Andrew Byde, Applying Evolutionary Game Theory to Auction Mechanism Design, http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2002/HPL-2002-321.pdf, 2003-09-15
[47] Payman Faratin, Automated Service Negotiation Between Autonomous Computational Agents, http://www.ana.lcs.mit.edu/peyman/pubs/peyman-thesis.pdf, 2003-12-10
[48] Martin J．Osborne，Ariel Rubinstein，博弈论教程，魏玉根译，北京：中国社会科学出版社，2000．4，
[49] Sushil Bikhchandani, John W.Mamer. Competitive equilibrium in an exchange economy with indivisibilities. Journal of Economic Theory, 74:385-413, 1997.
[50] Takefusa, A., Matsuoka, S., Nakada, H., Aida, K., Nagashima, U., Overview of a Performance Evaluation System of Global Computing Scheduling Algorithms. The 8th IEEE Iternational Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing(HPDCS), p97-104, 08.1999.
[51] Casanova, H., SimGrid: A Toolkit for the Simulation of Application Scheduling. IEEE International Symposium on Cluster Computing and the Grid (CCGrid'01), 05.2001, Brisbane, Australia, pp430-437.
[52] GridSim, http://www.gridbus.org/gridsim/, 2003-12-10
[53] Daniel Walton, The Simulation of Dynamic Resource Brokering in a Grid Environment, http://www.dhpc.adelaide.edu.au/reports/135/dhpc-135.pdf, 2003-12-10
[54] SimJava, http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/hase/simjava/, 2003-08-30
[55] OGSA 结构描述, http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/ogsa_draft2.9_2002-06-22.pdf, 2003-11-23
[56] OGSA 规范, http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/GS_Spec_draft03_2002-07-17.pdf, 2003-11-23
[57] GGF的OGSI工作组. http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/, 2003-11-23
[58] Chris Kenyon, Giorgos Cheliotis, Grid Resource Commercialization, http://www.zurich.ibm.com/pdf/GridEconomics/kenyon_Grid_Resource_Commercialization.pdf 2004-05-08
[59] GRAIL, http://grail.sdsc.edu/, 2004-04-23
[60] Condor, http://www.cs.wisc.edu/condor/, 2004-04-23
[61] Javelin, http://javelin.cs.ucsb.edu/, 2004-04-23
[62] NetSolve/GridSolve, http://icl.cs.utk.edu/netsolve/, 2004-04-23
[63] CERN DataGrid, http://eu-datagrid.web.cern.ch/eu-datagrid/, 2004-04-23
[64] Ninf-G, http://ninf.apgrid.org/, 2004-04-23
[2] Rich Wolski, James S.Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, Analyzing Market-based Resource Allocation Strategies for the Computational Grid, http://www.hipersofi.rice.edu/grads/publications/gc-jour.pdf, 2004-04-26
[3] Globus Project, http://www.globus.org
[4] Legion, http://www.cs.virginia.edu/～legion/
[5] I. Foster, C. Kesselman, and S.Tuecke, The Anatomy of the Grid: Enabling Scalable Virtual Organizations, International Journal of Supercomputer Applications, 15(3), Sage Publications, 2001, USA.
[6] R. Buyya, D. Abramson, and J. Giddy, An Economy Driven Resource Management Architecture for Global Computational Power Grids, Proceedings of the 2000 International Conference on Parallel and Distributed Processing Techniques and Applications (PDPTA 2000), June 26-29, 2000, Las Vegas, USA, CSREA Press, USA, 2000.
[7] R. Buyya, D. Abramson, and J. Giddy, Nimrod-G: An Architecture for a Resource Management and Scheduling System in a Global Computational Grid, The 4th International Conference on High Performance Computing in Asia-Pacific Region (HPC Asia 2000), May 2000, Beijing, China, IEEE Computer Society Press, USA.
[8] R. Buyya, S. Chapin, and D. DiNucci, Architectural Models for Resource Management in the Grid, First IEEE/ACM International Workshop on Grid Computing (GRID 2000), Springer Verlag LNCS Series, Germany, Dec.17, 2000, Bangalore, India.
[9] D. F. Ferguson, C. Nikolaou, J. Sairamesh, and Y.Yemini, Economic Models for Allocating Resources in Computer Systems, Market based Control of Distributed Systems, Ed. Scott Clearwater, World Scientific Press, 1996
[10] W. Smith, I. Foster, V. Taylor. Predicting Application Run Times Using Historical Information. Proc. IPPS/SPDP'98 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1998. ftp://ftp.globus.org/pub/globus/papers/runtime.pdf, 2004-04-26
[11] 都志辉、陈渝、刘鹏，《网格计算》，http://hpclab.cs.tsinghua.edu.cn/～duzh/book/grid.pdf, 2004-04-26
[12] Global Grid Forum, http://www.gridforum.org/
[13] 周惠中，《微观经济学》，上海：上海人民出版社，1997．8
[14]. Aurel A Lazar, Nemo Semret, Design and Analysis of the Progressiv e Second Price Auction for Network Bandwidth Sharing, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～aurel/papers/networking_games/telecomsystems.pdf, 2004-04-26
[15]. Errin W. Fulp and Douglas S. Reeves, Distributed Network Flow Control Based on Dynamic Competitive Markets, Proceedings of the IEEE International Conference on Network Protocols, pages 119-128, 1998.
[16]. N.R. Bogan, Economic Allocation of Computation Time with Computation Markets, MIT Laboratory for Computer Science Technical Report 633, August 1994.
[17]. Nemo Semret, Market Mechanisms for Network Resource Sharing, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～nemo/thesis.pdf, 2004-04-26
[18]. Errin W.Fulp, Resource Allocation and Pricing for QoS Management in Computer Networks, Ph.D.Thesis, North Carolina State University 1999, http://www.cs.wfu.edu/～fulp/Papers/thesis.pdf, 2004-04-26
[19] S.Blake, D.Black, M.Carlson, E Davies et al, An Architecture for Differentiated Services, IETF rfc2475, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2475.txt?number=2475, 2004-04-26
[20] Nemo Semret, R. R.-F.Liao, A. T. Campbell, A. A. Lazar, Peering and Provisioning of Differentiated Internet Services, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/publications/2000/peerprov.pdf, 2004-04-26
[21] Nemo Semret, R. R.-F.Liao, A. T. Campbell, A. A. Lazar, Market Pricing of Differentiated Internet Services, http://comet.ctr.columbia.edu/～campbell/papers/iwqos99b.pdf, 2004-04-26
[22] Jun Shu, Pravin Varaiya, Pricing Network Services, http://www.ieor.berkeley.edu/～jshu/md/jun_spac.pdf, 2004-04-26
[23]. Errin W. Fulp, Maximilian Ott, Daniel Reininger and Douglas S.Reeves, Paying for QoS: An Optimal Distributed Algorithm for Pricing Network Resources. Proceedings of the IEEE Sixth International Workshop on Quality of Service, pages 75-84, 1998
[24] Specification of Guaranteed Quality of Service, IETF rfc2212, http://www.ietf.org/rfc/rfc2212.txt?number=2212, 2004-04-26
[25] S.Jackson, QBank: A Resource Management Package for Parallel Computers, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Washington, USA, 2000.
[26] C. Neuman and G. Medvinsky, Requirements for Network Payment: The NetCheque Perspective, Proceedings of IEEE COMPCON'95: Technologies for the Information Superhighway, San Francisco, USA, March 1995.
[27] G. Medvinsky and C. Neuman, NetCash: A design for practical electronic currency on the Internet.Proceedings of 1st the ACM Conference on Computer and Communication Security, November 1993.
[28] Paypal, http:/Avww.paypall.com
[29] Nimrod/G, http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/～davida/nimrod/, 2004-04-26
[30] DSTC, Distributed System Technology Center, http://www.dstc.edu.au/, 2004-04-26
[31] Abramson, D., Giddy, J., Foster, I., and Kotler, L., High Performance Parametric Modeling with Nimrod/G: Killer Application for the Global Grid? 2000 International Parallel and Distributed Processing Symposium Cancun, Mexico
[32] Abramson, D., Sosic, R., Giddy, J. and Hall, B.Nimrod: A Tool for Performing Parametised Simulations using Distributed Workstations.The 4th IEEE Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing, Virginia, August 1995.
[33] W.Smith, V. Taylor, I Foster. Using Run-Time Predictions to Estimate Queue Wait Times and Improve Scheduler Performance. Proceedings of the IPPS/SPDP'99 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1999. http://www.globus.org/documentation/incoming/p.pdf, 2004-04-26
[34] GESA, Grid Economic Services Architecture Working Group, http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/～sjn5/GGF/gesa-wg.html, 2004-04-26
[35] S.Newhouse, LeSC, Grid Economic Services Architecture (GESA), http://www.doc.ic.ac.uk/～sjn5/GGF/CompEconArch-GGF7.pdf, 2004-04-26
[36] Rich Wolski, James S. Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, G-commerce: Market Formulations Controlling Resource Allocation on the Computational Grid, http://www.hipersoft.rice.edu/grads/technical_reports/CS-00-450.pdf, 2004-04-26
[37] Rich Wolski, James S. Plank, John Brevik, Todd Bryan, Analyzing Market-based Resource Allocation Strategies for the Computational Grid http://www.hipersoft.rice.edu/grads/publications/gc-jour.pdf, 2004-04-26
[38] 曹鸿强，肖侬，卢锡城，刘艳，一种基于市场机制的计算网格资源分配方法，计算机研究与发展，2002，39(8)：913～916(CAO Hong-Qiang, XIAO Nong, LU Xi-Cheng, LIU Yan. A market-based approach to allocate resources for computational grids.
Journal of Computer Research and Development(in Chinese), 2002, 39(8): 913～916)
[39] Ian Foster, Carl Kesselman, Jeffrey M. Nick, Steven Tuecke, The Physiology of the Grid: An Open Grid Services Architecture for Distributed Systems Integration. www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/ogsa_draft2.9_2002-06-22.pdf, 2004-04-26
[40] W.Smith, I.Foster, V. Taylor. Predicting Application Run Times Using Historical Information. Proc. IPPS/SPDP'98 Workshop on Job Scheduling Strategies for Parallel Processing, 1998. ftp://ftp.globus.org/pub/globus/papers/runtime.pdf, 2004-04-26
[41] Web Services, www.w3.org/2002/ws/, 2004-04-26
[42] Liang-Jie Zhang, Qun Zhou, Jen-Yao Chung, Developing Grid computing applications, Part 2, http://www-106.ibm.com/developerworks/webservices/library/ws-grid2/, 2003-03-20
[43] Alexander Barmouta, Rajkumar Buyya, GridBank: A Grid Accounting Services Architecture (GASA) for Distributed Systems Sharing and Integration, www.cs.mu.oz.au/～raj/grids/papers/gridbank.pdf, 2004-04-26
[44] P.Preston McAfee and John McMillan. Auctions and bidding. Journal of Economic Literature, 25:699-738, 1987
[45] Michael P. Wellman, William E. Walsh, Peter R. Wurman, Jeffery K. MacKie-Mason, Auction Protocols for Decentralized Scheduling, http://www-personal.umich.edu/～jmm/papers/gebfinal.pdf, 2003-10-23
[46] Andrew Byde, Applying Evolutionary Game Theory to Auction Mechanism Design, http://www.hpl.hp.com/techreports/2002/HPL-2002-321.pdf, 2003-09-15
[47] Payman Faratin, Automated Service Negotiation Between Autonomous Computational Agents, http://www.ana.lcs.mit.edu/peyman/pubs/peyman-thesis.pdf, 2003-12-10
[48] Martin J．Osborne，Ariel Rubinstein，博弈论教程，魏玉根译，北京：中国社会科学出版社，2000．4，
[49] Sushil Bikhchandani, John W.Mamer. Competitive equilibrium in an exchange economy with indivisibilities. Journal of Economic Theory, 74:385-413, 1997.
[50] Takefusa, A., Matsuoka, S., Nakada, H., Aida, K., Nagashima, U., Overview of a Performance Evaluation System of Global Computing Scheduling Algorithms. The 8th IEEE Iternational Symposium on High Performance Distributed Computing(HPDCS), p97-104, 08.1999.
[51] Casanova, H., SimGrid: A Toolkit for the Simulation of Application Scheduling. IEEE International Symposium on Cluster Computing and the Grid (CCGrid'01), 05.2001, Brisbane, Australia, pp430-437.
[52] GridSim, http://www.gridbus.org/gridsim/, 2003-12-10
[53] Daniel Walton, The Simulation of Dynamic Resource Brokering in a Grid Environment, http://www.dhpc.adelaide.edu.au/reports/135/dhpc-135.pdf, 2003-12-10
[54] SimJava, http://www.dcs.ed.ac.uk/home/hase/simjava/, 2003-08-30
[55] OGSA 结构描述, http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/ogsa_draft2.9_2002-06-22.pdf, 2003-11-23
[56] OGSA 规范, http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/drafts/GS_Spec_draft03_2002-07-17.pdf, 2003-11-23
[57] GGF的OGSI工作组. http://www.gridforum.org/ogsi-wg/, 2003-11-23
[58] Chris Kenyon, Giorgos Cheliotis, Grid Resource Commercialization, http://www.zurich.ibm.com/pdf/GridEconomics/kenyon_Grid_Resource_Commercialization.pdf 2004-05-08
[59] GRAIL, http://grail.sdsc.edu/, 2004-04-23
[60] Condor, http://www.cs.wisc.edu/condor/, 2004-04-23
[61] Javelin, http://javelin.cs.ucsb.edu/, 2004-04-23
[62] NetSolve/GridSolve, http://icl.cs.utk.edu/netsolve/, 2004-04-23
[63] CERN DataGrid, http://eu-datagrid.web.cern.ch/eu-datagrid/, 2004-04-23
[64] Ninf-G, http://ninf.apgrid.org/, 2004-04-23