氮肥对褐飞虱的生态适应性及其与水稻和天敌关系的影响
|
摘要
褐飞虱Nilaparvata lugens(Stl)属于季节性、迁飞性、r-对策和爆发性害虫，是东南亚水稻生产国最主要的害虫之一。20世纪60年代中期的“绿色革命”以后，由于矮秆、早熟、宽叶和高产的水稻新品种的大面积推广和应用、复种指数的提高以及农药和化肥的大量施用导致褐飞虱种群密度大幅度提高，使其从次要害虫转变为最主要的害虫之一。氮肥和高毒广谱杀虫剂的大面积连续施用被认为是褐飞虱大发生的主要原因。但是，氮肥在增加水稻产量的同时是否真正引起水稻对害虫的敏感性和害虫与天敌关系的变化，从而影响自然控制效能，导致褐飞虱等的大发生，以及氮肥影响水稻、褐飞虱和天敌之间关系的生态学机理等尚不明确，为此，在国际水稻研究所进行了氮肥对水稻植株抗性、褐飞虱生态适应性以及主要天敌自然控制能力的影响及其生态学机理的研究，为更好的水稻害虫和营养综合管理(IPNM)提供理论依据。主要研究结果如下：
1、氮肥对SPAD值的影响及其与稻株含氮量的关系
水稻叶片的SPAD值(叶绿素含量)与氮肥的施用量呈极显著的正相关。但同一氮肥施用量的重复间稻株叶片的SPAD值有显著差异，说明稻株的个体差异较大。水稻植株的含氮量与叶片的SPAD值也呈极显著的正相关，其关系可以表达为：N％=0.1151×SPAD-1.2772。
2、氮肥对稻株含水量和伤流液的影响及其与水稻对褐飞虱为害耐性的关系
随着稻株含氮量的增加，稻株的含水量和相对含水量均显著增加，但叶鞘伤流液总量却明显减少。被褐飞虱若虫为害后，高氮肥施用量稻株的相对含水量显著低于低氮肥施用量稻株的相对含水量。这些结果可能是导致高氮肥条件下稻株对褐飞虱为害的敏感性增加的重要原因，最终导致稻株含氮量的增加对褐飞虱为害的忍耐性下降。
3、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱产卵和取食行为的影响
温室内自由选择试验表明，无论饲养在高氮还是低氮稻株上的雌成虫均喜欢将卵产在含氮量较高的稻株上，不同种群褐飞虱的产卵量均与稻株含氮量呈极显著的正相关，产卵量E=85.036N％-82.602。随着稻株含氮量的增加，叶鞘下部的产卵量比例增加，而在叶鞘上部和叶片上的产卵量比例下降。成虫和若虫在低含氮量稻株上的取食频率明显比在高含氮量稻株上的取食频率高。饲养在低氮稻株上的若虫在取食低氮稻株时的取食频率最高，而饲养在高氮稻株上的若虫在取食高氮稻株时的取食频率最低。说明褐飞虱的取食频率与寄主植物、饲料植物和褐飞虱对寄主植物的适应性均有关。
4、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱生态适应性的影响
不同褐飞虱种群的若虫存活率随稻株含氮量的增加而显著提高，其变化范围在60％至100％之间，而在相同含氮量的稻株上连续饲养数代后，不同代别之间的若虫存活率无显著差异。但是，随着取食代数的增加，在高氮稻株上的若虫历期显著缩短、雌成虫鲜重和生殖力增加、成虫寿命逐渐延长和卵孵化率提高。稻株含氮量对褐飞虱子代数量和
生物量的影响随着连续饲养时间的延长有一定的累积效应，在高氮稻株上逐代增加，而
在低氮稻株上却逐代下降。
5、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱抗逆性的影响
若虫密度对若虫存活率的影响随密度提高而增强、随稻株含氮量的提高而下降，
而且若虫密度的增加和稻株含氮量下降均显著延长若虫的历期和降低雌雄成虫的比例。
在高温情况下，在高含氮稻株上的褐飞虱成虫和若虫存活率、成虫生殖力和卵孵化率均
显著高于在低含氮稻株上的褐飞虱，而且对高温耐性的差异随在不同含氮稻株上饲养代
数的延长而增强。高氮稻株上的褐飞虱雌成虫的耐饥力和若虫对暖嗓酮的耐性均大于饲
养在低氮稻株上的褐飞虱。结果证明田间施用过量氮肥后褐飞虱种群的抗逆性可能增
强。
6、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱天敌行为和生态适应性的影响
不同种群的黑肩绿盲螃均喜欢在高氮含量的稻株上捕食褐飞虱卵和产卵，被捕食褐
飞虱卵的数量与稻株含氮量有极显著相关性。在水稻叶片和叶鞘同时有褐飞虱卵存在的
情况下，无论高氮稻株还是低氮稻株上的黑肩绿盲螃均显著地选择捕食叶片上的卵，这
在低氮稻株表现更明显。
在没有褐飞虱卵存在的情况下，黑肩绿盲螃不能在低含氮量的稻株上完成生活史，
而在高氮稻株上的若虫存活率可达70－85％。在含有褐飞虱卵的高氮稻株上的黑肩绿盲峙
种群的生态适应性参数如发育速率、雌成虫体重和寿命以及生殖力均显著高于低氮稻株
上的参数值，但是若虫存活率和雄成虫寿命则无显著差异．
在漫射光条件下，不同种群的缨小蜂雌成虫均显著选择寄生在低氮稻株上的褐飞虱
卵，被寄生的卵量随稻株含氮量的增加显著减少。但在黑暗条件下，所有缨小蜂种群对
不同含氮量稻株上褐飞虱卵的寄生均无显著差异，说明光在缨小蜂对不同含氮量稻株上
褐飞虱卵的寄生选择中起着重要的作用。在稻株不同位置上，叶片中脉内的褐飞虱卵被
寄生的量最高，上部叶鞘次之，下部叶鞘最少。根据叶色卡不同级别的色泽亮度和不同
含氮量水稻叶片的叶色卡级别，模拟出不同含氮量稻株对缨小蜂的相对吸引能力，Y＝＝．
2．2285No＋16．213。结果说明过量施用氮肥后稻株叶色
Brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stal), characterized by its monsoon migration and r-strategy life pattern in East Asia, is an important insect pest in the Asian rice grow n region. It has increased in abundance and shifted from minor to major pest since the mid-1960', due to the adoption of new rice productive practices such as planting widely of semi-dwarf, early mature, wide blade and high yield varieties, increasing cropping index, applying chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer was considered to be the key factor to trigger the increase of BPH populations and frequencies of "hopper burn". However, the ecological mechanism on the influence of nitrogen nutrient on tritrophic interactions between BPH and its host rice and natural enemies is still unclear, especially on the changes in ecological fitness of BPH and its natural enemies continuously fed on rice plant with high nitrogen content, and on the relationship between nitrogen nutrient and the effective natural biological control functions.
The main objectives of this research are to quantify the effect of nitrogen nutrient on the populations of BPH in fitness and their tolerances to adverse environmental stresses, and to assess the impact of nitrogen in the natural biological control functions, for a better integrated pest and nutrient management (IPNM) for rice.
1. Effects of nitrogen regimes on the SPAD readings of rice leaves and the relationship between SPAD readings and the nitrogen content of rice plants
The SPAD (the content of chlorophyll) readings of rice leaves at different rice growth stages were positively related to the rates of nitrogenous fertilizer, however the significant differences in SPAD readings were recorded among the replications of rice plants with the same rate of nitrogenous fertilizer. The nitrogen content of rice plants increased significantly with the increase of leaf SPAD readings both at different rice growth stages and different rice growing seasons, and the relationship between SPAD readings and nitrogen content of rice plants can be expressed as: N%= 0.1151 SPAD - 1.2772.
2. Effects of nitrogenous fertilizer on water content, sap flow and tolerance to the brown planthopper of rice plants
Both water content (WC) and relative water content (RWC) of rice plants were significantly increased, while the sap amount flowed from leaf sheath of rice plants were statistically reduced, with the increase of nitrogen content in rice plants. The RWC, which is more sensitive than WC to the change in nitrogen content of rice plants, in rice plants applied with high nitrogenous fertilizers strongly decreased by the injury of BPH nymphs. These may be the key factors to decrease the tolerance to BPH injury of rice plants with the increasing application of nitrogenous fertilizer.
3. Effects of nitrogen content of rice plants on the oviposition and feeding behavior of the brown planthopper
In the free choice tests conducted in greenhouse, all adult females of BPH populations continuously fed on the rice plants both with high (N2) and low (N0) nitrogenous fertilizers preferred to laying their eggs on rice plants with a higher nitrogen content. The relationship
between numbers of BPH eggs laid (E) and the nitrogen content of host plants (N%) can be statistically regressed as: E = 85.036 N%-82.602. The numbers of eggs laid on the bottom of leaf sheath increased and those laid on the leaf blade decreased, when the nitrogen content of rice plants was increased. More adults selected to feed on rice plants with high nitrogen content than on those with low nitrogen content, while no obvious differences were found in feeding preference of BPH nymphs.
Both nymphs and adults more frequently fed on NO rice plants than on N2 rice plants. The highest feeding frequencies of nymphs were found on NO rice plants in those nymphs that reared successively on NO rice plants. The feeding rates of newly emerged adult females were significantly increased with increase of the nitroge
1、氮肥对SPAD值的影响及其与稻株含氮量的关系
水稻叶片的SPAD值(叶绿素含量)与氮肥的施用量呈极显著的正相关。但同一氮肥施用量的重复间稻株叶片的SPAD值有显著差异，说明稻株的个体差异较大。水稻植株的含氮量与叶片的SPAD值也呈极显著的正相关，其关系可以表达为：N％=0.1151×SPAD-1.2772。
2、氮肥对稻株含水量和伤流液的影响及其与水稻对褐飞虱为害耐性的关系
随着稻株含氮量的增加，稻株的含水量和相对含水量均显著增加，但叶鞘伤流液总量却明显减少。被褐飞虱若虫为害后，高氮肥施用量稻株的相对含水量显著低于低氮肥施用量稻株的相对含水量。这些结果可能是导致高氮肥条件下稻株对褐飞虱为害的敏感性增加的重要原因，最终导致稻株含氮量的增加对褐飞虱为害的忍耐性下降。
3、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱产卵和取食行为的影响
温室内自由选择试验表明，无论饲养在高氮还是低氮稻株上的雌成虫均喜欢将卵产在含氮量较高的稻株上，不同种群褐飞虱的产卵量均与稻株含氮量呈极显著的正相关，产卵量E=85.036N％-82.602。随着稻株含氮量的增加，叶鞘下部的产卵量比例增加，而在叶鞘上部和叶片上的产卵量比例下降。成虫和若虫在低含氮量稻株上的取食频率明显比在高含氮量稻株上的取食频率高。饲养在低氮稻株上的若虫在取食低氮稻株时的取食频率最高，而饲养在高氮稻株上的若虫在取食高氮稻株时的取食频率最低。说明褐飞虱的取食频率与寄主植物、饲料植物和褐飞虱对寄主植物的适应性均有关。
4、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱生态适应性的影响
不同褐飞虱种群的若虫存活率随稻株含氮量的增加而显著提高，其变化范围在60％至100％之间，而在相同含氮量的稻株上连续饲养数代后，不同代别之间的若虫存活率无显著差异。但是，随着取食代数的增加，在高氮稻株上的若虫历期显著缩短、雌成虫鲜重和生殖力增加、成虫寿命逐渐延长和卵孵化率提高。稻株含氮量对褐飞虱子代数量和
生物量的影响随着连续饲养时间的延长有一定的累积效应，在高氮稻株上逐代增加，而
在低氮稻株上却逐代下降。
5、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱抗逆性的影响
若虫密度对若虫存活率的影响随密度提高而增强、随稻株含氮量的提高而下降，
而且若虫密度的增加和稻株含氮量下降均显著延长若虫的历期和降低雌雄成虫的比例。
在高温情况下，在高含氮稻株上的褐飞虱成虫和若虫存活率、成虫生殖力和卵孵化率均
显著高于在低含氮稻株上的褐飞虱，而且对高温耐性的差异随在不同含氮稻株上饲养代
数的延长而增强。高氮稻株上的褐飞虱雌成虫的耐饥力和若虫对暖嗓酮的耐性均大于饲
养在低氮稻株上的褐飞虱。结果证明田间施用过量氮肥后褐飞虱种群的抗逆性可能增
强。
6、稻株含氮量对褐飞虱天敌行为和生态适应性的影响
不同种群的黑肩绿盲螃均喜欢在高氮含量的稻株上捕食褐飞虱卵和产卵，被捕食褐
飞虱卵的数量与稻株含氮量有极显著相关性。在水稻叶片和叶鞘同时有褐飞虱卵存在的
情况下，无论高氮稻株还是低氮稻株上的黑肩绿盲螃均显著地选择捕食叶片上的卵，这
在低氮稻株表现更明显。
在没有褐飞虱卵存在的情况下，黑肩绿盲螃不能在低含氮量的稻株上完成生活史，
而在高氮稻株上的若虫存活率可达70－85％。在含有褐飞虱卵的高氮稻株上的黑肩绿盲峙
种群的生态适应性参数如发育速率、雌成虫体重和寿命以及生殖力均显著高于低氮稻株
上的参数值，但是若虫存活率和雄成虫寿命则无显著差异．
在漫射光条件下，不同种群的缨小蜂雌成虫均显著选择寄生在低氮稻株上的褐飞虱
卵，被寄生的卵量随稻株含氮量的增加显著减少。但在黑暗条件下，所有缨小蜂种群对
不同含氮量稻株上褐飞虱卵的寄生均无显著差异，说明光在缨小蜂对不同含氮量稻株上
褐飞虱卵的寄生选择中起着重要的作用。在稻株不同位置上，叶片中脉内的褐飞虱卵被
寄生的量最高，上部叶鞘次之，下部叶鞘最少。根据叶色卡不同级别的色泽亮度和不同
含氮量水稻叶片的叶色卡级别，模拟出不同含氮量稻株对缨小蜂的相对吸引能力，Y＝＝．
2．2285No＋16．213。结果说明过量施用氮肥后稻株叶色
Brown planthopper (BPH), Nilaparvata lugens (Stal), characterized by its monsoon migration and r-strategy life pattern in East Asia, is an important insect pest in the Asian rice grow n region. It has increased in abundance and shifted from minor to major pest since the mid-1960', due to the adoption of new rice productive practices such as planting widely of semi-dwarf, early mature, wide blade and high yield varieties, increasing cropping index, applying chemical fertilizers and pesticides. The excessive application of nitrogen fertilizer was considered to be the key factor to trigger the increase of BPH populations and frequencies of "hopper burn". However, the ecological mechanism on the influence of nitrogen nutrient on tritrophic interactions between BPH and its host rice and natural enemies is still unclear, especially on the changes in ecological fitness of BPH and its natural enemies continuously fed on rice plant with high nitrogen content, and on the relationship between nitrogen nutrient and the effective natural biological control functions.
The main objectives of this research are to quantify the effect of nitrogen nutrient on the populations of BPH in fitness and their tolerances to adverse environmental stresses, and to assess the impact of nitrogen in the natural biological control functions, for a better integrated pest and nutrient management (IPNM) for rice.
1. Effects of nitrogen regimes on the SPAD readings of rice leaves and the relationship between SPAD readings and the nitrogen content of rice plants
The SPAD (the content of chlorophyll) readings of rice leaves at different rice growth stages were positively related to the rates of nitrogenous fertilizer, however the significant differences in SPAD readings were recorded among the replications of rice plants with the same rate of nitrogenous fertilizer. The nitrogen content of rice plants increased significantly with the increase of leaf SPAD readings both at different rice growth stages and different rice growing seasons, and the relationship between SPAD readings and nitrogen content of rice plants can be expressed as: N%= 0.1151 SPAD - 1.2772.
2. Effects of nitrogenous fertilizer on water content, sap flow and tolerance to the brown planthopper of rice plants
Both water content (WC) and relative water content (RWC) of rice plants were significantly increased, while the sap amount flowed from leaf sheath of rice plants were statistically reduced, with the increase of nitrogen content in rice plants. The RWC, which is more sensitive than WC to the change in nitrogen content of rice plants, in rice plants applied with high nitrogenous fertilizers strongly decreased by the injury of BPH nymphs. These may be the key factors to decrease the tolerance to BPH injury of rice plants with the increasing application of nitrogenous fertilizer.
3. Effects of nitrogen content of rice plants on the oviposition and feeding behavior of the brown planthopper
In the free choice tests conducted in greenhouse, all adult females of BPH populations continuously fed on the rice plants both with high (N2) and low (N0) nitrogenous fertilizers preferred to laying their eggs on rice plants with a higher nitrogen content. The relationship
between numbers of BPH eggs laid (E) and the nitrogen content of host plants (N%) can be statistically regressed as: E = 85.036 N%-82.602. The numbers of eggs laid on the bottom of leaf sheath increased and those laid on the leaf blade decreased, when the nitrogen content of rice plants was increased. More adults selected to feed on rice plants with high nitrogen content than on those with low nitrogen content, while no obvious differences were found in feeding preference of BPH nymphs.
Both nymphs and adults more frequently fed on NO rice plants than on N2 rice plants. The highest feeding frequencies of nymphs were found on NO rice plants in those nymphs that reared successively on NO rice plants. The feeding rates of newly emerged adult females were significantly increased with increase of the nitroge
引文
丁克坚，黄义德和汪振华等1998．氮肥、密度对水稻产量、纹枯病和褐飞虱发生程度的影响。安徽农业大学学报 25(4)：336-341．
冯从经，戴华国和武淑文 2001褐飞虱高温条件下应激反应及体内保护酶系活性的研究。应用生态学报13：409-413
刘春茂和吴荣宗1992光照强度和氮肥对水稻品种抗褐飞虱的影响。华南农业大学学报13(2)：27-33
刘光杰和秦厚国1997．中国水稻螟虫研究进展。昆虫知识34：171-174
刘孝纯和白秀英1989．氮肥水平对棉朱砂叶螨生物学的影响。植物保护15(6)：2-5．
刘雨芳和古德祥2002 稻田中性昆虫多样性及其生态功能分析。中国生物防治18(4)：149-152
刘顺和王益之1989．施氮肥对棉铃虫影响的初步研究。河北农业大学学报 12(1)：81-87
庄永林和沈晋良2000．稻褐飞虱对噻嗪酮抗性的检测技术。南京农业大学学报23(3)：114-117
吕仲贤，俞晓平和郑许松等1997．褐飞虱致害性变异过程及其体内保护酶的变化。昆虫学报40(增)：122-127
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明等1999褐飞虱不同生物型的抗逆性。浙江农业学报 11(6)：301-305
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明2000不同地理种群褐飞虱的抗逆性。应用生态学报11：745-748
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明等2001不同虫源和致害性的褐飞虱体内共生菌的种群动态．华东昆虫学报10(1)：44-49
李汝铎，丁锦华和胡国文等1996．《褐飞虱及其种群管理》。复旦大学出版社，上海
汪茂卿和吴荣宗1991施肥对水稻品种抗褐飞虱的影响。广东农业科学(1)：25-27
巫国瑞，黄次伟和冯炳灿等1983影响褐飞虱猖獗和为害的因素。生态学报4(2)：157-166
巫国瑞，俞晓平和陶林勇等1997褐飞虱和白背飞虱灾害的长期预测。中国农业科学30(4)：25-29
张桂芬，鲁战涛和申益诚等1995．栽插密度和施氮量对水稻主要病虫害的综合生态效应。植物保护学报22(1)：38-44
吴进才，胡国文和唐健等1994稻田中性昆虫对群落食物网的调控作用。生态学报14(4)：381-386
吴进才，徐建祥和李国生等1997几种杀虫剂对拟水狼蛛捕食功能的影响。昆虫学报40(增)：165-172
吴良欢和祝增荣1994．水稻叶色和病虫害发生的关系及其机理。中国水稻科学8(4)：231-235
陈建明，程家安和何俊华 1994．温度和食物对黑肩绿盲蝽生长发育和生殖的影响。昆虫学报 37(1)：63-70
但建国和陈常铭 1990 食料条件对稻纵卷叶螟生长发育和繁殖的影响。 植物保护学报17：193-199
庞保平，程家安和王启发 1998 稻田蜘蛛对弹尾虫的功能反应及选择作用。植物保护学报25：193-196
郑许松，徐红星和俞晓平等 2001 缨小蜂的颜色选择性和粘卡的技术的应用。华东昆虫学报 10：126-180
郭玉杰，王念英和蒋金炜等 1995 中性昆虫在稻田节肢动物群落中作为捕食者营养桥梁的作用研究。中国生物防治11(1)：5-9
胡建章，陆秋华和杨金生等 1986．肥水管理对稻田主要害虫种群及产量的影响。昆虫学报29(1)：49-54
俞晓平和巫国瑞 1991 高温和浸水对褐飞虱存活和生殖的影响。浙江农业科学 (5)：239-241
俞晓平，吕仲贤和巫国瑞等 1997 褐飞虱的迁入和翅型分化规律的研究。昆虫学报40(增)：128-134
俞晓平，吕仲贤和陈建明等 1999 水稻害虫及其天敌在生境间迁移的监测方法和原理。浙江农业学报 11：325-332
钦俊德 1980 植食性昆虫的生理基础。昆虫学报 23(1)：106-122
钦俊德 1987 昆虫与植物的关系—论昆虫与植物的相互作用及其演化。科学出版社，北京
娄永根和程家安 1996a．水稻品种的形态特征对稻虱缨小蜂功能反应的影响。应用生态学报 7(1)：61-66
娄永根和程家安 1996b，黑肩绿盲蝽的功能反应及其搜索行为。植物保护学报 23(4)：322-326
娄永根，程家安和庞保平等 1996 增强稻田天敌作用的途径探讨。浙江农业学报 11(6)：333-338．
唐启义和冯明光 1997．《实用统计分析及其计算机处理平台》。中国农业出版社，北京
梁映鸿和廖顺源 1991．虫数栽植密度及施氮量对水稻二化螟危害的影响。西南农业大学学报13(4)：387-389
梁广文，罗国辉和李畅方 1984 氮肥对稻纵卷叶螟成虫和卵密度的影响。广东农业科学14(2)：34-35
龚佩瑜和李秀珍 1992 饲料氮对棉铃虫发育和繁殖的影响。昆虫学报 35：46-46
程遐年，陈若篪和习学等 1979 褐飞虱迁飞规律的研究。昆虫学报 22(1)：1-22
谭济才，邓欣和张觉晚等 2001．湖南省茶园群落演替趋势与防治对策。湖南农业大学学报(自然科学版) 27(5)：370-373．
谭荫初 1986．二化螟发生与施肥关系的初步考察。昆虫知识 23(3)：101-102
Al-Zubaidi FS and Capinera. 1984. Utilization of food and nitrogen by the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, in relation to food type and dietary nitrogen levels. Environ. Entomol. 13: 1604-1608.
Alam SN and Cohen MB. 1998. Durability of brown planthopper, Nilarpavata lugens, resistance in rice variety IR64 in greenhouse selection studies. Entomol. Exp Appl. 89:71-78
Ali AG and Ahmed AAS. 1996. Effect of plant density and nitrogen fertilization on the infestation if wheat plants with cereal aphids. Assiut J. Agric. sci., 27(2): 119-124
Alinia F, Ghareyazie B, Rubia L, Bennett J and Cohen MB. 2000. Effect of plant age, larvae age, and fertilizer treatment on resistance of a crylAb-transformed aromatic rice to Lepidopterous stem borers and foliage feeders. J. Econ. Entomol. 93:484-493
Annan IB, Ampong-Nyarko K Tingey WM and Schaefers GA. 1997. Interactions of fertilizer, cultivar selection, and infestation by cowpea aphid on growth and yield of cowpeas. International J. Pest Management. 43(4): 307-312.
Anonymous. 2002. Leaf relative water content (RWC)-the protocol. http://www.plantstress.com/admin/files/RWC.htm
Archer TL, Onken AB, Matheson RL and Bynum ED. 1982. Nitrogen fertilizer influence on geeenbug dynamics and damage to sorghum. J. Econ. Entomol. 75:695-698
Archer TL, Bynum ED, Onken AB and Wendt CW. 1995. Influence of water and nitrogen fertilizer on biology of the Russian wheat aphid on wheat. Crop Protection. 14(2): 165-169.
Auerbach MJ and Strong DR. 1981. Nutritional ecology of Heliconia herbivores: experiments with plant fertilization and alternative hosts. Ecol. Monographs. 51: 63-84
Awmack CS and Leather SR. 2002. Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47:817-844
Balasubramanian P, Palaniappan SP and Gopalan M. 1983. The effect of carbofuran and nitrogen on leaf folder incidence. IRRN. 8:13-14
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC and Cruz RT et al. 2000. Adaptation of the chlorophyll meter (SPAD) technology for real-time N management in rice: a review. IRRN 25(1): 4-8
Barbosa P, Frongillo EA and Cranshaw W. 1978. Orientation of field populations of Brachymeria intermedia to host and host-habitat cues. Entomophaga. 23(1): 63-67
Barbosa P and Letourneau DK 1988 Novel aspects of insect-plant interactions. John Wiley and Sons. NY
Barbour JD, Farrar RR and Kennedy GG. 1991. Interaction of fertilizer regime with host plant resistance in tomato. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 60:289-300
Barr, H.D. and Weatherley, P.E. 1962. A re-examination of the relative turgidity technique for estimating water deficit in leaves. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 15:413-428
Barrion AT and Litsinger J 1995. Riceland spiders of south and southeast Asia. IRRI, Philippines.
Bazzaz FA, Chiariello NR and Coley PD et al. 1987. Allocating resources to reproduction and defense. BioScience. 37: 58-67.
Beck J, Muhlenberg E and Fiedler. 1999. Mud-pudding behavior in tropical butterflies: in search of proteins or minerals? Oecologia. 119: 140-148
Begum MN and Wilkins RM. 1998. A parafilm sachet technique for measuring the feeding of Nilaparvata lugens on rice plants with correction for evapotranspiration. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 88:301-304
Behmer ST and Joern A. 1993. Dietary selection by the generalist grasshopper Phoetaliotes nebrascensis. Funct Ecology. 7:522-527
Benrey B and Denno R. 1997. The slow-growth-high-mortality hypothesis: a test using the cabbage butterfly. Ecology. 78(4): 987-999
Bentz JA and Larew HG. 1992. Ovipositional preference and nymphal performance of Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Dendranthema grandiflora under different fertilizer regimes. J. Econ. Entomol. 85:514-517
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995a Effect of nitrogen fertilizer source and level on ovipositional choice of poinsettia by Bemisia argentifolii. J. Econ. Entomol. 88(5): 1388-1392
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995b. Within-plant variation in nitrogen and sugar content of poinsettia and its effects on the oviposition pattern, survival, and development of Bemisia argentifolii. Environ. Entomol. 24:271-277
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995c. Nitrogen fertilizer effect on selection, acceptance and suitability of Euphorbia pulcherrima as a host plant to Bemisia tabaci. Environ. Entomol. 24:40-45
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1996. The effect of nitrogen fertilizer applied to Euphorbia pulcherrima on the parasitization of Bemisia argentifolii by the parasitoid Encarsia formosa. Entomologia Experimentalis el applicata. 78:105-110
Bernal CC, Aguda RM and Cohen MB. 2002. Effect of rice lines transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes on the brown planthopper and its predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. Entom. Exp. Appl.. 102: 21-28.
Bemays EA 1990 Insect-plant interactions Ⅴ. Ⅱ. CRC Press, Florida.
Bemays EA and Chapman RF. 1994. Host-plant selection by phytophagous insects. Chapman and Hall, New Bernays EA York.
Bemays EA and graham M, 1988 On the evolution of host specificity in phytophagous arthropods. Ecology, 69:886-892
Bethke JA, redak Ra and schuch UK. 1998. Melon aphid performance on chrysanthemum as mediated by cultivar, and differential levels of fertilization and irrigation. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 88:41-47
Bi JL, Ballmer GR and Hendrix DL et al. 2001. Effect of cotton nitrogen fertilization on Bemisia argentifolii population and honeydew production. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 99: 25-36.
Biswas S and singh R. 1998. Interaction between host plant resistance and biocontrol of a cereal aphid: A laboratory study. Biological Agriculture & Horticulture. 16:25-36
Blua MJ and Toscano 1994. Bemisia argentifolii development and honeydew production as a function of cotton nitrogen status. Environ. Entomol. 23: 316-321
Boethel DJ and Eikenbary RD. 1986. Interactions of plant resistance and parasitoids and predators of insects. Ellis Horwood Limited. p 224
Bowdish TI and Stiling P. 1998. The influence of salt and nitrogen on herbivore abundance: direct and indirect effects. Oecologia. 113:400-405
1.4A
Bremner, J. M., and C. S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitrogen: In A.L. Page et al. (ed.) Methods of Soil Analysis. 2nd ed. ASA and SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin.
Brodbeck BV, Stavisky J and Funderburk JE et al. 2001. Flower nitrogen status and populations of Frankliniella occidentalis feeding on Lycopersicon esculentum. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 99: 165-172
Bruyn LD, Scheirs J and Verhagen R. 2002. Nutrient stress, host plant quality and herbivore performance of a leaf-mining fly on grass. Oecologia. 130:594-599
Bryant JP, Beichardt PB, Clausen TP and Werner. RA. 1993. Effects of mineral nutrition on delayed inducible resistance in Alaska paper birch. Ecology. 74(7): 2072-2084
Bryant JP, Chapin FS and Klein DK. 1983. Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos, 40: 357-368).
Buddle CM. 2002. Interactions among young stages of the wolf spiders Pardosa moesta and P. mackenziana. Oikos. 96:130-136
Buss EA, 2002. Insect management. In Unruh (ed), 2002 University of Florida's Pest Control Guide for Turfgrass Managers. National Pesticide Information Center, Florida, US. p9-15
Byrne DN and Draeger EA. 1989. Effects of plant maturity on oviposition and nymphal mortality of Bemisia tabaci. Environ. Entomol. 18:429-432
Cagampang GB, Pathak MD and Julino BO. 1974. Metabolic changes in the rice plant during infestation by the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 9(3): 174- 184
Carisey N and Bauce E. 2002. Does nutrition-related stress carry over to spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana progeny? Bull. Entomol. Res. 92:101-108
Carpenter SR, Caraco NF and Correll DL, 1998 Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8: 559-568
Casey CA and Raupp MJ. 1999. Supplemental nitrogen fertilization of containerized azalea does not affect performance of Azalea lace bug. Environ. Entomol. 28: 998-1003
Cates RG, Henderson CG and Redak RA. 1987. Responses of the western spruce budworm to varying levels of nitrogen and terpenes. Oecologia. 73: 312-316
Cisneros JJ and Godfrey LD 2001 midseason pest status of the cotton aphid in California cotton: os nitrogen a key factors? Environ. Entomol. 30:501-510
Chandra G 1979. Txonomy and bionomics of the insect parasitoids of rice leafhoppers and planthoppers in the Philippines and their importance in natural biological control. Philipp. Entomol. 4:119-139
Chang YD, Yeo YS and Kim YH. 1991. Host finding, mating behavior and their reproduction mode of Anagrus incarnates Haliday. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 30(2): 101-105
Chau A, Heinz KM and Davies FT. 2002. Preliminary study on the effect of nitrogen fertilization on cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii. IOBC/wprs Bulletin 25(1): 53-56
Chelliah S and Subramanian A. 1972. Influence of nitrogen fertilization on the infestation by the gall midge, Pachydiplosis oryzae, in certain rice varieties. Indian J. Entomol. 34:255-256
Cheng CH 1971. Effect of nitrogen application on the susceptibility in rice to brown planthopper attack. J. Taiwan Agriculture Research. 20(3): 21-30
Cheng JA and Holt J, 1990. A systems analysis approach to brown planthopper control on rice in Zhejiang province, China. Ⅰ. Simulation of outbreaks. J. Appl. Ecol. 27:85-99
Chu YI and Horng SB. 1994. Effect of slag and nitrogen fertilizer on the damage of asian corn borer to field com. Memoirs of the college of agriculture, National Taiwan University. 34(1): 45-53.
Chua TH and Mikil E. 1989. Effects of prey number and stage on the biology of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis : a predator of Nilaparvata lugens. Environ Entomol. 18(2): 251-255
Cisneros JJ and Godfrey LD. 2001. Midseason pest status of the cotton aphid in California cotton: Is nitrogen a key factor? Environ. Entomol. 30:501-510
Clancy KM and Price PW 1987 Rapid herbivore growth enhance enemy attack: sublethal plant defenses remain a paradox. Ecology 68:733-737
Clarige MF and den Hollander J. 1982. Virulence to rice cultivars and selection for virulence in populations of brown planthopper. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 32:213-221
Clarige MF, Morgan JC and Steenkiste AE. et al. 2002. Experimental field studies on predation and egg parasitism of rice brown planthopper in Indonesia. Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 4(3): 203-209
Cohen JE, Schoenly K and Heong KL et al, 1994. A food web approach to evaluating the effect of insecticide spraying on insect pest population dynamics in a Philippine irrigated rice ecosystem. J. Appl. Ecol. 31:747-763
Cohen MB, Alam SN, Medina EB and Bernal CC. 1997. Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, resistance in rice cultivar IR64: mechanism and role in successful N. lugens management in central Luzon, Philippines. Entomol Exp App. 85:221-229.
Conway GR. 1997. The doubly green revolution: food for all in the 21st century. Cornell University Press, New York.
Conway GR and Barbier EB. 1990. After the Green Revolution: Sustainable Agriculture for development. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Conway GR and Pretty JN. 1991. Unwelcome harvest: agriculture and pollution. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Cook AG and Denno RF. 1994. Planthopper/plant interactions: Feeding behavior, plant nutrient, plant defense, and host plant specialization. In Denno and Perfect (eds.), Planthoppers, their ecology and management. Chapman & Hall. P. 114-139
Cook AG and Perfect T J, 1989. The population characteristics of the brown planthopper. Ecol. Entomol. 14:1-9
Cook AG., Woodhead S, Magalit VF and Heinrichs EA. 1987. Variation in feeding behavior of Nilaparvata lugens on resistant and susceptible rice varieties. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 43: 227- 235
Cortesero AM, Stapel JO and Lewis WJ. 2000. Understanding and manipulating plant attributes to enhance biological control. Biological Control. 17:35-49
Coulibaly R. 1990. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the damage of Eldana saccharina Walker to sugar cane. Sugar Cane. (Supplement): 18-20.
Courtney SP and Kibota TT. 1990. Mother doesn't know best: selection of hosts by ovipositing insects. In Bernays EA (ed), Insect-plant interactions Vol 2. CRC Press, Florida. Pp161-188
Craig TP, and Ohgushi T. 2002. Preference and performance are correlated in the spittlebug Aphrophora pectoralis on for species of willow. Ecol. Entomol. 27:529-540
Da Silva PG, Hagen KS and Gutierrez AP. 1992. Functional response of Curinus coleru;eus to Heteropsylla cubana on artificial and natural substrates. Entomophaga. 37: 555-564.
Damman, H. 1987. Leaf quality and enemy avoidance by the larvae of pyralid moth. Ecology. 68(1): 88-97
De Clercq P, Mohaghegh J and Tirry L. 2000. Effect of host plant on the functional response of predator Podisus nigrispinus. Biological Control. 18:65-70
De Kraker J. 1996 The potential of natural enemies to suppress rice leaffolder populations. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University. The Netherlands.
De Kraker J, Rabbinge R, Huis AV, lenteren JCV and Heong KL. 2000. Impact of nitrogenous- fertilization on the population dynamics and natural control of rice leaffolder (Lep.:Pyralidae). International J of Pest Management. 46: 225-235.
Denno RF, Douglass LW and Jacobs D. 1985. Crowding and host plant nutrient: Environmental determinants of wing-form in Prokelisia marginata. Ecology. 66(5): 1588-1596.
Denno RF, Douglass LW and Jacobs D. 1986 Effects of crowding and host plant nutrition on a wing-dimorphic palnthopper. Ecology. 67(1): 116-123.
Denno RF and Perfect TJ 1994 Planthoppers, their ecology and management. Chapman & Hall NY
Dethier VG 1982. Mechanisms of host-plant recognition. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 31:49-56
Dicke M 2000 Chemical ecology of host-plant selection by herbivorous arthropods: a multitropic perspective. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 28:601-617
Dingkuhn M, Schnier HF and De Datta SK et al. 1990. Nitrogen fertilization of direct-seeded flooded vs. transplanted rice: Ⅱ. Interactions among canopy properties. Crop Sci. 30: 1284- 1292
Dobermann and Fairhust. 2000. Rice nutrient disorders and nutrient management. Oxford Graphic Printer Pte Ltd. p 13-39.
Domingo I and Heong KL. 1992. Evaluating high temperature tolerance in the brown planthopper. IRRN. 17(3):22
Douglas AE. 1996. Reproductive failure and the free amino acid pools in pea aphids lacking symbiotic bacteria. J. Insect Physiology. 42:247-255
Douglas AE. 1998. Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: aphids and their symbioitic bacteria Buchnera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43:17-37
Dowell RV and Steinberg B. 1990 Influence of host plant characteristics and nitrogen fertilization on development and survival of immature citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthu woglumi Ashby. J. Appl. Entomol. 109:113-119
Driesche RGV and Bellows TS Jr. 1996. Biological control. Chapman & Hall, NY
Dudt FJ and Shure DJ. 1994. The influence of light and nutrients on foliar phenolics and insect herbibvory. Ecology. 75(1): 86-98
Duffield S J, Bryson RJ and Young JEB et al. 1997. The influence of nitrogen fertilizer on the population development of the cereal aphids Sitobion avenae and Metopolophium dirhodum on field grown winter wheat. Ann. Appl. Biol. 130:13-26
Dyck VA and Thomas B. 1979. The brown planthopper problem. In IRRI (ed) Brown planthopper: threat to rice production in Asia. p3-20
Ebert TA 1996 Aphids and plant nitrogen. Welton Ln., Poway, CA 92064
El-Khayat EF. 1994. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on wheat aphids infestation, bioenemies and grain production. Ann. Agric. Sci. Moshotor. 32(1): 557-566.
FAO 2001 Statistical databases. Http://www.fao.org.
Feller IC. 1995. Effects of nutrient enrichment on growth and herbivory of dwarf red mangrove. Ecol. Monographs. 65(4): 447-505
Fischer K.S., 1998 Toward increasing nutrient-use efficiency in rice cropping systems: the next generation of technology. Field crops research. 56:1-6
Fischer K and Fiedler K. 2000. Response of the copper butterfly Lycaena tityus to increased leaf nitrogen in natural food plants: evidence against the nitrogen limitation hypothesis. Oecologia. 124:235-241
Fox LR and Eisenbach J. 1989. Effects of experimental design and nitrogen on cabbage butterfly oviposition. Oecologia. 80:211-214
Fox LR and Eisenbach J. 1992. Contrary choices: possible exploitation of enemy-free space by herbivorous insects in cultivated vs. wild crucifers. Oecologia. 89:574-579
Fox LR, Letourneau DK, Eisenbach J and Nouhuys SV. 1990. Parasitism rate and sex ratios of a parasitoid wasp: effects of herbivore and plant quality. Oecologia. 83:414-419
Fu Q, Zhang ZT and Hu C et al. 2001. A chemically defined diet enables continuous rearing of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 36(1): 111-116
Fujiwara C, Takabayashi J and Yano S. 2000. Effects of host plant species on parasitization rates of Mythimna separata by a parasitoid, Cotesia kariyai. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 35 (1): 131 - 136
Fukutoku Y & Yamada Y. 1982. Accumulation of carbohydrates and proline in water-stressed soybean. Soil Sci. Plant Nutrient. 28:147-151
Gallagher KD, Kenmore PE and Sogawa K. 1994. Judicial use of insecticides deter planthopper outbreaks and extend the role of resistant varieties in Southeast Asian rice. In Denno & Perfect (eds) Planthoppers their Ecology and Management, Chapman & Hall, London. P559-614
Gaslell M. 2001. Efficient use of organic nitrogen fertilizers. Organic Farming Research Foundation. (9): 26-28
Geetha N, Gopalan M and Galasubramanian G. 1993. Ovipositional behaviour of mired bug, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on rice and weeds. J. Entomol. Res. 17(1): 17-20
Godfrey LD and Rosenheim 1996. Aphids and whiteflies in the San Joaquin valley of Canifornia in 1995. p 128-132. In Proceedings, Beltwide Cotton Research Conference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, TN.
Godfrey LD, Cisneros JJ and Keillor KE. 2000. Influence of cotton nitrogen fertility on cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, population dynamics in California, pp. 1162-1165, In Proceedings, Beltwide Cotton Research Conference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, TN.
Goyal SS and Huffaker RC. 1984. Nitrogen toxicity in plants. In Hauck (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, USA.
Grant IF, Roger PA and Watanabe 1985 Effect of grazer regulation and algal inoculation on photodependent nitrogen fixation in a wetland rice field. Biol. Fertile. Soils, 1: 61-72
Greenstone MH. 1979. Spider feeding behavior optimizes dietary essential amino acid composition Science. 282:501-503
Grundel R, Pavlovic NB and Sulzman CL. 1998. The effect of canopy cover and seasonal change on host plant quality for the endangered Karner butterfly (Lycaeides MeIissa samuelis). Oecologia. 114:243-250
Haddad NM, Haarstad J and Tilman D. 2000. The effects of long-term nitrogen loading on grassland insect communities. Oecologia. 124:73-84
Harbaugh BK, Price JF and Stanley CD. 1983. Influence of leaf nitrogen on leafminer damage and yield of spray chrysanthemum. HortScience. 18(6): 880-881
Harrington R, Fleming RA and Woiwod IP. 2001. Climate change impacts on insect management and conservation in temperate regions: can they be predicted? Agric. Forest Entomol. 3: 233-240.
Harvey JA and Gols GJZ. 1998. The influence of host quality on progeny and sex allocation in the pupal ectoparasitoid, Muscidifurax raptorellus. Bull. Entomol. Res. 88:299-304
Hattenschwiler S and Schafellner C. 1999. Opposing effects of elevated CO_2 and nitrogen deposition on Lymantria monacha larvae feeding on spruce trees. Oecologia. 118:210-217
Heinrichs EA, Basilio RP and Valencia SL. 1984. Buprofezin, a selective insecticide fro the management of rice planthoppers anf leafhoppers. Environ. Entomol. 13: 515-521.
Heinrichs EA and Medrano FG. 1985. Influence of nitrogen fertilizer on the population development of brown planthopper. IRRN. 10(6): 20
Hemngway J, Parunaratne SHPP and Claridge MF, 1999 Insecticide resistance spectrum and underlying resistance mechanisms in tropical populations of brown planthopper collected from rice and the wild grass Leersia hexandra. International J. Pest Management, 45(3):215-223.
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1990a Comparing arthropod diversity in rice ecosystems. IRRN. 15:6
Heong KL, Bleih S and Rubia EG. 1990b. Prey preference of the wolf spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata. Res. Popul. Ecol. 32: 179-186.
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1991 Arthropod community structures of rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Bulletin Entomol. Research. 81:407-416
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1992. Population dynamics of plant- and leafhoppers and their natural enymies in rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Crop Protection. 11:371-379
Heong KL and Domingo I 1992. Shifts in predator-prey ranges in response to global warming. IRRN. 17(6): 29-30
Heong KL and Escalada MM 1997. Perception change in rice pest management: a case study of farmers' evaluation of conflict information. J. Applied Communications. 81 (2): 3-17
Heong KL and Rubia EG. 1989. Functional response of Lycosa pseudoannulata on brown planthipper and green leafhoppers. IRRN, 16(2):29-30
Heong KL, Song YH, Pimamarn S, Zhang R and Bae SD. 1995. Global warning and rice arthropod communities. In Peng S et al (eds) Climate Change and Rice. Spring-Verlag, NY. Pp. 326-335
Herms DA and Mattson WI. 1992. The dilemma of plants: to grow of defend. Q. Rev. Biol. 67: 283-335.
Hinz HL and Muller-Scharer. 2000. Influence of host condition on the performance of Rhopalomyia n. sp., a biological control agent for scentless chamomole, Tripleurospermum perforatum. Biological Control. 18:147-156
Ho DT. 1983. Effect of nitrogen and plant density on rice stem borer infestation in western Kenya. IRRN. 8:17-18
Holopainen JK and Peltonen P. 2002. Bright autumn colours of deciduous trees attract aphids: nutrient retranslocation hypothesis. Oikos. 99:184-188
Hongoh Y and Ishikawa H. 1997. Uric acid as a nitrogen resource for the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens: studies with synthetic diets and aposymbiotic insects. Zoological Science. 14:581-586
Horton. DR and Moore J. 1993. Behavioral effects of parasites and pathogens in insecr hosts. In Beckage NE. Thompson SN and Federici BA (eds.). Parasites and pathogens of insects. Vol. Ⅰ: Parasites. Academic Press Inc. USA. p 107-124.
Hosamani MM, Jayakumar BV and Sharma KMS. 1986. Sources and levels of nitrogenous fertilizers in relation to incidence of brown planthoppwe in Bhadra Project. Current Research. 15:132-134
Huang JL, Peng SP, and Zou YB, et al 2003 improving fertilizer-nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice in Chin. Proceedings Third International symposium on Bioresources and Environmental Stress. Jan. 24, 2003, Okayama University, Japan, pp 33-36
Huelsman MF, Edwards CA, Lawrence J and Clarke HD. 2000. A study of the effect of soil nutrient levels on the incidence of insect pests and predators in Jamaican sweet potato and callaloo. The BCPC Conference. Pests and diseases, Vol 3. Proceedings of an international conference. Brighton, UK. P 895-900
Hwang IC, Kim JH and Song YH. 2002. Changes in the fitness of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, to several resistant rice varieties after multi-generational selection. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 41(2): 113-121.
Iheagwam EU. 1981. The relationship between weight of insect, age, hardness and nitrogen content of cabbage leaves and fecundity of the cabbage whitefly, Aleyrodes brassicae. Z. ang. Entomol. 91:349-354
Inouye R and Tilman D 1995 Convergency and divergence of old field vegetation after 11 years of nitrogen addition. Ecology, 76:1872-1887
Inthavong S, Inthavong K and Sengsaulivong V et al. 1998. Arthropod biodiversity in Lao irrigated rice ecosystem. In Hamid et al (eds) Rice IPM Conference- Integrated Science and People in Rice Pest Management, 18-21, Nov. 1996. Kuala Lumpur. P69-85
IRRI. 1980. Standard Evaluation System for Rice. Philippines. pp44
Jansson RK and Smilowitz Z. 1985. Influence of nitrogen on population parameters of potato insects: Abundance, development, and damage of the Coporado Potato Beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Environ. Entomol. 14:500-506
Jansson RK and Smilowitz Z. 1986. Influence of nitrogen on population parameters of potato insects: abundance, population growth, and within-plant distribution of green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. Environ. Entomol. 15:49-55
Jauset AM, Sarasua MJ, Avilla J and Albajes R. 1998. The impact of nitrogen fertilization of tomato of feeding site selection and oviposition by Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Entomol. Exp. et Appl. 86:175-182
Jauset AM, Sarasua MJ, Avilla J and Albajes R. 2000. Effect of nitrogen fertilization level applied to tomato on the greenhouse whitefly. Crop Protection. 19:255-261
Joern A and Behmer ST. 1998. Importance of dietary nitrogen and carbohydrates to survival, growth, and reproduction in adults of the grasshopper Ageneotettix deorum. Oecologia. 112: 201-208
Joern A and Behmer ST. 1998. Impact of diet quality on demographic attributes in adult grasshopper and the nitrogen limitation hypothesis. Ecol. Entomol. 23; 174-184
Kajimura T, MAEOKA y AND Widiarta IN et al 1993 Effect of organic rice farming on leaffolder and planthoppers: 1 population density and reproductive rate. Jpn. J appl. Entomol. Zool. 37:137-144
Kajimura T, Fujisaki K and Nakasuji F 1995. Effect of organic rice farming on leaffolder and planthoppers: 2. Amino acid content in the rice phloem sap and survival rate of planthoppers. Appl. Entomol. Zoo. 30(1): 17-22
Kalule T and Wright DJ. 2002. Tritropic interactions between cabbage cultivars with different resistance and fertilizer levels, cruciferous aphids and parasitoids under field conditions. Bulletin of Entomol. Reseach. 92:61-69
Kaneshiro LN and Johnson MW. 1996. Tritropic effects of leaf nitrogen on Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) and an associated parasitoid Chrysocharis oscinidis (Ashmead) on bean. Biological Control. 6:186-192.
Kanno H, Kim M and Ishii S. 1977. Feeding activity of the brown planthopper on rice plants manured with different levels of nitrogen. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 21(2): 110-112
Kartohardjono A and Heinrichs EA. 1984. Population of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, and its predators on rice varieties with different levels of resistance. Environ. Entomol. 13: 359-365.
Karunarante SHPP, Small GJ and Hemingway J. 1999. Characterization of the elevated esterase- associated insecticide resistance mechanism in Nilarparvata lugens and other planthopper species. International J. Pest management. 45(3): 225-230
Koricheva J, Christa PH and Schmid MB et al. 2000. Numerical responses of different tropic groups of invertebrates to manipulations of plant diversity in grasslands. Oecologia. 125: 271-282
Kramer PJ. 1983. Water relations of plants. Academic Press, Florida.
Kumar P and Pathak PK. 2001. A simple and accurate method of quantifying honeydew excretion in brown planthopper. Indian J. Entomol. 63(2): 208-210
Kuno E 1984 Pest status, dynamics and control of rice planthopper and leafhopper population in Japan. Prot. Ecol. 7:129-145
Kyto M, Niemela and Larsson P. 1996. Insects on stress: population and individual response to fertilization. Oikos. 75:148-159
Laba IW, 1991. Perdation of Cyrtorhins lividipennis on eggs of planthoppers in rice. MS Thesis, University of the Philippines.
Laba IW and Heong KL. 1996. Predation of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on eggs of planthoppers in rice. Indonesian J. Crop Sci. 11(2): 40-50
Lauzizre I, Perez-Lachaud G and Brodeur J. 2000. Effect of female body size and adult feeding on the fecundity and longevity of the parasitoid Cephalonomia stephanoderis Betrem. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 93(1): 103-109
Lauzizre I, Perez-Lachaud G and Brodeur J. 2001. Importance of nutrition and host availability on oogenesis and oviposition of Cephalonomia stephanoderis. Bull. Entomol. Res. 91: 185-191
Letourneau DK. 1988. Nitrogen fertilizer's effects on pests and predators. Ecological Agriculture Projects, UC Stanta Cruz. (http://eap.mcgill.ca/CPCM 5.htm).
Letourneau DK and Fox LR 1989 Effects of experimental design and nitrogen on cabbage butterfly oviposition. Oecologia, 80:211-214
Levine JM and Hacker SD. 1998. Nitrogen effects on an interaction chain in a salt marsh community. Oecologia. 117:266-272
Lill JT and Marquis RJ. 2001. The effects of leaf quality on herbivore performance and attack from natural enemies. Oecologia. 126:418-428
Litsinger JA. 1989. Second generation insect pest problems on high yielding rices. Tropical Pest Management. 35: 235-242.
Liu GJ, Saxena RC and Wilkins RM. 1994. Behavioral response of the whitebacked planthopper Sogatella furcifera on rice plants whose odors have been masked, J. Insect behavior. 7(3): 343-353
Loader C and Damman H. 1991. Nitrogen content of food plants and vulnerability of Pieris rapae to natural enemies. Ecology. 72(5): 1586-1590
Lou YG and Cheng JA. 2001. Host-recognition kairomone from Sogatella furcifera for parasitoid Anagrus nilaparvatae. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 101:59-67
Luck RF, Shepard and Kenmore PE. 1988. Experimental methods for evaluating arthropod natural enemies. Ann Rev. Entomol. 33:367-391.
Ma KC and Lee SC. 1996. Occurrence of major rice insect pests at different transplanting times and fertilizer levels in paddy field. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 35(2): 132-136
Maclean JL, Dawe DC, Hardy B and Hettel GP. 2002. Rice Almanac (Third edition). IRRI.
Matsumura M and Suzuki Y. 1999. Effects of prey species and honeydew feeding on development and reproduction of the mired bug, Cyrtorhonus lividipennis Reuter. Kyushu Pl. Prot. Res. 45: 63-67.
Matthen, M., and Ariew, A., 2002, "Two ways of thinking about fitness and natural selection" Journal of Philosophy, 99: 55-83.
Matteson PC. 2000. Insect pest management in tropic Asian irrigated rice. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 45: 549-574.
Mattson WJ. 1980. Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 19-61.
Mattson WJ and Haack RA 1987. The role of draught in outbreaks of plant-eating insects. BioScience. 37:110-118
Mayntz D and Toft S 2001 Nutrient composition of the prey's diet affects growth and survivorship of a generalist predator. Oecologia, 127:207-213
McClure MS 1980. Foliar nitrogen: a basis for host suitability for elongate hemlock scale Fiorina externa. Ecology. 61:72-79
Mcgrady-Steed J, Harris PM and Morin PJ 1997. Biodiversity regulates ecosystem predictability, Nature, 390:162-165
McNabb DM, Halaj J and Wise DH 2001. Inferring trophic positions of generalist predators and their linkage to the detrital food web in agroecosystems: a stable isotope analysis. Pedobiologia. 45:289-297
Meerzainudeen M and Kareem AA. 1999. Effect of biofertilizers on BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) and its biocontrol agents in rice ecosystem. VISTAS of Rice Research. 469-474, Tamil Nadu agricultural University, India
Messina FJ and Hanks JB. 1998. Host plant alters the shape of the functional response of an aphid predator (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Environ. Entomol. 27:1196-1202
Metcalfe JR. 1970. Studies on the effect of the nutrient status of sugar cane on the fecundity of Saccharosydne saccharivora. Bulletin of Entomol. Research. 60:309-325
Mew TW, Borromeo E and Hardy B 2001 Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management. IRRI, Philippines
Meyer GA and Root RB. 1996. Influence of feeding guild on insect response to host plant fertilization. Ecol. Entomol. 21(3): 270-278
Minkenberg OP and Fredrix MJ. 1989. Preference and performance of a herbivorous fly, Liriomyza trifilii, on tomato plants differing in leaf nitrogen. Ann Entomol. Soc. Am. 82 (3): 350-354
Minkenberg OP and Ottenheim JJ. 1990. Effect of leaf nitrogen content of tomato plants on preference and performance of a leafmining fly. Oecologia. 83:291-298
Moon DC, Rossi AM and Stiling P. 2000. The effects of abiotically induced changes in host plant quality (and morphology) on a salt marsh planthopper and its parasitoid. Ecological Entomology. 25:325-331.
Moon DC and Stiling P. 2000. Relative importance of abiotically induced direct and indirect effects on a salt-marsh herbivore. Ecology. 81(2): 470-481.
Moran VC and Southwood TRE. 1982 The guild composition of arthropod communities in trees. J Anim. Ecol. 51:289-306
Moran MD and Scheidler AR. 2002. Effects of nutrients and predators on an old-field food chain: interactions of top-down and bottom-up processes. Oikos. 98(1): 116-124
Mutikainen P, Walls M, and Ovaska J. et al. 2000. Herbivore resistance in Betula pendula: effect of fertilization, defoliation and plant genotype. Ecology. 81 (1): 49-65
Nadaraian L and Jayaraj S 1975 influence of various hosts on development and reproduction of pupal parasite, Tetrastichus israeli M and k. Curr. Sci. 44:458-460
Nagata T. 2002. Monitoring on insecticide resistance of the brown planthooper and the white backed planthopper in Asia. J. Asia Pacific Entomol. 5(1):103-111.x
Nagata T, Kamimura and Wang YC et al. 2002. Recent status of insecticide resistance of longdistance migrating rice planthoppers monitored in Japan, China and Malaysia. J. Asia Pacific Entomol. 5(1): 113-116
Nevo E and Coll M. 2001. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on Aphis gossypii variation in size, color, and reproduction. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 27-32.
Noldus. LP, Xu R and van Lenteren JC. 1986. The parasite-host between Encarsia formosa Gahan and Trialeurodes vaporariorum ⅩⅠⅩ. Feeding-site selection by the greenhouse whitefly, J Appl. Entomol. 101:492-507
Oedekoven MA and Joern A. 2000. Plant quality and spider predation affects grasshoppers: Food-quality-dependent compensatory mortality. Ecology. 81 (1): 66-77
Oelbermann K and Scheu S. 2002. Stable isotope enrichment (~(15)N and ~(13)C) in a generalist predator (Pardosa lugubris): effects of prey quality. Oecologia. 130:337-344
Ohgushi T 1998 Bottom-up population regulation of a herbivous lady beetle: an evolutionary perspective. In Insect populations in theory and in practice (Dempster and McLean eds). Pp. 367-390. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
Olson DM and Lewis. 1999. Influence of nitrogen levels on cotton plant/insect interactions in a conservation tillage system. In Hook JE (ed.) Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Southern Conservation Tillage conference for Sustainable Agriculture. 6-8 July, 1999. Georgia Agriculture Experiment Station Special Publication 95. Athens, GA. P 119-130
Ooi PAC 1982. Ecology and surveillance of Nilarpavata lugens-implications for its management in Malaysia. PhD Dissertation. University of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur.
Padgham DE and Woodhead S. 1989. Feeding response of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, to resistant and susceptible host plants. Bull. Entomol. Res. 79:309-318
Panasahatham S, Fisher GC, DeFrancesco JT and Ehrensing DT. 1998. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer rates and insecticide use on Meadowfoam to control the Meadowfoam fly, Scaptomyza apicalis. In Young WC (ed.) Seed Production Research at Oregon State University USDA-ARS Cooperating. (http://www.css.orst.edu/seed-ext/pub/1998/SR9904. html)
Panda N & Khush GS. 1995. Host Plant Resistance to Insects. CAB International, UK. Pp67-103.
Papaj DR and Rausher MD. 1983. Individual variation in host location by phytophagous insects. In Ahmad (ed.), Herbivorous insects: host seeking behavior and mechanisms. Academic, New York. P77-124
Pathak PK and Heinrichs EA. 1982. Selection of biotype populations 2 and 3 of Nilarpavata lugens by exposure to resistant rice varieties. Environ. Entomol. 11: 85-90
Peng S, Garcia FV and Laza RC et al. 1996. Nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated tropical rice established by broadcast wet-seeding and transplanting. Fertilizer Research. 45:123-134
Peng S, Laza RC, Garcia FV and Cassman KG. 1995. Chlorophyll meter estimates leaf areabased nitrogen concentration of rice. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26:927-935
Peng S, Huang JL, and Zhong XH et al 2002 Challenge and opportunity in improving fertilizernitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice in China. Agricultural Sciences in China. 1 (7): 776-785
Phelan PL, Norris KH and Mason JF. 1996. Soil management histoy and host preference by Ostrina nubilalis: evidence for plant mineral balance mediating insect plant interactions. Environ. Entornol. 25(6): 1329-1336.
Ponder KL, Pritchard J, Harrington R and Bale JS. 2001. Feeding behavior of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi on nitrogen and water-stressed barley seedlings. Bull. Entomol. Research. 91:125-130
Prasad J and Misra DS. 1983 Influence of different levels N P and K on the population of leaffolder and planthoppers. In Chelliah and Balasubramanian (eds), Pest management in rice. P245-254. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. India
Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ and Jahn GC. 2001a. Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on the realized fecundity and survival rates of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, generating outbreaks in Cambodia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomol. 4(1): 75-84
Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ and Jahn GC. 2001b. Effectiveness of brown planthopper predators: population suppression by two species of spiders, Pardosa pseudoannulata and Araneus inustus. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomol. 4(2): 187-193
Prestidge PA. 1982a. Instar duration, adult consumption, oviposition and nitrogen utilization efficiencies of leafhoppers feeding on different quality food. Ecological Entomology. 7: 91-101
Prestidge RA. 1982b. The influence of nitrogenous fertilizer on the grassland auchenorrhyncha. J Appl. Ecology. 19:735-749
Price PW 1994. Phylogenetic constraints, adaptive syndromes, and emergent properties: from individuals to population dynamics. Res. Popul. Ecology. 36:1-12
Price PW, Bouton CE, Gross P, McPheron BA, Thompson JN and Weis AE. 1980. Interactions among three tropic levels: influence of plants on interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 41-65
Ragini JC, Thangaraju D and David PM. 1999. Effect of organic manures on some predators in the rice ecosystem. IRRN. 24(2): 15
Rausher MD. 1981. Host plant selection by Battus philenor butterflies: the roles of predation, nutrition, and plant chemistry. Ecological Mongraphs. 51 (1): 1-20
Ravenscroft NOM. 1994. The ecology of the chequered skipper butterfly Carterocephalus palaemon in Scotland. 2. Food plant quality and population range. J Appl. Ecol. 31:623-630
Richardson B, Rogers C and Richardson MJ. 2000. Nutrient, diversity, and community structure of two phytotelm systems in a lower montane forest, Puerto Rico. Ecol. Entomol. 25: 348-356
Riedell WE, Schumacher TE and Evenson PD. 1996. Nitrogen fertilizer management to improve crop tolerance to corn rootworm larval feeding damage. Agron. J. 88: 27-32.
Risser Paul G. 1995 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function, Conservation Biology, 9:742-746
Rodriquez JG. (ed.) 1986. Nutritional ecology of insects, mites, and spiders. Academic, New York.
Roger PA and Kurihara Y 1991 Floofwater biology of tropical wetland rice field. Soil management sustainable rice production in tropics. IBSRAM Monograph, 2:211-233.
Rombach MC and Gallagher KD. 1994. The brown planthopper: Promises, Problems, and prospects. In Heinrichs (ed) Biology and management of rice insect. Wiley Eastern Limited & IRRI. Pp. 693-709
Rossi AM, Brodbeck BV, and Strong DR. 1996. Response of xylem-feeding leafhopper to host plant species and plant quality, J. Chemical Ecol. 22(4): 653-671
Rossi AM and Stiling P. 1998. The interactions of plant clone and abiotic factors on a gallmaking midge. Oecologia. 116:170-176
Rubeiz IG, Aslam M, Chahine H and Imad A. 1995. Whitefly populations in greenhouse cantaloupe as affected by poultry manure and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer application. Biological Agric. and Hortic. 12:277-281
Ruohomaki K, Chapin FS and Haukioja E. et al. 1996. Delayed inducible resistance in mountain birch in response to fertilization and shade. Ecology. 77(8); 2302-2311
Saigusa M. 1999. Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers and plant nutrition. In Srivastava HS and Singh RP (eds). Nitrogen nutrition and plant growth. Science Publishers, Inc. USA. P305-335.
Saroga R. 1982. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer levels and spacing on rice gall midge and leaffolder damage. IRRN. 7(4): 10
Sasaki T, Kawamura M and Ishikawa H. 1996. Nitrogen recycling in the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, Involvement of yeast-like endosymbionts in uric acid metabolism. J. Insect Physiology. 42(2): 125-129
Saxena RC and Brarrion AA 1985 Biotypes of brown plnathopper and strategies in development of host plant resistance. Insect Sci. Appl. 6:271-289
Schoenly, K, Beaver RA and Heumier TA. 1991. On the trophic relations of insects: a food web approach. American Naturalist. 137:597-638
Schoenly, K, Cohen JE and Heong KL et al. 1996. food web dynamics of irrigated rice fields at five elevations in Luzon, Philippines. Bull. Entomol. Res. 86:451-466
Schoenly, K, Justo HD and Barrion AT et al 1998. Analysis if invertebrate biodiversity in a Philippine farmer's irrigated rice field. Environ Entomol. 27:1125-1136
Schoonhoven LM, Jermy T and van Loon JJA. 1998. Insect-plant Biology: from physiology to evolution. Pp. 90-93. Chapman & Hall, NY.
Schuch UK, Redak RA and Bethke JA. 1998. Cultivar, fertilization and irrigation affect vegetative growth and susceptibility of chrysanthemum to western flower thrips. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 123:727-733
Scriber JM. 1984. Nitrogen nutrition for plants and insect invasion. Pp.441-460: In Hauch (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. In Hauck (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, USA.
Scriber JM. and Slansky FJ. 1981. The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 26:183-211
Senguttuvan T and Gopalan M. 1990. Predator efficiency of mirid bugs (Cytorhinus lividipennis) on eggs and nymphs of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) on resistant and susceptible varieties office. Indian J Agric. Sci. 60:285-287
Settle WH, Ariawan H and Astuti ET et al. 1996. Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of generalist natural enemies and alterative prey. Ecology, 77:1975-1988
Sexena RC and Barrion AA. 1985. Biotype of brown planthopper, Nilarpavata lugens and strategies in development of host plant resistance. Insect Sci. Appl. 6(3): 271-289
Shepard MB, Barrion AT and Litsinger JA. 1987. Friends of the rice farmer: Helpful insects, spiders, and pathogens. IRRI.
Shepard MB, Barfion AT and Litsinger JA. 1995. Rice-feeding insects of tropic Asia. IRRI
Shulda AN and Tripathi CPM. 1993. Effect of food plants on the offspring sex ratio of Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae), a parasitoid of Lipaphis erysimi Kalt (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. 9:137-146
Siemann E, Tilman D and Haarstad J et al, 1998 Experimental tests of the dependence of arthropod diversity on plant diversity. Am. Nat. 152:738-750
Sigagaard L 2002 early season natural biological control of insect pests in rice by spiders-and some factors in the management of the cropping system that may affect this control. In European Archnology 2000 (Tort & Scharff eds.), p57-64. Aarhus University press, Aarhus
Sigagaard L, Toft S and Villareal S 2001 Diet-dependent fecundity of the spiders Atypena formosana and Pardosa pseudoannulata, predators in irrigated rice. Agricultural and Forest Entoml. 3:285-295
Sigagaard L and Villareal S 1999. Directional movement of predators between the irrigated rice field and its surroundings. IRRI program report for 1998, 27-28
Silvanima JVC and Strong DR. 1991. Is host-plant quality responsible for the populational pulses of salt-marsh planthoppers in northwestern Florida? Ecol. Entomol. 16:221-232
Simpson IC Roger PA and Oficial R. 1994. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer and pesticide management on floodwater ecology in wetland ricefield: Ⅱ dynamics of microcrustaceans and dipteran larvae. Biological Fertilizer and Soils. 17:138-146
Simpson SJ and Simpson CL.1990. The mechanisms of nutritional compensation by phytophagous insects. In Bernays EA (ed) Insect-plant interactions, Vol. Ⅱ, CPC Press, Inc. USA. p111-160.
Sinclair T. 1998. Historical changes in harveat index and crop nitrogen accumulation. Crop Science. 38:638-643
Singer MC. 1982. Quantification of host preference by manipulation of oviposition behavior in the butterfly Euphydryas editha. Oecologia 52:224-229
Singh J, Singh Y, and Ladha JK et al. 2002. Chlorophyll meter-and leaf color chart-based nitrogen management for rice and wheat in Northwestern India. Agron. J. 94:821-829
Skirvin DJ and Fenlon JS. 2001. Plant species modifies the functional response of Phytoseiulus persimilis to Tetranychus urticae: implications for biological control. Bull. Entomol. Res. 91: 61-67
Slansky FJ and Feeny P. 1977. Stabilization of the rate of nitrogen accumulation by larvae of the cabbage butterfly on wild and cultivated food plants. Ecological Monographs. 47:209-228
Slansky FJ and Scriber JM. 1981. The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 26:183-211
Slansky FJ and Scriber JM. 1985. Food consumption and utilization. Pp. 87-163. In Kerkut GA and Gilbert LI (eds). Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology. Vol. 4. Pergamon, Oxford.
Slansky FJ & Rodriguez JG (eds). 1987. Nutritional Ecology of Insects, Mites, Spiders and related Invertebrates. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Slosser JE, Montandon R, Pinchak WE and Rummel DR. 1997. Cotton aphid response to nitrogen fertility in dryland cotton. Southwest Entomol. 22:1-10
Sogawa K. 1970a. Studies on feeding habits of brown planthopper. Ⅰ. Effects of nitrogendeficiency of host plats on insect feeding. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 14:101-106
Sogawa K. 1970b. Studies on feeding habits of brown planthopper. Ⅱ. Honeydew excretion. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 134-139
Sogawa. K. 1982. The rice brown planthopper: Feeding physiology and host plant interactions. Ann Rev. Entomol. 27:49-73
Sogawa K & Cheng CH. 1979. Economic thresholds, nature of damage, and losses caused by the brown planthopper. In Brown planthopper: threat to rice production in Asia. IRRI. pp125-142
Sogawa K 1982 The rice brown planthopper: feeding physiology and host plant interactions. Ann Rew Entomol. 27:49-73
Sogawa, K. 1995. Windborn displacements of the rice planthoppers related to the seasonal weather patterns in Kuyshu district. Bull. Kushu Natl. Agric. Exp. Stn. 28(4): 219-278
Song YH, Ha TK and Chung DY et al 1995 The predatory behavior of green mirid bug Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on brown planthopper eggs in different temperature conditions. Korean J Appl. Entomol. 34:234-242
Song YH and Heong KL. 1997. Changes in searching responses with temperature of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on the eggs of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Res. Popul. Ecol. 39: 201-206.
Southwood TRE, 1973 The insect/plant relationship - an evolutionary perspective. In Emden FV ed, Insect-plant Relationship Symp. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. No 6, Blackwell, Oxford, 3- 30
Srivastava HS and Singh RP 1999 Nitrogen nutrition and plant growth. Science publishers, Inc., USA
Sta Cruz PC. Simbahan GC and Hill JE. et al. 2001. Pest profiles at varying nutrient input levels. P 431-440. In Peng S and Hardy B (eds.) Rice research for food security and poverty alleviation. IRRI.
Stadler B and Mackauer M. 1996. Influence of plant quality on interactions between the aphid prarasitoid Ephedrus californicus and its host, Acyrthosiphon pisum. The Canadian Entomologist. 128:27-39
Stamp NE. 2001. Effects of prey quality and quantity on predator wasps. Ecological Entomology. 26:292-301
Stiling P and Rossi AM. 1996. Complex effects of genotype and environment on insect herbivores and their enemies. Ecology. 77(7): 2212-2218
Stiling P and Rossi AM. 1997. Experimental manipulations of top-down and bottom-up factors in a tritropic system. Ecology. 78(5): 1602-1606.
Sudoi V, Khaemba BM and Wanjala FME. 2001. Nitrogen fertilization and yield losses of tea to red crevice mite in the eastern Highlands of Kenya. Interl. J. Pest Management. 47:207-210
Swaminathan K, Saroja R and Raju N. 1985. Influence of source and level of nitrogen application on pest incidence. IRRN. 10(1): 24
Symondson WOC, Sunderland KD and Greenstone MH. 2002. Can generalist predators be effective biocontrol agents? Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47: 561-594.
Tan WJ and Guo YY. 1996. Effects of host plants on susceptibility to deltamethrin and detoxication enzymes of Heliothis armigera. J. Econ. Entomol. 89:11-14
Toft S and Wise DH, 1999 behavioral and ecophysiological responses of a generalist pregator to single- and mixed- species diets of different quality. Oecologia, 119:198-207
Toriyama K. 2002. Estimation of fertilizer nitrogen requirement for average rice yield in Japanese paddy field. Soil Sci. Nutri.. 48:293-300
Uhm KB, Hyun JS and Choi KM. 1985. Effects of the different levels of nitrogen fertilizer and planting space on the population growth of the brown planthopper. Research report. RDA (P.M & U). 27(2): 79-85 (in Korean with English summary)
Van Emden HF. 1996. Studies on the relations of insect and host plant. Ⅲ A comparison of the reproduction of Brevicoryne brassicae and Myzus persicae on Brussels sprout plants supplied with different rates of nitrogen and potassium. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 79:444-460
Van Emden HF and Bashford MA. 1969. A comparison of the reproduction of Brevicoryne brassicae and Myzus persicae in relation to soluble nitrogen concentration and leaf age in the brussels sprout plant. Entomol. Exp. & Appl. 12:351-364.
Velayutham B. 1994. Nitrogen and rice pests. In Thiyagarajan and Ranganathan (ed.), Towards optimum nitrogen management for irrigated rice. P 92-98. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Vien TN and Heong KL. 1993. Parasitism of brown planthopper and green leafhopper eggs by Anagrus flaveolus Waterhouse. IRRN. 18(4): 32
Vince SW, Valiela I and Teal JM. 1981. An experimental study of structure of herbivorous insect communities in a salt marsh. Ecology. 62(6): 1662-1678
Vitousek PM, Abet JD and Likens GE et al. 1997. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences. Ecological Applications. 7:737-750
Vos, JGM and Frinking TF. 1997. Nitrogen fertilization as a component of integrated pest management of hot pepper under tropic lowland conditions. International J. Pest Management. 43: 1-10
Watanabe T, Wada T and Salleh NN. 1992. Parasitic activities of egg parasitoids on the rice planthoppers, Nilaparvata lugens and Sogatella furcifera, in the Muda area, Peninsular Malaysia. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 27:205-211
Walde SJ 1995. How quality of host plant affects a predator-prey interaction in biological control. Ecology. 76(4): 1206-1219.
Way MJ and Heong KL. 1994. The role of biodiversity in the dynamics and management of insect pests of tropic irrigated rice a view. Bull. Entomol. Res. 84: 567-587.
Way MJ and Javier G 2001 Approaches to a relevant understanding of biodiversity for tropical irrigated rice pest management. In Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management (Mew et al eds), p3-14, IRRI
Weseloh RM. 1972. Field response of Gypsy moths and some parasitoids to colored surfaces. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 65(3): 742-746
Weseloh RM. 1986. Host and microhabitant preference of forest parasitic Hymenoptera: inferences from captures on colored sticky panels. Environ. Entomol. 15:64-70
Wheeler GS, Van TK and Center TD. 1998. Herbivore adaptations to a low nutrient food: weed biological control specialist Spodoptera pectinicornis fed the floating aquatic plant Pistia stratiotes. Environ Entomol. 27(3): 993-1000
White TCR. 1984. The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants. Oecologia. 63:90-105
White TCR. 1993. The inadequate environment: nitrogen and the abundance of animals. Springer, Berlin.
Whitehead DC. 1995. Grassland nitrogen. CAB International, Wallingford.
Wier AT and Boethel DJ. 1995. Feeding, growth, and survival of soybean looper in response to nitrogen fertilization of nonnodulating soybean. Environ. Entomol. 24(2): 326-331.
Wilson MR and Claridge MF 1991 handbook for identification of leaffolder and planthoppers of rice. CAB International, UK
Whitehead LF, Douglas AE. 1993. A metabolic study of Buchnera, the intracellular bacterial symbionts of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:821-26
Wilkinson TL and Douglas AE. 1995. Why aphids lacking symbiotic bacteria have elevated levels of the amino acid glutamine. J. Insect Physiol. 41:921-27
Wu JC, Xu JX and Liu JL et al 2001. Effects of herbicides on rice resistance and on multiplication and feeding of brown planthopper. Intl. J Pest management. 47:153-159
Yang XM, Margolies DC, Zhu KY and Buschman LL. 2001. Host plant-induced changes in detoxification enzymes and susceptibility to pesticides in the Twospotted spider mite. J. Econ. Entomol. 94(2): 381-387
Yasumatsu K, Wongsiri T and Tirawat et al, 1981 The role of chironomidae in the rice ecosystem and the regulation of its population by biotic factors and chemicals. Pp 156-171. in Yasumatasu K (ed) contributions to development of integrated rice pest control in Thailand. Report. Japan International cooperation Agency.
Yein BR and Das GR. 1988. Effect of spacing and nitrogen levels on the incidence of insect pests of rice. Pesticides. 22:37-40
Yu XP, 1995. Impact of non-rice habitats on egg parasitoids and egg predator of plant- and leafhoppers. PhD Thesis, Zhejiang Agricultural University, China and IRRI, Philippines
Zohdy NZM 1976 On the effect of food of Myzus persicae on the hymenopterous parasite Aphelinus asychis. Oecologia, 26:185-191
冯从经，戴华国和武淑文 2001褐飞虱高温条件下应激反应及体内保护酶系活性的研究。应用生态学报13：409-413
刘春茂和吴荣宗1992光照强度和氮肥对水稻品种抗褐飞虱的影响。华南农业大学学报13(2)：27-33
刘光杰和秦厚国1997．中国水稻螟虫研究进展。昆虫知识34：171-174
刘孝纯和白秀英1989．氮肥水平对棉朱砂叶螨生物学的影响。植物保护15(6)：2-5．
刘雨芳和古德祥2002 稻田中性昆虫多样性及其生态功能分析。中国生物防治18(4)：149-152
刘顺和王益之1989．施氮肥对棉铃虫影响的初步研究。河北农业大学学报 12(1)：81-87
庄永林和沈晋良2000．稻褐飞虱对噻嗪酮抗性的检测技术。南京农业大学学报23(3)：114-117
吕仲贤，俞晓平和郑许松等1997．褐飞虱致害性变异过程及其体内保护酶的变化。昆虫学报40(增)：122-127
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明等1999褐飞虱不同生物型的抗逆性。浙江农业学报 11(6)：301-305
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明2000不同地理种群褐飞虱的抗逆性。应用生态学报11：745-748
吕仲贤，俞晓平和陈建明等2001不同虫源和致害性的褐飞虱体内共生菌的种群动态．华东昆虫学报10(1)：44-49
李汝铎，丁锦华和胡国文等1996．《褐飞虱及其种群管理》。复旦大学出版社，上海
汪茂卿和吴荣宗1991施肥对水稻品种抗褐飞虱的影响。广东农业科学(1)：25-27
巫国瑞，黄次伟和冯炳灿等1983影响褐飞虱猖獗和为害的因素。生态学报4(2)：157-166
巫国瑞，俞晓平和陶林勇等1997褐飞虱和白背飞虱灾害的长期预测。中国农业科学30(4)：25-29
张桂芬，鲁战涛和申益诚等1995．栽插密度和施氮量对水稻主要病虫害的综合生态效应。植物保护学报22(1)：38-44
吴进才，胡国文和唐健等1994稻田中性昆虫对群落食物网的调控作用。生态学报14(4)：381-386
吴进才，徐建祥和李国生等1997几种杀虫剂对拟水狼蛛捕食功能的影响。昆虫学报40(增)：165-172
吴良欢和祝增荣1994．水稻叶色和病虫害发生的关系及其机理。中国水稻科学8(4)：231-235
陈建明，程家安和何俊华 1994．温度和食物对黑肩绿盲蝽生长发育和生殖的影响。昆虫学报 37(1)：63-70
但建国和陈常铭 1990 食料条件对稻纵卷叶螟生长发育和繁殖的影响。 植物保护学报17：193-199
庞保平，程家安和王启发 1998 稻田蜘蛛对弹尾虫的功能反应及选择作用。植物保护学报25：193-196
郑许松，徐红星和俞晓平等 2001 缨小蜂的颜色选择性和粘卡的技术的应用。华东昆虫学报 10：126-180
郭玉杰，王念英和蒋金炜等 1995 中性昆虫在稻田节肢动物群落中作为捕食者营养桥梁的作用研究。中国生物防治11(1)：5-9
胡建章，陆秋华和杨金生等 1986．肥水管理对稻田主要害虫种群及产量的影响。昆虫学报29(1)：49-54
俞晓平和巫国瑞 1991 高温和浸水对褐飞虱存活和生殖的影响。浙江农业科学 (5)：239-241
俞晓平，吕仲贤和巫国瑞等 1997 褐飞虱的迁入和翅型分化规律的研究。昆虫学报40(增)：128-134
俞晓平，吕仲贤和陈建明等 1999 水稻害虫及其天敌在生境间迁移的监测方法和原理。浙江农业学报 11：325-332
钦俊德 1980 植食性昆虫的生理基础。昆虫学报 23(1)：106-122
钦俊德 1987 昆虫与植物的关系—论昆虫与植物的相互作用及其演化。科学出版社，北京
娄永根和程家安 1996a．水稻品种的形态特征对稻虱缨小蜂功能反应的影响。应用生态学报 7(1)：61-66
娄永根和程家安 1996b，黑肩绿盲蝽的功能反应及其搜索行为。植物保护学报 23(4)：322-326
娄永根，程家安和庞保平等 1996 增强稻田天敌作用的途径探讨。浙江农业学报 11(6)：333-338．
唐启义和冯明光 1997．《实用统计分析及其计算机处理平台》。中国农业出版社，北京
梁映鸿和廖顺源 1991．虫数栽植密度及施氮量对水稻二化螟危害的影响。西南农业大学学报13(4)：387-389
梁广文，罗国辉和李畅方 1984 氮肥对稻纵卷叶螟成虫和卵密度的影响。广东农业科学14(2)：34-35
龚佩瑜和李秀珍 1992 饲料氮对棉铃虫发育和繁殖的影响。昆虫学报 35：46-46
程遐年，陈若篪和习学等 1979 褐飞虱迁飞规律的研究。昆虫学报 22(1)：1-22
谭济才，邓欣和张觉晚等 2001．湖南省茶园群落演替趋势与防治对策。湖南农业大学学报(自然科学版) 27(5)：370-373．
谭荫初 1986．二化螟发生与施肥关系的初步考察。昆虫知识 23(3)：101-102
Al-Zubaidi FS and Capinera. 1984. Utilization of food and nitrogen by the beet armyworm, Spodoptera exigua, in relation to food type and dietary nitrogen levels. Environ. Entomol. 13: 1604-1608.
Alam SN and Cohen MB. 1998. Durability of brown planthopper, Nilarpavata lugens, resistance in rice variety IR64 in greenhouse selection studies. Entomol. Exp Appl. 89:71-78
Ali AG and Ahmed AAS. 1996. Effect of plant density and nitrogen fertilization on the infestation if wheat plants with cereal aphids. Assiut J. Agric. sci., 27(2): 119-124
Alinia F, Ghareyazie B, Rubia L, Bennett J and Cohen MB. 2000. Effect of plant age, larvae age, and fertilizer treatment on resistance of a crylAb-transformed aromatic rice to Lepidopterous stem borers and foliage feeders. J. Econ. Entomol. 93:484-493
Annan IB, Ampong-Nyarko K Tingey WM and Schaefers GA. 1997. Interactions of fertilizer, cultivar selection, and infestation by cowpea aphid on growth and yield of cowpeas. International J. Pest Management. 43(4): 307-312.
Anonymous. 2002. Leaf relative water content (RWC)-the protocol. http://www.plantstress.com/admin/files/RWC.htm
Archer TL, Onken AB, Matheson RL and Bynum ED. 1982. Nitrogen fertilizer influence on geeenbug dynamics and damage to sorghum. J. Econ. Entomol. 75:695-698
Archer TL, Bynum ED, Onken AB and Wendt CW. 1995. Influence of water and nitrogen fertilizer on biology of the Russian wheat aphid on wheat. Crop Protection. 14(2): 165-169.
Auerbach MJ and Strong DR. 1981. Nutritional ecology of Heliconia herbivores: experiments with plant fertilization and alternative hosts. Ecol. Monographs. 51: 63-84
Awmack CS and Leather SR. 2002. Host plant quality and fecundity in herbivorous insects. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47:817-844
Balasubramanian P, Palaniappan SP and Gopalan M. 1983. The effect of carbofuran and nitrogen on leaf folder incidence. IRRN. 8:13-14
Balasubramanian V, Morales AC and Cruz RT et al. 2000. Adaptation of the chlorophyll meter (SPAD) technology for real-time N management in rice: a review. IRRN 25(1): 4-8
Barbosa P, Frongillo EA and Cranshaw W. 1978. Orientation of field populations of Brachymeria intermedia to host and host-habitat cues. Entomophaga. 23(1): 63-67
Barbosa P and Letourneau DK 1988 Novel aspects of insect-plant interactions. John Wiley and Sons. NY
Barbour JD, Farrar RR and Kennedy GG. 1991. Interaction of fertilizer regime with host plant resistance in tomato. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 60:289-300
Barr, H.D. and Weatherley, P.E. 1962. A re-examination of the relative turgidity technique for estimating water deficit in leaves. Aust. J. Biol. Sci. 15:413-428
Barrion AT and Litsinger J 1995. Riceland spiders of south and southeast Asia. IRRI, Philippines.
Bazzaz FA, Chiariello NR and Coley PD et al. 1987. Allocating resources to reproduction and defense. BioScience. 37: 58-67.
Beck J, Muhlenberg E and Fiedler. 1999. Mud-pudding behavior in tropical butterflies: in search of proteins or minerals? Oecologia. 119: 140-148
Begum MN and Wilkins RM. 1998. A parafilm sachet technique for measuring the feeding of Nilaparvata lugens on rice plants with correction for evapotranspiration. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 88:301-304
Behmer ST and Joern A. 1993. Dietary selection by the generalist grasshopper Phoetaliotes nebrascensis. Funct Ecology. 7:522-527
Benrey B and Denno R. 1997. The slow-growth-high-mortality hypothesis: a test using the cabbage butterfly. Ecology. 78(4): 987-999
Bentz JA and Larew HG. 1992. Ovipositional preference and nymphal performance of Trialeurodes vaporariorum on Dendranthema grandiflora under different fertilizer regimes. J. Econ. Entomol. 85:514-517
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995a Effect of nitrogen fertilizer source and level on ovipositional choice of poinsettia by Bemisia argentifolii. J. Econ. Entomol. 88(5): 1388-1392
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995b. Within-plant variation in nitrogen and sugar content of poinsettia and its effects on the oviposition pattern, survival, and development of Bemisia argentifolii. Environ. Entomol. 24:271-277
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1995c. Nitrogen fertilizer effect on selection, acceptance and suitability of Euphorbia pulcherrima as a host plant to Bemisia tabaci. Environ. Entomol. 24:40-45
Bentz JA, Reeves J Ⅲ, Barbosa P and Francis B. 1996. The effect of nitrogen fertilizer applied to Euphorbia pulcherrima on the parasitization of Bemisia argentifolii by the parasitoid Encarsia formosa. Entomologia Experimentalis el applicata. 78:105-110
Bernal CC, Aguda RM and Cohen MB. 2002. Effect of rice lines transformed with Bacillus thuringiensis toxin genes on the brown planthopper and its predator Cyrtorhinus lividipennis. Entom. Exp. Appl.. 102: 21-28.
Bemays EA 1990 Insect-plant interactions Ⅴ. Ⅱ. CRC Press, Florida.
Bemays EA and Chapman RF. 1994. Host-plant selection by phytophagous insects. Chapman and Hall, New Bernays EA York.
Bemays EA and graham M, 1988 On the evolution of host specificity in phytophagous arthropods. Ecology, 69:886-892
Bethke JA, redak Ra and schuch UK. 1998. Melon aphid performance on chrysanthemum as mediated by cultivar, and differential levels of fertilization and irrigation. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 88:41-47
Bi JL, Ballmer GR and Hendrix DL et al. 2001. Effect of cotton nitrogen fertilization on Bemisia argentifolii population and honeydew production. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 99: 25-36.
Biswas S and singh R. 1998. Interaction between host plant resistance and biocontrol of a cereal aphid: A laboratory study. Biological Agriculture & Horticulture. 16:25-36
Blua MJ and Toscano 1994. Bemisia argentifolii development and honeydew production as a function of cotton nitrogen status. Environ. Entomol. 23: 316-321
Boethel DJ and Eikenbary RD. 1986. Interactions of plant resistance and parasitoids and predators of insects. Ellis Horwood Limited. p 224
Bowdish TI and Stiling P. 1998. The influence of salt and nitrogen on herbivore abundance: direct and indirect effects. Oecologia. 113:400-405
1.4A
Bremner, J. M., and C. S. Mulvaney. 1982. Nitrogen: In A.L. Page et al. (ed.) Methods of Soil Analysis. 2nd ed. ASA and SSSA, Madison, Wisconsin.
Brodbeck BV, Stavisky J and Funderburk JE et al. 2001. Flower nitrogen status and populations of Frankliniella occidentalis feeding on Lycopersicon esculentum. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 99: 165-172
Bruyn LD, Scheirs J and Verhagen R. 2002. Nutrient stress, host plant quality and herbivore performance of a leaf-mining fly on grass. Oecologia. 130:594-599
Bryant JP, Beichardt PB, Clausen TP and Werner. RA. 1993. Effects of mineral nutrition on delayed inducible resistance in Alaska paper birch. Ecology. 74(7): 2072-2084
Bryant JP, Chapin FS and Klein DK. 1983. Carbon/nutrient balance of boreal plants in relation to vertebrate herbivory. Oikos, 40: 357-368).
Buddle CM. 2002. Interactions among young stages of the wolf spiders Pardosa moesta and P. mackenziana. Oikos. 96:130-136
Buss EA, 2002. Insect management. In Unruh (ed), 2002 University of Florida's Pest Control Guide for Turfgrass Managers. National Pesticide Information Center, Florida, US. p9-15
Byrne DN and Draeger EA. 1989. Effects of plant maturity on oviposition and nymphal mortality of Bemisia tabaci. Environ. Entomol. 18:429-432
Cagampang GB, Pathak MD and Julino BO. 1974. Metabolic changes in the rice plant during infestation by the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 9(3): 174- 184
Carisey N and Bauce E. 2002. Does nutrition-related stress carry over to spruce budworm, Choristoneura fumiferana progeny? Bull. Entomol. Res. 92:101-108
Carpenter SR, Caraco NF and Correll DL, 1998 Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol. Appl. 8: 559-568
Casey CA and Raupp MJ. 1999. Supplemental nitrogen fertilization of containerized azalea does not affect performance of Azalea lace bug. Environ. Entomol. 28: 998-1003
Cates RG, Henderson CG and Redak RA. 1987. Responses of the western spruce budworm to varying levels of nitrogen and terpenes. Oecologia. 73: 312-316
Cisneros JJ and Godfrey LD 2001 midseason pest status of the cotton aphid in California cotton: os nitrogen a key factors? Environ. Entomol. 30:501-510
Chandra G 1979. Txonomy and bionomics of the insect parasitoids of rice leafhoppers and planthoppers in the Philippines and their importance in natural biological control. Philipp. Entomol. 4:119-139
Chang YD, Yeo YS and Kim YH. 1991. Host finding, mating behavior and their reproduction mode of Anagrus incarnates Haliday. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 30(2): 101-105
Chau A, Heinz KM and Davies FT. 2002. Preliminary study on the effect of nitrogen fertilization on cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii. IOBC/wprs Bulletin 25(1): 53-56
Chelliah S and Subramanian A. 1972. Influence of nitrogen fertilization on the infestation by the gall midge, Pachydiplosis oryzae, in certain rice varieties. Indian J. Entomol. 34:255-256
Cheng CH 1971. Effect of nitrogen application on the susceptibility in rice to brown planthopper attack. J. Taiwan Agriculture Research. 20(3): 21-30
Cheng JA and Holt J, 1990. A systems analysis approach to brown planthopper control on rice in Zhejiang province, China. Ⅰ. Simulation of outbreaks. J. Appl. Ecol. 27:85-99
Chu YI and Horng SB. 1994. Effect of slag and nitrogen fertilizer on the damage of asian corn borer to field com. Memoirs of the college of agriculture, National Taiwan University. 34(1): 45-53.
Chua TH and Mikil E. 1989. Effects of prey number and stage on the biology of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis : a predator of Nilaparvata lugens. Environ Entomol. 18(2): 251-255
Cisneros JJ and Godfrey LD. 2001. Midseason pest status of the cotton aphid in California cotton: Is nitrogen a key factor? Environ. Entomol. 30:501-510
Clancy KM and Price PW 1987 Rapid herbivore growth enhance enemy attack: sublethal plant defenses remain a paradox. Ecology 68:733-737
Clarige MF and den Hollander J. 1982. Virulence to rice cultivars and selection for virulence in populations of brown planthopper. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 32:213-221
Clarige MF, Morgan JC and Steenkiste AE. et al. 2002. Experimental field studies on predation and egg parasitism of rice brown planthopper in Indonesia. Agricultural and Forest Entomology. 4(3): 203-209
Cohen JE, Schoenly K and Heong KL et al, 1994. A food web approach to evaluating the effect of insecticide spraying on insect pest population dynamics in a Philippine irrigated rice ecosystem. J. Appl. Ecol. 31:747-763
Cohen MB, Alam SN, Medina EB and Bernal CC. 1997. Brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, resistance in rice cultivar IR64: mechanism and role in successful N. lugens management in central Luzon, Philippines. Entomol Exp App. 85:221-229.
Conway GR. 1997. The doubly green revolution: food for all in the 21st century. Cornell University Press, New York.
Conway GR and Barbier EB. 1990. After the Green Revolution: Sustainable Agriculture for development. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Conway GR and Pretty JN. 1991. Unwelcome harvest: agriculture and pollution. Earthscan Publications Ltd, London.
Cook AG and Denno RF. 1994. Planthopper/plant interactions: Feeding behavior, plant nutrient, plant defense, and host plant specialization. In Denno and Perfect (eds.), Planthoppers, their ecology and management. Chapman & Hall. P. 114-139
Cook AG and Perfect T J, 1989. The population characteristics of the brown planthopper. Ecol. Entomol. 14:1-9
Cook AG., Woodhead S, Magalit VF and Heinrichs EA. 1987. Variation in feeding behavior of Nilaparvata lugens on resistant and susceptible rice varieties. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 43: 227- 235
Cortesero AM, Stapel JO and Lewis WJ. 2000. Understanding and manipulating plant attributes to enhance biological control. Biological Control. 17:35-49
Coulibaly R. 1990. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer on the damage of Eldana saccharina Walker to sugar cane. Sugar Cane. (Supplement): 18-20.
Courtney SP and Kibota TT. 1990. Mother doesn't know best: selection of hosts by ovipositing insects. In Bernays EA (ed), Insect-plant interactions Vol 2. CRC Press, Florida. Pp161-188
Craig TP, and Ohgushi T. 2002. Preference and performance are correlated in the spittlebug Aphrophora pectoralis on for species of willow. Ecol. Entomol. 27:529-540
Da Silva PG, Hagen KS and Gutierrez AP. 1992. Functional response of Curinus coleru;eus to Heteropsylla cubana on artificial and natural substrates. Entomophaga. 37: 555-564.
Damman, H. 1987. Leaf quality and enemy avoidance by the larvae of pyralid moth. Ecology. 68(1): 88-97
De Clercq P, Mohaghegh J and Tirry L. 2000. Effect of host plant on the functional response of predator Podisus nigrispinus. Biological Control. 18:65-70
De Kraker J. 1996 The potential of natural enemies to suppress rice leaffolder populations. PhD thesis, Wageningen Agricultural University. The Netherlands.
De Kraker J, Rabbinge R, Huis AV, lenteren JCV and Heong KL. 2000. Impact of nitrogenous- fertilization on the population dynamics and natural control of rice leaffolder (Lep.:Pyralidae). International J of Pest Management. 46: 225-235.
Denno RF, Douglass LW and Jacobs D. 1985. Crowding and host plant nutrient: Environmental determinants of wing-form in Prokelisia marginata. Ecology. 66(5): 1588-1596.
Denno RF, Douglass LW and Jacobs D. 1986 Effects of crowding and host plant nutrition on a wing-dimorphic palnthopper. Ecology. 67(1): 116-123.
Denno RF and Perfect TJ 1994 Planthoppers, their ecology and management. Chapman & Hall NY
Dethier VG 1982. Mechanisms of host-plant recognition. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 31:49-56
Dicke M 2000 Chemical ecology of host-plant selection by herbivorous arthropods: a multitropic perspective. Biochemical Systematics and Ecology. 28:601-617
Dingkuhn M, Schnier HF and De Datta SK et al. 1990. Nitrogen fertilization of direct-seeded flooded vs. transplanted rice: Ⅱ. Interactions among canopy properties. Crop Sci. 30: 1284- 1292
Dobermann and Fairhust. 2000. Rice nutrient disorders and nutrient management. Oxford Graphic Printer Pte Ltd. p 13-39.
Domingo I and Heong KL. 1992. Evaluating high temperature tolerance in the brown planthopper. IRRN. 17(3):22
Douglas AE. 1996. Reproductive failure and the free amino acid pools in pea aphids lacking symbiotic bacteria. J. Insect Physiology. 42:247-255
Douglas AE. 1998. Nutritional interactions in insect-microbial symbioses: aphids and their symbioitic bacteria Buchnera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 43:17-37
Dowell RV and Steinberg B. 1990 Influence of host plant characteristics and nitrogen fertilization on development and survival of immature citrus blackfly, Aleurocanthu woglumi Ashby. J. Appl. Entomol. 109:113-119
Driesche RGV and Bellows TS Jr. 1996. Biological control. Chapman & Hall, NY
Dudt FJ and Shure DJ. 1994. The influence of light and nutrients on foliar phenolics and insect herbibvory. Ecology. 75(1): 86-98
Duffield S J, Bryson RJ and Young JEB et al. 1997. The influence of nitrogen fertilizer on the population development of the cereal aphids Sitobion avenae and Metopolophium dirhodum on field grown winter wheat. Ann. Appl. Biol. 130:13-26
Dyck VA and Thomas B. 1979. The brown planthopper problem. In IRRI (ed) Brown planthopper: threat to rice production in Asia. p3-20
Ebert TA 1996 Aphids and plant nitrogen. Welton Ln., Poway, CA 92064
El-Khayat EF. 1994. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on wheat aphids infestation, bioenemies and grain production. Ann. Agric. Sci. Moshotor. 32(1): 557-566.
FAO 2001 Statistical databases. Http://www.fao.org.
Feller IC. 1995. Effects of nutrient enrichment on growth and herbivory of dwarf red mangrove. Ecol. Monographs. 65(4): 447-505
Fischer K.S., 1998 Toward increasing nutrient-use efficiency in rice cropping systems: the next generation of technology. Field crops research. 56:1-6
Fischer K and Fiedler K. 2000. Response of the copper butterfly Lycaena tityus to increased leaf nitrogen in natural food plants: evidence against the nitrogen limitation hypothesis. Oecologia. 124:235-241
Fox LR and Eisenbach J. 1989. Effects of experimental design and nitrogen on cabbage butterfly oviposition. Oecologia. 80:211-214
Fox LR and Eisenbach J. 1992. Contrary choices: possible exploitation of enemy-free space by herbivorous insects in cultivated vs. wild crucifers. Oecologia. 89:574-579
Fox LR, Letourneau DK, Eisenbach J and Nouhuys SV. 1990. Parasitism rate and sex ratios of a parasitoid wasp: effects of herbivore and plant quality. Oecologia. 83:414-419
Fu Q, Zhang ZT and Hu C et al. 2001. A chemically defined diet enables continuous rearing of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 36(1): 111-116
Fujiwara C, Takabayashi J and Yano S. 2000. Effects of host plant species on parasitization rates of Mythimna separata by a parasitoid, Cotesia kariyai. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 35 (1): 131 - 136
Fukutoku Y & Yamada Y. 1982. Accumulation of carbohydrates and proline in water-stressed soybean. Soil Sci. Plant Nutrient. 28:147-151
Gallagher KD, Kenmore PE and Sogawa K. 1994. Judicial use of insecticides deter planthopper outbreaks and extend the role of resistant varieties in Southeast Asian rice. In Denno & Perfect (eds) Planthoppers their Ecology and Management, Chapman & Hall, London. P559-614
Gaslell M. 2001. Efficient use of organic nitrogen fertilizers. Organic Farming Research Foundation. (9): 26-28
Geetha N, Gopalan M and Galasubramanian G. 1993. Ovipositional behaviour of mired bug, Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on rice and weeds. J. Entomol. Res. 17(1): 17-20
Godfrey LD and Rosenheim 1996. Aphids and whiteflies in the San Joaquin valley of Canifornia in 1995. p 128-132. In Proceedings, Beltwide Cotton Research Conference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, TN.
Godfrey LD, Cisneros JJ and Keillor KE. 2000. Influence of cotton nitrogen fertility on cotton aphid, Aphis gossypii, population dynamics in California, pp. 1162-1165, In Proceedings, Beltwide Cotton Research Conference. National Cotton Council, Memphis, TN.
Goyal SS and Huffaker RC. 1984. Nitrogen toxicity in plants. In Hauck (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, USA.
Grant IF, Roger PA and Watanabe 1985 Effect of grazer regulation and algal inoculation on photodependent nitrogen fixation in a wetland rice field. Biol. Fertile. Soils, 1: 61-72
Greenstone MH. 1979. Spider feeding behavior optimizes dietary essential amino acid composition Science. 282:501-503
Grundel R, Pavlovic NB and Sulzman CL. 1998. The effect of canopy cover and seasonal change on host plant quality for the endangered Karner butterfly (Lycaeides MeIissa samuelis). Oecologia. 114:243-250
Haddad NM, Haarstad J and Tilman D. 2000. The effects of long-term nitrogen loading on grassland insect communities. Oecologia. 124:73-84
Harbaugh BK, Price JF and Stanley CD. 1983. Influence of leaf nitrogen on leafminer damage and yield of spray chrysanthemum. HortScience. 18(6): 880-881
Harrington R, Fleming RA and Woiwod IP. 2001. Climate change impacts on insect management and conservation in temperate regions: can they be predicted? Agric. Forest Entomol. 3: 233-240.
Harvey JA and Gols GJZ. 1998. The influence of host quality on progeny and sex allocation in the pupal ectoparasitoid, Muscidifurax raptorellus. Bull. Entomol. Res. 88:299-304
Hattenschwiler S and Schafellner C. 1999. Opposing effects of elevated CO_2 and nitrogen deposition on Lymantria monacha larvae feeding on spruce trees. Oecologia. 118:210-217
Heinrichs EA, Basilio RP and Valencia SL. 1984. Buprofezin, a selective insecticide fro the management of rice planthoppers anf leafhoppers. Environ. Entomol. 13: 515-521.
Heinrichs EA and Medrano FG. 1985. Influence of nitrogen fertilizer on the population development of brown planthopper. IRRN. 10(6): 20
Hemngway J, Parunaratne SHPP and Claridge MF, 1999 Insecticide resistance spectrum and underlying resistance mechanisms in tropical populations of brown planthopper collected from rice and the wild grass Leersia hexandra. International J. Pest Management, 45(3):215-223.
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1990a Comparing arthropod diversity in rice ecosystems. IRRN. 15:6
Heong KL, Bleih S and Rubia EG. 1990b. Prey preference of the wolf spider, Pardosa pseudoannulata. Res. Popul. Ecol. 32: 179-186.
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1991 Arthropod community structures of rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Bulletin Entomol. Research. 81:407-416
Heong KL, Aquino GB and Barrion AT. 1992. Population dynamics of plant- and leafhoppers and their natural enymies in rice ecosystems in the Philippines. Crop Protection. 11:371-379
Heong KL and Domingo I 1992. Shifts in predator-prey ranges in response to global warming. IRRN. 17(6): 29-30
Heong KL and Escalada MM 1997. Perception change in rice pest management: a case study of farmers' evaluation of conflict information. J. Applied Communications. 81 (2): 3-17
Heong KL and Rubia EG. 1989. Functional response of Lycosa pseudoannulata on brown planthipper and green leafhoppers. IRRN, 16(2):29-30
Heong KL, Song YH, Pimamarn S, Zhang R and Bae SD. 1995. Global warning and rice arthropod communities. In Peng S et al (eds) Climate Change and Rice. Spring-Verlag, NY. Pp. 326-335
Herms DA and Mattson WI. 1992. The dilemma of plants: to grow of defend. Q. Rev. Biol. 67: 283-335.
Hinz HL and Muller-Scharer. 2000. Influence of host condition on the performance of Rhopalomyia n. sp., a biological control agent for scentless chamomole, Tripleurospermum perforatum. Biological Control. 18:147-156
Ho DT. 1983. Effect of nitrogen and plant density on rice stem borer infestation in western Kenya. IRRN. 8:17-18
Holopainen JK and Peltonen P. 2002. Bright autumn colours of deciduous trees attract aphids: nutrient retranslocation hypothesis. Oikos. 99:184-188
Hongoh Y and Ishikawa H. 1997. Uric acid as a nitrogen resource for the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens: studies with synthetic diets and aposymbiotic insects. Zoological Science. 14:581-586
Horton. DR and Moore J. 1993. Behavioral effects of parasites and pathogens in insecr hosts. In Beckage NE. Thompson SN and Federici BA (eds.). Parasites and pathogens of insects. Vol. Ⅰ: Parasites. Academic Press Inc. USA. p 107-124.
Hosamani MM, Jayakumar BV and Sharma KMS. 1986. Sources and levels of nitrogenous fertilizers in relation to incidence of brown planthoppwe in Bhadra Project. Current Research. 15:132-134
Huang JL, Peng SP, and Zou YB, et al 2003 improving fertilizer-nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice in Chin. Proceedings Third International symposium on Bioresources and Environmental Stress. Jan. 24, 2003, Okayama University, Japan, pp 33-36
Huelsman MF, Edwards CA, Lawrence J and Clarke HD. 2000. A study of the effect of soil nutrient levels on the incidence of insect pests and predators in Jamaican sweet potato and callaloo. The BCPC Conference. Pests and diseases, Vol 3. Proceedings of an international conference. Brighton, UK. P 895-900
Hwang IC, Kim JH and Song YH. 2002. Changes in the fitness of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, to several resistant rice varieties after multi-generational selection. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 41(2): 113-121.
Iheagwam EU. 1981. The relationship between weight of insect, age, hardness and nitrogen content of cabbage leaves and fecundity of the cabbage whitefly, Aleyrodes brassicae. Z. ang. Entomol. 91:349-354
Inouye R and Tilman D 1995 Convergency and divergence of old field vegetation after 11 years of nitrogen addition. Ecology, 76:1872-1887
Inthavong S, Inthavong K and Sengsaulivong V et al. 1998. Arthropod biodiversity in Lao irrigated rice ecosystem. In Hamid et al (eds) Rice IPM Conference- Integrated Science and People in Rice Pest Management, 18-21, Nov. 1996. Kuala Lumpur. P69-85
IRRI. 1980. Standard Evaluation System for Rice. Philippines. pp44
Jansson RK and Smilowitz Z. 1985. Influence of nitrogen on population parameters of potato insects: Abundance, development, and damage of the Coporado Potato Beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata. Environ. Entomol. 14:500-506
Jansson RK and Smilowitz Z. 1986. Influence of nitrogen on population parameters of potato insects: abundance, population growth, and within-plant distribution of green peach aphid, Myzus persicae. Environ. Entomol. 15:49-55
Jauset AM, Sarasua MJ, Avilla J and Albajes R. 1998. The impact of nitrogen fertilization of tomato of feeding site selection and oviposition by Trialeurodes vaporariorum. Entomol. Exp. et Appl. 86:175-182
Jauset AM, Sarasua MJ, Avilla J and Albajes R. 2000. Effect of nitrogen fertilization level applied to tomato on the greenhouse whitefly. Crop Protection. 19:255-261
Joern A and Behmer ST. 1998. Importance of dietary nitrogen and carbohydrates to survival, growth, and reproduction in adults of the grasshopper Ageneotettix deorum. Oecologia. 112: 201-208
Joern A and Behmer ST. 1998. Impact of diet quality on demographic attributes in adult grasshopper and the nitrogen limitation hypothesis. Ecol. Entomol. 23; 174-184
Kajimura T, MAEOKA y AND Widiarta IN et al 1993 Effect of organic rice farming on leaffolder and planthoppers: 1 population density and reproductive rate. Jpn. J appl. Entomol. Zool. 37:137-144
Kajimura T, Fujisaki K and Nakasuji F 1995. Effect of organic rice farming on leaffolder and planthoppers: 2. Amino acid content in the rice phloem sap and survival rate of planthoppers. Appl. Entomol. Zoo. 30(1): 17-22
Kalule T and Wright DJ. 2002. Tritropic interactions between cabbage cultivars with different resistance and fertilizer levels, cruciferous aphids and parasitoids under field conditions. Bulletin of Entomol. Reseach. 92:61-69
Kaneshiro LN and Johnson MW. 1996. Tritropic effects of leaf nitrogen on Liriomyza trifolii (Burgess) and an associated parasitoid Chrysocharis oscinidis (Ashmead) on bean. Biological Control. 6:186-192.
Kanno H, Kim M and Ishii S. 1977. Feeding activity of the brown planthopper on rice plants manured with different levels of nitrogen. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 21(2): 110-112
Kartohardjono A and Heinrichs EA. 1984. Population of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, and its predators on rice varieties with different levels of resistance. Environ. Entomol. 13: 359-365.
Karunarante SHPP, Small GJ and Hemingway J. 1999. Characterization of the elevated esterase- associated insecticide resistance mechanism in Nilarparvata lugens and other planthopper species. International J. Pest management. 45(3): 225-230
Koricheva J, Christa PH and Schmid MB et al. 2000. Numerical responses of different tropic groups of invertebrates to manipulations of plant diversity in grasslands. Oecologia. 125: 271-282
Kramer PJ. 1983. Water relations of plants. Academic Press, Florida.
Kumar P and Pathak PK. 2001. A simple and accurate method of quantifying honeydew excretion in brown planthopper. Indian J. Entomol. 63(2): 208-210
Kuno E 1984 Pest status, dynamics and control of rice planthopper and leafhopper population in Japan. Prot. Ecol. 7:129-145
Kyto M, Niemela and Larsson P. 1996. Insects on stress: population and individual response to fertilization. Oikos. 75:148-159
Laba IW, 1991. Perdation of Cyrtorhins lividipennis on eggs of planthoppers in rice. MS Thesis, University of the Philippines.
Laba IW and Heong KL. 1996. Predation of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on eggs of planthoppers in rice. Indonesian J. Crop Sci. 11(2): 40-50
Lauzizre I, Perez-Lachaud G and Brodeur J. 2000. Effect of female body size and adult feeding on the fecundity and longevity of the parasitoid Cephalonomia stephanoderis Betrem. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 93(1): 103-109
Lauzizre I, Perez-Lachaud G and Brodeur J. 2001. Importance of nutrition and host availability on oogenesis and oviposition of Cephalonomia stephanoderis. Bull. Entomol. Res. 91: 185-191
Letourneau DK. 1988. Nitrogen fertilizer's effects on pests and predators. Ecological Agriculture Projects, UC Stanta Cruz. (http://eap.mcgill.ca/CPCM 5.htm).
Letourneau DK and Fox LR 1989 Effects of experimental design and nitrogen on cabbage butterfly oviposition. Oecologia, 80:211-214
Levine JM and Hacker SD. 1998. Nitrogen effects on an interaction chain in a salt marsh community. Oecologia. 117:266-272
Lill JT and Marquis RJ. 2001. The effects of leaf quality on herbivore performance and attack from natural enemies. Oecologia. 126:418-428
Litsinger JA. 1989. Second generation insect pest problems on high yielding rices. Tropical Pest Management. 35: 235-242.
Liu GJ, Saxena RC and Wilkins RM. 1994. Behavioral response of the whitebacked planthopper Sogatella furcifera on rice plants whose odors have been masked, J. Insect behavior. 7(3): 343-353
Loader C and Damman H. 1991. Nitrogen content of food plants and vulnerability of Pieris rapae to natural enemies. Ecology. 72(5): 1586-1590
Lou YG and Cheng JA. 2001. Host-recognition kairomone from Sogatella furcifera for parasitoid Anagrus nilaparvatae. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 101:59-67
Luck RF, Shepard and Kenmore PE. 1988. Experimental methods for evaluating arthropod natural enemies. Ann Rev. Entomol. 33:367-391.
Ma KC and Lee SC. 1996. Occurrence of major rice insect pests at different transplanting times and fertilizer levels in paddy field. Korean J. Appl. Entomol. 35(2): 132-136
Maclean JL, Dawe DC, Hardy B and Hettel GP. 2002. Rice Almanac (Third edition). IRRI.
Matsumura M and Suzuki Y. 1999. Effects of prey species and honeydew feeding on development and reproduction of the mired bug, Cyrtorhonus lividipennis Reuter. Kyushu Pl. Prot. Res. 45: 63-67.
Matthen, M., and Ariew, A., 2002, "Two ways of thinking about fitness and natural selection" Journal of Philosophy, 99: 55-83.
Matteson PC. 2000. Insect pest management in tropic Asian irrigated rice. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 45: 549-574.
Mattson WJ. 1980. Herbivory in relation to plant nitrogen content. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 19-61.
Mattson WJ and Haack RA 1987. The role of draught in outbreaks of plant-eating insects. BioScience. 37:110-118
Mayntz D and Toft S 2001 Nutrient composition of the prey's diet affects growth and survivorship of a generalist predator. Oecologia, 127:207-213
McClure MS 1980. Foliar nitrogen: a basis for host suitability for elongate hemlock scale Fiorina externa. Ecology. 61:72-79
Mcgrady-Steed J, Harris PM and Morin PJ 1997. Biodiversity regulates ecosystem predictability, Nature, 390:162-165
McNabb DM, Halaj J and Wise DH 2001. Inferring trophic positions of generalist predators and their linkage to the detrital food web in agroecosystems: a stable isotope analysis. Pedobiologia. 45:289-297
Meerzainudeen M and Kareem AA. 1999. Effect of biofertilizers on BPH (Nilaparvata lugens) and its biocontrol agents in rice ecosystem. VISTAS of Rice Research. 469-474, Tamil Nadu agricultural University, India
Messina FJ and Hanks JB. 1998. Host plant alters the shape of the functional response of an aphid predator (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae). Environ. Entomol. 27:1196-1202
Metcalfe JR. 1970. Studies on the effect of the nutrient status of sugar cane on the fecundity of Saccharosydne saccharivora. Bulletin of Entomol. Research. 60:309-325
Mew TW, Borromeo E and Hardy B 2001 Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management. IRRI, Philippines
Meyer GA and Root RB. 1996. Influence of feeding guild on insect response to host plant fertilization. Ecol. Entomol. 21(3): 270-278
Minkenberg OP and Fredrix MJ. 1989. Preference and performance of a herbivorous fly, Liriomyza trifilii, on tomato plants differing in leaf nitrogen. Ann Entomol. Soc. Am. 82 (3): 350-354
Minkenberg OP and Ottenheim JJ. 1990. Effect of leaf nitrogen content of tomato plants on preference and performance of a leafmining fly. Oecologia. 83:291-298
Moon DC, Rossi AM and Stiling P. 2000. The effects of abiotically induced changes in host plant quality (and morphology) on a salt marsh planthopper and its parasitoid. Ecological Entomology. 25:325-331.
Moon DC and Stiling P. 2000. Relative importance of abiotically induced direct and indirect effects on a salt-marsh herbivore. Ecology. 81(2): 470-481.
Moran VC and Southwood TRE. 1982 The guild composition of arthropod communities in trees. J Anim. Ecol. 51:289-306
Moran MD and Scheidler AR. 2002. Effects of nutrients and predators on an old-field food chain: interactions of top-down and bottom-up processes. Oikos. 98(1): 116-124
Mutikainen P, Walls M, and Ovaska J. et al. 2000. Herbivore resistance in Betula pendula: effect of fertilization, defoliation and plant genotype. Ecology. 81 (1): 49-65
Nadaraian L and Jayaraj S 1975 influence of various hosts on development and reproduction of pupal parasite, Tetrastichus israeli M and k. Curr. Sci. 44:458-460
Nagata T. 2002. Monitoring on insecticide resistance of the brown planthooper and the white backed planthopper in Asia. J. Asia Pacific Entomol. 5(1):103-111.x
Nagata T, Kamimura and Wang YC et al. 2002. Recent status of insecticide resistance of longdistance migrating rice planthoppers monitored in Japan, China and Malaysia. J. Asia Pacific Entomol. 5(1): 113-116
Nevo E and Coll M. 2001. Effect of nitrogen fertilization on Aphis gossypii variation in size, color, and reproduction. J. Econ. Entomol. 94: 27-32.
Noldus. LP, Xu R and van Lenteren JC. 1986. The parasite-host between Encarsia formosa Gahan and Trialeurodes vaporariorum ⅩⅠⅩ. Feeding-site selection by the greenhouse whitefly, J Appl. Entomol. 101:492-507
Oedekoven MA and Joern A. 2000. Plant quality and spider predation affects grasshoppers: Food-quality-dependent compensatory mortality. Ecology. 81 (1): 66-77
Oelbermann K and Scheu S. 2002. Stable isotope enrichment (~(15)N and ~(13)C) in a generalist predator (Pardosa lugubris): effects of prey quality. Oecologia. 130:337-344
Ohgushi T 1998 Bottom-up population regulation of a herbivous lady beetle: an evolutionary perspective. In Insect populations in theory and in practice (Dempster and McLean eds). Pp. 367-390. Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands.
Olson DM and Lewis. 1999. Influence of nitrogen levels on cotton plant/insect interactions in a conservation tillage system. In Hook JE (ed.) Proceedings of the 22nd Annual Southern Conservation Tillage conference for Sustainable Agriculture. 6-8 July, 1999. Georgia Agriculture Experiment Station Special Publication 95. Athens, GA. P 119-130
Ooi PAC 1982. Ecology and surveillance of Nilarpavata lugens-implications for its management in Malaysia. PhD Dissertation. University of Malaysia. Kuala Lumpur.
Padgham DE and Woodhead S. 1989. Feeding response of the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, to resistant and susceptible host plants. Bull. Entomol. Res. 79:309-318
Panasahatham S, Fisher GC, DeFrancesco JT and Ehrensing DT. 1998. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer rates and insecticide use on Meadowfoam to control the Meadowfoam fly, Scaptomyza apicalis. In Young WC (ed.) Seed Production Research at Oregon State University USDA-ARS Cooperating. (http://www.css.orst.edu/seed-ext/pub/1998/SR9904. html)
Panda N & Khush GS. 1995. Host Plant Resistance to Insects. CAB International, UK. Pp67-103.
Papaj DR and Rausher MD. 1983. Individual variation in host location by phytophagous insects. In Ahmad (ed.), Herbivorous insects: host seeking behavior and mechanisms. Academic, New York. P77-124
Pathak PK and Heinrichs EA. 1982. Selection of biotype populations 2 and 3 of Nilarpavata lugens by exposure to resistant rice varieties. Environ. Entomol. 11: 85-90
Peng S, Garcia FV and Laza RC et al. 1996. Nitrogen use efficiency of irrigated tropical rice established by broadcast wet-seeding and transplanting. Fertilizer Research. 45:123-134
Peng S, Laza RC, Garcia FV and Cassman KG. 1995. Chlorophyll meter estimates leaf areabased nitrogen concentration of rice. Commun. Soil Sci. Plant Anal. 26:927-935
Peng S, Huang JL, and Zhong XH et al 2002 Challenge and opportunity in improving fertilizernitrogen use efficiency of irrigated rice in China. Agricultural Sciences in China. 1 (7): 776-785
Phelan PL, Norris KH and Mason JF. 1996. Soil management histoy and host preference by Ostrina nubilalis: evidence for plant mineral balance mediating insect plant interactions. Environ. Entornol. 25(6): 1329-1336.
Ponder KL, Pritchard J, Harrington R and Bale JS. 2001. Feeding behavior of the aphid Rhopalosiphum padi on nitrogen and water-stressed barley seedlings. Bull. Entomol. Research. 91:125-130
Prasad J and Misra DS. 1983 Influence of different levels N P and K on the population of leaffolder and planthoppers. In Chelliah and Balasubramanian (eds), Pest management in rice. P245-254. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University. India
Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ and Jahn GC. 2001a. Effect of fertilizer, pesticide treatment, and plant variety on the realized fecundity and survival rates of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, generating outbreaks in Cambodia. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomol. 4(1): 75-84
Preap V, Zalucki MP, Nesbitt HJ and Jahn GC. 2001b. Effectiveness of brown planthopper predators: population suppression by two species of spiders, Pardosa pseudoannulata and Araneus inustus. Journal of Asia-Pacific Entomol. 4(2): 187-193
Prestidge PA. 1982a. Instar duration, adult consumption, oviposition and nitrogen utilization efficiencies of leafhoppers feeding on different quality food. Ecological Entomology. 7: 91-101
Prestidge RA. 1982b. The influence of nitrogenous fertilizer on the grassland auchenorrhyncha. J Appl. Ecology. 19:735-749
Price PW 1994. Phylogenetic constraints, adaptive syndromes, and emergent properties: from individuals to population dynamics. Res. Popul. Ecology. 36:1-12
Price PW, Bouton CE, Gross P, McPheron BA, Thompson JN and Weis AE. 1980. Interactions among three tropic levels: influence of plants on interactions between insect herbivores and natural enemies. Ann. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 11: 41-65
Ragini JC, Thangaraju D and David PM. 1999. Effect of organic manures on some predators in the rice ecosystem. IRRN. 24(2): 15
Rausher MD. 1981. Host plant selection by Battus philenor butterflies: the roles of predation, nutrition, and plant chemistry. Ecological Mongraphs. 51 (1): 1-20
Ravenscroft NOM. 1994. The ecology of the chequered skipper butterfly Carterocephalus palaemon in Scotland. 2. Food plant quality and population range. J Appl. Ecol. 31:623-630
Richardson B, Rogers C and Richardson MJ. 2000. Nutrient, diversity, and community structure of two phytotelm systems in a lower montane forest, Puerto Rico. Ecol. Entomol. 25: 348-356
Riedell WE, Schumacher TE and Evenson PD. 1996. Nitrogen fertilizer management to improve crop tolerance to corn rootworm larval feeding damage. Agron. J. 88: 27-32.
Risser Paul G. 1995 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function, Conservation Biology, 9:742-746
Rodriquez JG. (ed.) 1986. Nutritional ecology of insects, mites, and spiders. Academic, New York.
Roger PA and Kurihara Y 1991 Floofwater biology of tropical wetland rice field. Soil management sustainable rice production in tropics. IBSRAM Monograph, 2:211-233.
Rombach MC and Gallagher KD. 1994. The brown planthopper: Promises, Problems, and prospects. In Heinrichs (ed) Biology and management of rice insect. Wiley Eastern Limited & IRRI. Pp. 693-709
Rossi AM, Brodbeck BV, and Strong DR. 1996. Response of xylem-feeding leafhopper to host plant species and plant quality, J. Chemical Ecol. 22(4): 653-671
Rossi AM and Stiling P. 1998. The interactions of plant clone and abiotic factors on a gallmaking midge. Oecologia. 116:170-176
Rubeiz IG, Aslam M, Chahine H and Imad A. 1995. Whitefly populations in greenhouse cantaloupe as affected by poultry manure and inorganic nitrogen fertilizer application. Biological Agric. and Hortic. 12:277-281
Ruohomaki K, Chapin FS and Haukioja E. et al. 1996. Delayed inducible resistance in mountain birch in response to fertilization and shade. Ecology. 77(8); 2302-2311
Saigusa M. 1999. Slow-release nitrogen fertilizers and plant nutrition. In Srivastava HS and Singh RP (eds). Nitrogen nutrition and plant growth. Science Publishers, Inc. USA. P305-335.
Saroga R. 1982. Effect of nitrogen fertilizer levels and spacing on rice gall midge and leaffolder damage. IRRN. 7(4): 10
Sasaki T, Kawamura M and Ishikawa H. 1996. Nitrogen recycling in the brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens, Involvement of yeast-like endosymbionts in uric acid metabolism. J. Insect Physiology. 42(2): 125-129
Saxena RC and Brarrion AA 1985 Biotypes of brown plnathopper and strategies in development of host plant resistance. Insect Sci. Appl. 6:271-289
Schoenly, K, Beaver RA and Heumier TA. 1991. On the trophic relations of insects: a food web approach. American Naturalist. 137:597-638
Schoenly, K, Cohen JE and Heong KL et al. 1996. food web dynamics of irrigated rice fields at five elevations in Luzon, Philippines. Bull. Entomol. Res. 86:451-466
Schoenly, K, Justo HD and Barrion AT et al 1998. Analysis if invertebrate biodiversity in a Philippine farmer's irrigated rice field. Environ Entomol. 27:1125-1136
Schoonhoven LM, Jermy T and van Loon JJA. 1998. Insect-plant Biology: from physiology to evolution. Pp. 90-93. Chapman & Hall, NY.
Schuch UK, Redak RA and Bethke JA. 1998. Cultivar, fertilization and irrigation affect vegetative growth and susceptibility of chrysanthemum to western flower thrips. J. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 123:727-733
Scriber JM. 1984. Nitrogen nutrition for plants and insect invasion. Pp.441-460: In Hauch (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. In Hauck (ed) Nitrogen in crop production. ASA-CSSA-SSSA, USA.
Scriber JM. and Slansky FJ. 1981. The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 26:183-211
Senguttuvan T and Gopalan M. 1990. Predator efficiency of mirid bugs (Cytorhinus lividipennis) on eggs and nymphs of brown planthopper (Nilaparvata lugens) on resistant and susceptible varieties office. Indian J Agric. Sci. 60:285-287
Settle WH, Ariawan H and Astuti ET et al. 1996. Managing tropical rice pests through conservation of generalist natural enemies and alterative prey. Ecology, 77:1975-1988
Sexena RC and Barrion AA. 1985. Biotype of brown planthopper, Nilarpavata lugens and strategies in development of host plant resistance. Insect Sci. Appl. 6(3): 271-289
Shepard MB, Barrion AT and Litsinger JA. 1987. Friends of the rice farmer: Helpful insects, spiders, and pathogens. IRRI.
Shepard MB, Barfion AT and Litsinger JA. 1995. Rice-feeding insects of tropic Asia. IRRI
Shulda AN and Tripathi CPM. 1993. Effect of food plants on the offspring sex ratio of Diaeretiella rapae (Hymenoptera: Aphidiidae), a parasitoid of Lipaphis erysimi Kalt (Hemiptera: Aphididae). Biological Agriculture and Horticulture. 9:137-146
Siemann E, Tilman D and Haarstad J et al, 1998 Experimental tests of the dependence of arthropod diversity on plant diversity. Am. Nat. 152:738-750
Sigagaard L 2002 early season natural biological control of insect pests in rice by spiders-and some factors in the management of the cropping system that may affect this control. In European Archnology 2000 (Tort & Scharff eds.), p57-64. Aarhus University press, Aarhus
Sigagaard L, Toft S and Villareal S 2001 Diet-dependent fecundity of the spiders Atypena formosana and Pardosa pseudoannulata, predators in irrigated rice. Agricultural and Forest Entoml. 3:285-295
Sigagaard L and Villareal S 1999. Directional movement of predators between the irrigated rice field and its surroundings. IRRI program report for 1998, 27-28
Silvanima JVC and Strong DR. 1991. Is host-plant quality responsible for the populational pulses of salt-marsh planthoppers in northwestern Florida? Ecol. Entomol. 16:221-232
Simpson IC Roger PA and Oficial R. 1994. Effects of nitrogen fertilizer and pesticide management on floodwater ecology in wetland ricefield: Ⅱ dynamics of microcrustaceans and dipteran larvae. Biological Fertilizer and Soils. 17:138-146
Simpson SJ and Simpson CL.1990. The mechanisms of nutritional compensation by phytophagous insects. In Bernays EA (ed) Insect-plant interactions, Vol. Ⅱ, CPC Press, Inc. USA. p111-160.
Sinclair T. 1998. Historical changes in harveat index and crop nitrogen accumulation. Crop Science. 38:638-643
Singer MC. 1982. Quantification of host preference by manipulation of oviposition behavior in the butterfly Euphydryas editha. Oecologia 52:224-229
Singh J, Singh Y, and Ladha JK et al. 2002. Chlorophyll meter-and leaf color chart-based nitrogen management for rice and wheat in Northwestern India. Agron. J. 94:821-829
Skirvin DJ and Fenlon JS. 2001. Plant species modifies the functional response of Phytoseiulus persimilis to Tetranychus urticae: implications for biological control. Bull. Entomol. Res. 91: 61-67
Slansky FJ and Feeny P. 1977. Stabilization of the rate of nitrogen accumulation by larvae of the cabbage butterfly on wild and cultivated food plants. Ecological Monographs. 47:209-228
Slansky FJ and Scriber JM. 1981. The nutritional ecology of immature insects. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 26:183-211
Slansky FJ and Scriber JM. 1985. Food consumption and utilization. Pp. 87-163. In Kerkut GA and Gilbert LI (eds). Comprehensive insect physiology, biochemistry, and pharmacology. Vol. 4. Pergamon, Oxford.
Slansky FJ & Rodriguez JG (eds). 1987. Nutritional Ecology of Insects, Mites, Spiders and related Invertebrates. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. New York.
Slosser JE, Montandon R, Pinchak WE and Rummel DR. 1997. Cotton aphid response to nitrogen fertility in dryland cotton. Southwest Entomol. 22:1-10
Sogawa K. 1970a. Studies on feeding habits of brown planthopper. Ⅰ. Effects of nitrogendeficiency of host plats on insect feeding. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 14:101-106
Sogawa K. 1970b. Studies on feeding habits of brown planthopper. Ⅱ. Honeydew excretion. Jap. J. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 134-139
Sogawa. K. 1982. The rice brown planthopper: Feeding physiology and host plant interactions. Ann Rev. Entomol. 27:49-73
Sogawa K & Cheng CH. 1979. Economic thresholds, nature of damage, and losses caused by the brown planthopper. In Brown planthopper: threat to rice production in Asia. IRRI. pp125-142
Sogawa K 1982 The rice brown planthopper: feeding physiology and host plant interactions. Ann Rew Entomol. 27:49-73
Sogawa, K. 1995. Windborn displacements of the rice planthoppers related to the seasonal weather patterns in Kuyshu district. Bull. Kushu Natl. Agric. Exp. Stn. 28(4): 219-278
Song YH, Ha TK and Chung DY et al 1995 The predatory behavior of green mirid bug Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on brown planthopper eggs in different temperature conditions. Korean J Appl. Entomol. 34:234-242
Song YH and Heong KL. 1997. Changes in searching responses with temperature of Cyrtorhinus lividipennis on the eggs of brown planthopper, Nilaparvata lugens. Res. Popul. Ecol. 39: 201-206.
Southwood TRE, 1973 The insect/plant relationship - an evolutionary perspective. In Emden FV ed, Insect-plant Relationship Symp. R. Entomol. Soc. Lond. No 6, Blackwell, Oxford, 3- 30
Srivastava HS and Singh RP 1999 Nitrogen nutrition and plant growth. Science publishers, Inc., USA
Sta Cruz PC. Simbahan GC and Hill JE. et al. 2001. Pest profiles at varying nutrient input levels. P 431-440. In Peng S and Hardy B (eds.) Rice research for food security and poverty alleviation. IRRI.
Stadler B and Mackauer M. 1996. Influence of plant quality on interactions between the aphid prarasitoid Ephedrus californicus and its host, Acyrthosiphon pisum. The Canadian Entomologist. 128:27-39
Stamp NE. 2001. Effects of prey quality and quantity on predator wasps. Ecological Entomology. 26:292-301
Stiling P and Rossi AM. 1996. Complex effects of genotype and environment on insect herbivores and their enemies. Ecology. 77(7): 2212-2218
Stiling P and Rossi AM. 1997. Experimental manipulations of top-down and bottom-up factors in a tritropic system. Ecology. 78(5): 1602-1606.
Sudoi V, Khaemba BM and Wanjala FME. 2001. Nitrogen fertilization and yield losses of tea to red crevice mite in the eastern Highlands of Kenya. Interl. J. Pest Management. 47:207-210
Swaminathan K, Saroja R and Raju N. 1985. Influence of source and level of nitrogen application on pest incidence. IRRN. 10(1): 24
Symondson WOC, Sunderland KD and Greenstone MH. 2002. Can generalist predators be effective biocontrol agents? Annu. Rev. Entomol. 47: 561-594.
Tan WJ and Guo YY. 1996. Effects of host plants on susceptibility to deltamethrin and detoxication enzymes of Heliothis armigera. J. Econ. Entomol. 89:11-14
Toft S and Wise DH, 1999 behavioral and ecophysiological responses of a generalist pregator to single- and mixed- species diets of different quality. Oecologia, 119:198-207
Toriyama K. 2002. Estimation of fertilizer nitrogen requirement for average rice yield in Japanese paddy field. Soil Sci. Nutri.. 48:293-300
Uhm KB, Hyun JS and Choi KM. 1985. Effects of the different levels of nitrogen fertilizer and planting space on the population growth of the brown planthopper. Research report. RDA (P.M & U). 27(2): 79-85 (in Korean with English summary)
Van Emden HF. 1996. Studies on the relations of insect and host plant. Ⅲ A comparison of the reproduction of Brevicoryne brassicae and Myzus persicae on Brussels sprout plants supplied with different rates of nitrogen and potassium. Entomol. Exp. Appl. 79:444-460
Van Emden HF and Bashford MA. 1969. A comparison of the reproduction of Brevicoryne brassicae and Myzus persicae in relation to soluble nitrogen concentration and leaf age in the brussels sprout plant. Entomol. Exp. & Appl. 12:351-364.
Velayutham B. 1994. Nitrogen and rice pests. In Thiyagarajan and Ranganathan (ed.), Towards optimum nitrogen management for irrigated rice. P 92-98. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University.
Vien TN and Heong KL. 1993. Parasitism of brown planthopper and green leafhopper eggs by Anagrus flaveolus Waterhouse. IRRN. 18(4): 32
Vince SW, Valiela I and Teal JM. 1981. An experimental study of structure of herbivorous insect communities in a salt marsh. Ecology. 62(6): 1662-1678
Vitousek PM, Abet JD and Likens GE et al. 1997. Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences. Ecological Applications. 7:737-750
Vos, JGM and Frinking TF. 1997. Nitrogen fertilization as a component of integrated pest management of hot pepper under tropic lowland conditions. International J. Pest Management. 43: 1-10
Watanabe T, Wada T and Salleh NN. 1992. Parasitic activities of egg parasitoids on the rice planthoppers, Nilaparvata lugens and Sogatella furcifera, in the Muda area, Peninsular Malaysia. Appl. Entomol. Zool. 27:205-211
Walde SJ 1995. How quality of host plant affects a predator-prey interaction in biological control. Ecology. 76(4): 1206-1219.
Way MJ and Heong KL. 1994. The role of biodiversity in the dynamics and management of insect pests of tropic irrigated rice a view. Bull. Entomol. Res. 84: 567-587.
Way MJ and Javier G 2001 Approaches to a relevant understanding of biodiversity for tropical irrigated rice pest management. In Exploiting biodiversity for sustainable pest management (Mew et al eds), p3-14, IRRI
Weseloh RM. 1972. Field response of Gypsy moths and some parasitoids to colored surfaces. Ann. Entomol. Soc. Am. 65(3): 742-746
Weseloh RM. 1986. Host and microhabitant preference of forest parasitic Hymenoptera: inferences from captures on colored sticky panels. Environ. Entomol. 15:64-70
Wheeler GS, Van TK and Center TD. 1998. Herbivore adaptations to a low nutrient food: weed biological control specialist Spodoptera pectinicornis fed the floating aquatic plant Pistia stratiotes. Environ Entomol. 27(3): 993-1000
White TCR. 1984. The abundance of invertebrate herbivores in relation to the availability of nitrogen in stressed food plants. Oecologia. 63:90-105
White TCR. 1993. The inadequate environment: nitrogen and the abundance of animals. Springer, Berlin.
Whitehead DC. 1995. Grassland nitrogen. CAB International, Wallingford.
Wier AT and Boethel DJ. 1995. Feeding, growth, and survival of soybean looper in response to nitrogen fertilization of nonnodulating soybean. Environ. Entomol. 24(2): 326-331.
Wilson MR and Claridge MF 1991 handbook for identification of leaffolder and planthoppers of rice. CAB International, UK
Whitehead LF, Douglas AE. 1993. A metabolic study of Buchnera, the intracellular bacterial symbionts of the pea aphid, Acyrthosiphon pisum. J. Gen. Microbiol. 139:821-26
Wilkinson TL and Douglas AE. 1995. Why aphids lacking symbiotic bacteria have elevated levels of the amino acid glutamine. J. Insect Physiol. 41:921-27
Wu JC, Xu JX and Liu JL et al 2001. Effects of herbicides on rice resistance and on multiplication and feeding of brown planthopper. Intl. J Pest management. 47:153-159
Yang XM, Margolies DC, Zhu KY and Buschman LL. 2001. Host plant-induced changes in detoxification enzymes and susceptibility to pesticides in the Twospotted spider mite. J. Econ. Entomol. 94(2): 381-387
Yasumatsu K, Wongsiri T and Tirawat et al, 1981 The role of chironomidae in the rice ecosystem and the regulation of its population by biotic factors and chemicals. Pp 156-171. in Yasumatasu K (ed) contributions to development of integrated rice pest control in Thailand. Report. Japan International cooperation Agency.
Yein BR and Das GR. 1988. Effect of spacing and nitrogen levels on the incidence of insect pests of rice. Pesticides. 22:37-40
Yu XP, 1995. Impact of non-rice habitats on egg parasitoids and egg predator of plant- and leafhoppers. PhD Thesis, Zhejiang Agricultural University, China and IRRI, Philippines
Zohdy NZM 1976 On the effect of food of Myzus persicae on the hymenopterous parasite Aphelinus asychis. Oecologia, 26:185-191