TBM氚系统的氚安全分析研究
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摘要
当今世界对能源的需求正变得越来越大,作为能源主体的化石能源日益枯竭,而核裂变能存在着资源贮量有限、放射性废物危害较大等固有缺陷,其它能源尚不能承担世界庞大的能源需求,因此人们把目光投向了核聚变能源。核聚变能源以其安全、清洁、燃料资源丰富等优点而成为未来首选能源。由中国、欧盟、美国等七方参加的基于磁约束核聚变的ITER装置是第一个聚变堆级的实验装置,它不仅用来集成验证聚变能源的科学性和可行性,而且将部分验证聚变堆的工程技术问题。ITER用于氚增殖研究的实验包层模块(TBM)及其燃料循环系统(氚处理系统)等是ITER的核心技术之一。依据ITER中国专家组总体安排,将研制一套供氦冷固态氚增殖剂包层模块(HCCB TBM)使用的氚处理系统,包括氚提取系统(TES)、氦冷却气纯化系统(CPS)和氚测量系统(TMS)三个功能系统。
TBM氚系统内氚的总量和氚的释放速率是氚安全所关注的重要问题。氚(T2、HT等)具有极强的迁移扩散能力,很容易通过系统向外泄漏或渗透,从而损伤材料并对工作人员和环境造成危害。正常运行的氚系统的氚释放量必须低于规定限值才被许可运行,在氚系统最终参试前,需向ITER IO提交安全分析报告以获得参试许可。因此在TBM氚系统研制过程中须进行预安全分析、质量保证措施及许可证申请等研究。
对TBM氚系统进行安全分析与评估就是要采用适当的方法来分析氚系统的自身危险性,分析氚系统可能发生的故障／事故和应采用的安全措施,分析氚系统正常运行和事故工况下对工作人员、环境和公众等的放射性危害情况,也就是分析氚系统的设计是否满足安全需要。为实现上述目标,以确定论作为氚安全研究主要的指导思想,适当采用概率安全评价(PSA)的一些思想和方法作为补充,主要从以下几个方面在进行了TBM氚系统的安全研究：氚安全分析及安全控制策略研究、TBM氚系统材料的氚包容性能研究、TBM氚系统的危险性分析、TBM氚系统的故障模式、影响及危害性分析(FMECA)、正常工况下氚系统氚释放的分析和计算。这些研究将为氚系统的安全分析与评估提供支撑。
首先研究了氚安全分析和安全控制的策略问题,以作为氚安全研究的指导思想。主要包括氚循环的安全战略,合理可行的氚安全分析流程和应采用的方法,多重包容的氚安全控制策略。根据确定论的研究思路给出了进行TBM氘系统安全分析的过程,从而确定了主要采用确定论来进行氚安全分析,最终提交安全报告以获得参试许可证。同时,进行TBM氚系统的功能分析与材料分析,以便为后面的预先危险性分析(PHA)和FMECA提供支撑；分析氚的走向并给出氚量衡算方程,从而指导下一步的氚释放计算。
材料氚包容性能是氚系统安全研究需要关注的最重要的问题之一。以D2作为渗透介质(代替HT),采用超高真空-四极质谱法进行气相D2在HR-1材料渗透测试,并进行推导计算,获得D：在材料中的渗透率、扩散系数、溶解度等热力学参数,从而为氚安全分析中的氚释放量计算提供基础数据。
对煤气事故、H2事故和三个典型裂变电厂核释放(泄漏)事故进行了调查与分析,从而得到了事故模式、事故原因、事故机理、事故后果和预防措施等,可作为TBM氚系统安全分析的借鉴。对氚系统进行危险、有害因素辨识,获得可能导致氚异常释放的部分始发事件。使用危险性预先分析法对TBM氚系统的三级包容系统的氚释放危险进行分析,结果表明,PHA可以为TBM氚系统初始的安全分析和进一步的安全设计奠定基础,而针对各种危险、有害因素提出的预防措施分析可以为氚系统的设计提供指导。另外,根据课题研究的要求,还探讨了氚提取系统的最大可信事故问题,分析了用于安全设计的设计基准事故和超设计基准事故。从环境释放限值和工作人员剂量限值的角度进行了氚释放速率限值的分析和计算,给出了导出限值等安全判断参数。
与PHA方法类似,FMECA方法也适用于设计中的TBM氚系统的初步安全分析。首先分析和描述研究对象的任务要求和环境条件,即进行任务剖面分析,并进行风险定义。通过FMECA分析,找出了导致氚危险性释放的故障模式,即发生于材料壁、连接结构和冷却器等部位的几种故障模式及其风险优先数和危害度,并进而找出了可能导致氚过量释放的潜在故障模式,这些故障是进行风险预防的重点。确定了冷却器的管板连接和板壳连接处最易发生氚危险性释放故障。分析发现,可以通过改进设计、使用补偿方法来降低氚释放风险,提高系统安全水平。
计算氚的外部释放量是氚安全的重要研究内容之一。TBM氚系统正常运行时内部会积存着一定数量的氚,氚的释放速率必须控制在规定限值内才能够获得参试许可证。由于TBM氚系统的工艺和组成比较复杂,而且目前的设计还未完全确定氚系统各部分的尺寸设计参数、氚数量和工艺条件等等,因此氚释放量只能采用估算法获得,计算时所采用的方法和参数应是保守偏安全的。氚的释放包括氚通过材料壁的原子扩散和氚通过材料壁或连接件极微漏孔通道的分子扩散和迁移。因此,氚释放计算的基础是传质方程、分子扩散计算方法(Fick定律)、气体的微通道流动与扩散等计算方法等。计算结果表明,氚系统正常运行时,氚通过氚系统材料壁向外部的渗透速率是非常低的,而氚的微泄漏速率则更低,基本可以忽略。由于氚正常释放的计算相当繁琐,选用和建立适宜的氚释放计算模型非常重要,在手套箱除氚净化模型的基础上建立了氚操作室除氚的数学模型。
Nowadays, there is a greater demand on energies in the world, with the increasing depletion of the fossil fuel, which is the main body of the energy resource. Meanwhile, the nuclear fission energy has the inherent defects as limited reserves, harmful and radioactive wastes, etc.; other resources can't meet the huge energy demand in the world. Therefore, people's attention has been drawn to nuclear fusion energy. The nuclear fusion energy will be the first choice for future energy, since it is safe, clean and with abundant nuclear fuel supply. ITER is the first experimental fusion reactor based on magnetic confinement fusion, with the cooperation of the seven countries including China, EU and US, etc. ITER is not only used to verify the scientific nature and feasibility of fusion energy, but also used to partly testify the engineering and techniques of fusion reactor. TBM and its tritium system are one of the key techniques in ITER. According to the whole arrangement of Chinese ITER experts, a tritium system which can be used for HCCB TBM will be developed. The tritium system can be divided into three subsystems with different functions, named Tritium Extraction System (TES), Coolant Purification System (CPS) and Tritium Measurement System (TMS).
The total tritium amount and release rate from TBM tritium system are the important problems in tritium safety research. Tritium can easily migrate and diffuse out to the external environment from the tritium system, damaging the structural materials and doing harm to the staff. The normal tritium release rate must be limited within the limit value. Before the verification test of TBM tritium system in ITER device, a safety analysis report about TBM and its auxiliary tritium system should be submitted to ITER organizations to gain the experiment permission license. The preparation work, for example, the pre-safety analysis, quality control measures and license application of the tritium system should be carried out.
The safety analysis and evaluation on the tritium system is to analyze, with appropriate methods, the danger, possible failure and radioactive harm to the staff, environment and neighborhood. In order to realize goals above, deterministic analysis is used as the main guiding ideology. As a beneficial supplement, some methods based on probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) are appropriately applied. The following aspects of tritium safety analysis will be discussed:the strategy research on tritium safety analysis and safety management, the research on containment performance of materials for tritium, the danger analysis on TBM tritium system, the FMECA research on TBM tritium system, the analysis and calculation of tritium release under normal operating conditions. In the aspect of tritium safety analysis and safety management, probably adoptable safety measure of the tritium system is analyzed. Besides, the research content of tritium safety analysis is made clear, and safety research on TBM tritium system is considered as a part of strategy research on tritium safety. In addition, the procedure of tritium safety analysis, as well as the technique in each procedure is put forward and discussed.
At first, this paper focuses on the strategy of tritium safety analysis and safety control, which is the guiding ideology for tritium safety study, mainly including safety strategies of tritium circulation, reasonable procedure and methods of tritium safety analysis, safety control strategy based on multiple tritium containment. Meanwhile, the function and material of TBM tritium system is analyzed, in order to provide support for further PHA and FMECA. The tritium trend and the tritium balance equation were given to provide guidance for tritium release calculation.
Tritium resistivity of tritium resistant materials is one of the most important problems in tritium safety research. Permeability, diffusion coefficient and solubility of D2replacing HT in HR-1austenitic stainless steel can be got by gas permeability test, which can provide the basic data for tritium release calculation in tritium safety analysis.
H2accidents, toxic gas accidents and three typical nuclear leakage accidents that ever happened in history are investigated and analyzed, to find the general factors about accident mode, accident mechanism, accident consequence and preventive measures, which will provide references for safety analysis on the tritium system. Some initiating events causing abnormal tritium releasing were analyzed by identifying dangerous, harmful factors on tritium system, on the basis of which, PHA is carried out to analyze the triple tritium containment systems of tritium system. And the result shows that PHA can lay the foundation of preliminary tritium safety analysis and further safety design. Meanwhile, the analysis on prevention measures for various dangerous and harmful factors can provide guidance for design of TBM tritium system. In addition, according to the requirements of the subject research, the design basis accident and beyond design basis accident about TBM tritium system are also analyzed. Tritium limit was analyzed and calculated, and the derived limit and other safety parameters were got.
Similar to PHA, FMECA is also applicable to the safety analysis on TBM tritium system in design. Firstly, the task requirements and environmental condition of the research objects are analyzed and described, that is the task profile analysis, then risk definition is given. Through FMECA, the failure modes leading to dangerous tritium release are found out, and their risk priority number and damage degree level are calculated. They often take place in materials wall, connection structure and cooler. Then the potential fault modes leading to the excessive tritium release are found out, which are the key to prevent tritium release risk. It is definite that excessive tritium release is most likely to take place in the connection of tube-plate or plate-shell. The analysis shows that tritium release risk can be reduced, and the safety level of the tritium system can be raised also, only through the design improvement and safety compensation measures. Besides, four potential fault modes which are likely to lead to excessive tritium release should be paid more attention to.
Calculation on tritium release amount to the environment and tritium action simulation in component and materials are the important content on tritium safety research. A certain amount of tritium exists in TBM tritium system, and tritium release rate is the important problem for tritium safety. Besides, tritium release rate should be within the permission value. Actual operational situation of the tritium system often changes, and it is impossible to know clearly the design parameters of the components, tritium amount and technique condition. Therefore, the normal tritium release amount could only be estimated, and calculation methods and parameters should be safe and conservative. The calculation methods in this chapter are mass transfer equation, Fick law, fluid flow equation, etc. There are three routes of tritium release, which are atomic tritium diffusion through the material wall, tritium molecular migration through micro leakage channels and tritium waste transportation out from TBM tritium system. The calculation result shows that when the tritium system works normally, the permeation rate of tritium through the material wall is low, and the micro leakage rate is even lower, which can be neglected completely. Through analysis in this chapter, the calculation process of the normal tritium release is very tedious, so the selection or establishment of the appropriate calculation mode for tritium release is important. Finally, mathematical model of detritiation in the tritium operating room is established on the basis of detritiation mode in glove boxes.
TBM氚系统内氚的总量和氚的释放速率是氚安全所关注的重要问题。氚(T2、HT等)具有极强的迁移扩散能力,很容易通过系统向外泄漏或渗透,从而损伤材料并对工作人员和环境造成危害。正常运行的氚系统的氚释放量必须低于规定限值才被许可运行,在氚系统最终参试前,需向ITER IO提交安全分析报告以获得参试许可。因此在TBM氚系统研制过程中须进行预安全分析、质量保证措施及许可证申请等研究。
对TBM氚系统进行安全分析与评估就是要采用适当的方法来分析氚系统的自身危险性,分析氚系统可能发生的故障／事故和应采用的安全措施,分析氚系统正常运行和事故工况下对工作人员、环境和公众等的放射性危害情况,也就是分析氚系统的设计是否满足安全需要。为实现上述目标,以确定论作为氚安全研究主要的指导思想,适当采用概率安全评价(PSA)的一些思想和方法作为补充,主要从以下几个方面在进行了TBM氚系统的安全研究：氚安全分析及安全控制策略研究、TBM氚系统材料的氚包容性能研究、TBM氚系统的危险性分析、TBM氚系统的故障模式、影响及危害性分析(FMECA)、正常工况下氚系统氚释放的分析和计算。这些研究将为氚系统的安全分析与评估提供支撑。
首先研究了氚安全分析和安全控制的策略问题,以作为氚安全研究的指导思想。主要包括氚循环的安全战略,合理可行的氚安全分析流程和应采用的方法,多重包容的氚安全控制策略。根据确定论的研究思路给出了进行TBM氘系统安全分析的过程,从而确定了主要采用确定论来进行氚安全分析,最终提交安全报告以获得参试许可证。同时,进行TBM氚系统的功能分析与材料分析,以便为后面的预先危险性分析(PHA)和FMECA提供支撑；分析氚的走向并给出氚量衡算方程,从而指导下一步的氚释放计算。
材料氚包容性能是氚系统安全研究需要关注的最重要的问题之一。以D2作为渗透介质(代替HT),采用超高真空-四极质谱法进行气相D2在HR-1材料渗透测试,并进行推导计算,获得D：在材料中的渗透率、扩散系数、溶解度等热力学参数,从而为氚安全分析中的氚释放量计算提供基础数据。
对煤气事故、H2事故和三个典型裂变电厂核释放(泄漏)事故进行了调查与分析,从而得到了事故模式、事故原因、事故机理、事故后果和预防措施等,可作为TBM氚系统安全分析的借鉴。对氚系统进行危险、有害因素辨识,获得可能导致氚异常释放的部分始发事件。使用危险性预先分析法对TBM氚系统的三级包容系统的氚释放危险进行分析,结果表明,PHA可以为TBM氚系统初始的安全分析和进一步的安全设计奠定基础,而针对各种危险、有害因素提出的预防措施分析可以为氚系统的设计提供指导。另外,根据课题研究的要求,还探讨了氚提取系统的最大可信事故问题,分析了用于安全设计的设计基准事故和超设计基准事故。从环境释放限值和工作人员剂量限值的角度进行了氚释放速率限值的分析和计算,给出了导出限值等安全判断参数。
与PHA方法类似,FMECA方法也适用于设计中的TBM氚系统的初步安全分析。首先分析和描述研究对象的任务要求和环境条件,即进行任务剖面分析,并进行风险定义。通过FMECA分析,找出了导致氚危险性释放的故障模式,即发生于材料壁、连接结构和冷却器等部位的几种故障模式及其风险优先数和危害度,并进而找出了可能导致氚过量释放的潜在故障模式,这些故障是进行风险预防的重点。确定了冷却器的管板连接和板壳连接处最易发生氚危险性释放故障。分析发现,可以通过改进设计、使用补偿方法来降低氚释放风险,提高系统安全水平。
计算氚的外部释放量是氚安全的重要研究内容之一。TBM氚系统正常运行时内部会积存着一定数量的氚,氚的释放速率必须控制在规定限值内才能够获得参试许可证。由于TBM氚系统的工艺和组成比较复杂,而且目前的设计还未完全确定氚系统各部分的尺寸设计参数、氚数量和工艺条件等等,因此氚释放量只能采用估算法获得,计算时所采用的方法和参数应是保守偏安全的。氚的释放包括氚通过材料壁的原子扩散和氚通过材料壁或连接件极微漏孔通道的分子扩散和迁移。因此,氚释放计算的基础是传质方程、分子扩散计算方法(Fick定律)、气体的微通道流动与扩散等计算方法等。计算结果表明,氚系统正常运行时,氚通过氚系统材料壁向外部的渗透速率是非常低的,而氚的微泄漏速率则更低,基本可以忽略。由于氚正常释放的计算相当繁琐,选用和建立适宜的氚释放计算模型非常重要,在手套箱除氚净化模型的基础上建立了氚操作室除氚的数学模型。
Nowadays, there is a greater demand on energies in the world, with the increasing depletion of the fossil fuel, which is the main body of the energy resource. Meanwhile, the nuclear fission energy has the inherent defects as limited reserves, harmful and radioactive wastes, etc.; other resources can't meet the huge energy demand in the world. Therefore, people's attention has been drawn to nuclear fusion energy. The nuclear fusion energy will be the first choice for future energy, since it is safe, clean and with abundant nuclear fuel supply. ITER is the first experimental fusion reactor based on magnetic confinement fusion, with the cooperation of the seven countries including China, EU and US, etc. ITER is not only used to verify the scientific nature and feasibility of fusion energy, but also used to partly testify the engineering and techniques of fusion reactor. TBM and its tritium system are one of the key techniques in ITER. According to the whole arrangement of Chinese ITER experts, a tritium system which can be used for HCCB TBM will be developed. The tritium system can be divided into three subsystems with different functions, named Tritium Extraction System (TES), Coolant Purification System (CPS) and Tritium Measurement System (TMS).
The total tritium amount and release rate from TBM tritium system are the important problems in tritium safety research. Tritium can easily migrate and diffuse out to the external environment from the tritium system, damaging the structural materials and doing harm to the staff. The normal tritium release rate must be limited within the limit value. Before the verification test of TBM tritium system in ITER device, a safety analysis report about TBM and its auxiliary tritium system should be submitted to ITER organizations to gain the experiment permission license. The preparation work, for example, the pre-safety analysis, quality control measures and license application of the tritium system should be carried out.
The safety analysis and evaluation on the tritium system is to analyze, with appropriate methods, the danger, possible failure and radioactive harm to the staff, environment and neighborhood. In order to realize goals above, deterministic analysis is used as the main guiding ideology. As a beneficial supplement, some methods based on probabilistic safety assessment (PSA) are appropriately applied. The following aspects of tritium safety analysis will be discussed:the strategy research on tritium safety analysis and safety management, the research on containment performance of materials for tritium, the danger analysis on TBM tritium system, the FMECA research on TBM tritium system, the analysis and calculation of tritium release under normal operating conditions. In the aspect of tritium safety analysis and safety management, probably adoptable safety measure of the tritium system is analyzed. Besides, the research content of tritium safety analysis is made clear, and safety research on TBM tritium system is considered as a part of strategy research on tritium safety. In addition, the procedure of tritium safety analysis, as well as the technique in each procedure is put forward and discussed.
At first, this paper focuses on the strategy of tritium safety analysis and safety control, which is the guiding ideology for tritium safety study, mainly including safety strategies of tritium circulation, reasonable procedure and methods of tritium safety analysis, safety control strategy based on multiple tritium containment. Meanwhile, the function and material of TBM tritium system is analyzed, in order to provide support for further PHA and FMECA. The tritium trend and the tritium balance equation were given to provide guidance for tritium release calculation.
Tritium resistivity of tritium resistant materials is one of the most important problems in tritium safety research. Permeability, diffusion coefficient and solubility of D2replacing HT in HR-1austenitic stainless steel can be got by gas permeability test, which can provide the basic data for tritium release calculation in tritium safety analysis.
H2accidents, toxic gas accidents and three typical nuclear leakage accidents that ever happened in history are investigated and analyzed, to find the general factors about accident mode, accident mechanism, accident consequence and preventive measures, which will provide references for safety analysis on the tritium system. Some initiating events causing abnormal tritium releasing were analyzed by identifying dangerous, harmful factors on tritium system, on the basis of which, PHA is carried out to analyze the triple tritium containment systems of tritium system. And the result shows that PHA can lay the foundation of preliminary tritium safety analysis and further safety design. Meanwhile, the analysis on prevention measures for various dangerous and harmful factors can provide guidance for design of TBM tritium system. In addition, according to the requirements of the subject research, the design basis accident and beyond design basis accident about TBM tritium system are also analyzed. Tritium limit was analyzed and calculated, and the derived limit and other safety parameters were got.
Similar to PHA, FMECA is also applicable to the safety analysis on TBM tritium system in design. Firstly, the task requirements and environmental condition of the research objects are analyzed and described, that is the task profile analysis, then risk definition is given. Through FMECA, the failure modes leading to dangerous tritium release are found out, and their risk priority number and damage degree level are calculated. They often take place in materials wall, connection structure and cooler. Then the potential fault modes leading to the excessive tritium release are found out, which are the key to prevent tritium release risk. It is definite that excessive tritium release is most likely to take place in the connection of tube-plate or plate-shell. The analysis shows that tritium release risk can be reduced, and the safety level of the tritium system can be raised also, only through the design improvement and safety compensation measures. Besides, four potential fault modes which are likely to lead to excessive tritium release should be paid more attention to.
Calculation on tritium release amount to the environment and tritium action simulation in component and materials are the important content on tritium safety research. A certain amount of tritium exists in TBM tritium system, and tritium release rate is the important problem for tritium safety. Besides, tritium release rate should be within the permission value. Actual operational situation of the tritium system often changes, and it is impossible to know clearly the design parameters of the components, tritium amount and technique condition. Therefore, the normal tritium release amount could only be estimated, and calculation methods and parameters should be safe and conservative. The calculation methods in this chapter are mass transfer equation, Fick law, fluid flow equation, etc. There are three routes of tritium release, which are atomic tritium diffusion through the material wall, tritium molecular migration through micro leakage channels and tritium waste transportation out from TBM tritium system. The calculation result shows that when the tritium system works normally, the permeation rate of tritium through the material wall is low, and the micro leakage rate is even lower, which can be neglected completely. Through analysis in this chapter, the calculation process of the normal tritium release is very tedious, so the selection or establishment of the appropriate calculation mode for tritium release is important. Finally, mathematical model of detritiation in the tritium operating room is established on the basis of detritiation mode in glove boxes.
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