在沪外商投资企业中的跨文化沟通
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摘要
随着越来越多的外商投资企业在中国经营,这些跨国公司的管理层是否了解本地员工如何处理与其上司之间的跨国冲突和其背后的原因是非常重要的。文献综述显示,虽然在有关人际冲突的文献众多,但是有关中国人的冲突管理风格的研究大部分都基于西方的理论,比如认为回避冲突是因为不在乎维系与冲突对方的关系,显然这正好与中国的文化相反,中国人回避冲突往往是为了给对方面子,保持表面和平。Hwang (1997)认为中国人处理冲突时往往衡量是要保持与对方关系呢还是追求自己的个人目标,而且还要考量对方是圈内人还是圈外人,与自己的地位是相当呢还是比自己地位高,提出了中国人各种情况下典型的12种冲突管理风格,但是据作者所知,他的理论并没有在大陆的跨文化商务环境中进行过测试。本文基于Hwang (1997)的理论,旨在探索在上海的外商投资企业工作的员工在处理与其上司之间的冲突,并且与其他在本地公司工作的员工进行对比。本文分析了八种冲突管理风格—积极合作、妥协、非直接沟通、正面对抗、忍耐、阳奉阴违、给对方面子来保持表面和平,或者一拍两散。
作者向在上海工作的白领人员发出问卷,一共收到210份问卷回复,其中采用了161份有效问卷,包括100位外商投资企业员工和61位其他企业员工,通过SPSS19.0进行了三组T测试对比和一些相关分析。结果表明,积极合作是被试最青睐的处理方式,显示总体来说,在工作场合中大家偏爱更主动和节省时间的解决方式。而且,与业务和工作任务相关的冲突中的行为相比,被试在人事相关的冲突中显得更直接大胆,更容易采取正面冲突的方式,为了保护自己的利益更愿意牺牲人际关系的和谐。调查结果未发现在西方人手下工作的被试和一直在中国人手下工作的被试在同样处理与中国上司的冲突时没有特别显著的区别。然而,这些在西方人手下工作的被试在处理与西方上司和中国上司的冲突时则显示非常明显的区别,被试与西方人发生冲突时更直接大胆,态度测试显示被试认为中国上司更计较面子得失,一旦起了正面冲突较难和解,而西方人则习惯直接的沟通方式,用委婉的方法往往不能达到目的。作者同时发现,随着被试的年龄、工作年限的增长,被试更加愿意尝试与中国上司的正面对抗,但同时也更愿意在与业务和工作任务相关的冲突中忍耐,显示出更强的灵活性。另外,被试与西方人工作时间越长,越愿意尝试正面对抗,而非直接沟通的方式则越来越不受青睐。由于在样本中女性被试的比例比较高,作者因此另外做了一个性别对比测试,测试发现男性和女性在绝大部分冲突管理风格上没有显著区别,唯一有区别的是在业务和工作任务相关的冲突中,男性比女性更可能采取正面冲突方式。
With more and more FIEs (Foreign Investment Enterprises) operating and growing in China, it is critical that the management teams understand how and why local employees behave in the intercultural conflicts with their superiors. Literature review indicates that studies on Chinese people’s conflict management styles are mostly based on Western theories, which may not apply to Chinese culture. Hwang (1997) generated 12 conflict management styles of Chinese people but these styles have not been tested in an intercultural business context. Based on Hwang’s theories, this research explores whether employees working in FIEs in Shanghai have different conflict management styles when they deal with conflicts with someone from their vertical ingroups -- Western superiors, compared with other employees working in local companies. Altogether eight conflict management styles were measured: collaborating, compromising, indirect communication, endurance, obeying publicly and defying privately, facework and severance.
A questionnaire was sent out to office workers in Shanghai and totally 161 valid responses were used and three pairs of comparisons have been tested through a quantitative analysis by SPSS19.0. The result shows that collaborating is the most preferred option, reflecting an overall preference to a more proactive and time-saving solution in the workplace. Also, subjects are more likely to sacrifice interpersonal harmony in order to protect their personal interests when the conflicts are about personnel related matters compared with business/task related matters. There is no significant difference between subjects working in FIEs with Western superiors and subjects working in local companies with no experience working with Western superiors. By comparing the conflict management style with Western and Chinese superiors of subjects working in FIEs, the result shows a distinct difference in most conflict management styles tested. Subjects are more assertive and direct with their Western superiors than with Chinese supervisors. Another finding of this study is that male and female subjects do not have significant difference in most conflict management styles tested except for confrontation in business/task related conflicts.
作者向在上海工作的白领人员发出问卷,一共收到210份问卷回复,其中采用了161份有效问卷,包括100位外商投资企业员工和61位其他企业员工,通过SPSS19.0进行了三组T测试对比和一些相关分析。结果表明,积极合作是被试最青睐的处理方式,显示总体来说,在工作场合中大家偏爱更主动和节省时间的解决方式。而且,与业务和工作任务相关的冲突中的行为相比,被试在人事相关的冲突中显得更直接大胆,更容易采取正面冲突的方式,为了保护自己的利益更愿意牺牲人际关系的和谐。调查结果未发现在西方人手下工作的被试和一直在中国人手下工作的被试在同样处理与中国上司的冲突时没有特别显著的区别。然而,这些在西方人手下工作的被试在处理与西方上司和中国上司的冲突时则显示非常明显的区别,被试与西方人发生冲突时更直接大胆,态度测试显示被试认为中国上司更计较面子得失,一旦起了正面冲突较难和解,而西方人则习惯直接的沟通方式,用委婉的方法往往不能达到目的。作者同时发现,随着被试的年龄、工作年限的增长,被试更加愿意尝试与中国上司的正面对抗,但同时也更愿意在与业务和工作任务相关的冲突中忍耐,显示出更强的灵活性。另外,被试与西方人工作时间越长,越愿意尝试正面对抗,而非直接沟通的方式则越来越不受青睐。由于在样本中女性被试的比例比较高,作者因此另外做了一个性别对比测试,测试发现男性和女性在绝大部分冲突管理风格上没有显著区别,唯一有区别的是在业务和工作任务相关的冲突中,男性比女性更可能采取正面冲突方式。
With more and more FIEs (Foreign Investment Enterprises) operating and growing in China, it is critical that the management teams understand how and why local employees behave in the intercultural conflicts with their superiors. Literature review indicates that studies on Chinese people’s conflict management styles are mostly based on Western theories, which may not apply to Chinese culture. Hwang (1997) generated 12 conflict management styles of Chinese people but these styles have not been tested in an intercultural business context. Based on Hwang’s theories, this research explores whether employees working in FIEs in Shanghai have different conflict management styles when they deal with conflicts with someone from their vertical ingroups -- Western superiors, compared with other employees working in local companies. Altogether eight conflict management styles were measured: collaborating, compromising, indirect communication, endurance, obeying publicly and defying privately, facework and severance.
A questionnaire was sent out to office workers in Shanghai and totally 161 valid responses were used and three pairs of comparisons have been tested through a quantitative analysis by SPSS19.0. The result shows that collaborating is the most preferred option, reflecting an overall preference to a more proactive and time-saving solution in the workplace. Also, subjects are more likely to sacrifice interpersonal harmony in order to protect their personal interests when the conflicts are about personnel related matters compared with business/task related matters. There is no significant difference between subjects working in FIEs with Western superiors and subjects working in local companies with no experience working with Western superiors. By comparing the conflict management style with Western and Chinese superiors of subjects working in FIEs, the result shows a distinct difference in most conflict management styles tested. Subjects are more assertive and direct with their Western superiors than with Chinese supervisors. Another finding of this study is that male and female subjects do not have significant difference in most conflict management styles tested except for confrontation in business/task related conflicts.
引文
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Canary, D.J. & Cupach, W.R. (1988). Relational and episodic characteristics associated with conflict tactics. Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 5, 305-325.
Carl, D., Gupta, V., & Javidan, M.(2004). Power distance. In R. House, P. Hanages, M. Javidan, P Dorfman, & V. Gupta (Eds.), Culture, leadership, and organizations: The GLOBE study of 62 societies (pp. 513-563). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Chang, H. C. (2002). The concept of yuan and Chinese conflict resolution. In G. M. Chen & R. Ma (Eds.), Chinese conflict management and resolution (pp.19-38). Westport, CT: Ablex.
Chang, H. C., & Holt, G. R. (1991). The concept of yuan and Chinese interpersonal relationships. In S. Ting-Toomey & F. Korzenny (Eds.), Cross cultural interpersonal communication (pp. 28-57). Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Chen, G. M. (2002). The impact of harmony on Chinese conflict management. In G. M. Chen & R. Ma (Eds.), Chinese conflict management and resolution (pp. 3-19). Westport, CT: Ablex.
Chen, G. M., & Chung, J. (1994). The impact of Confucianism on organizational communication. Communication Quarterly, 42, 93-105.
Chen, G. M., Ryan, K., & Chen, C. (1999). The determinants of conflict management among Chinese and Americans. Intercultural Communication Studies, 9, 163-175.
Chen, G. M., & Starosta, W. J. (1997). Chinese conflict management and resolution: Overview and implications. Intercultural Communication Studies, 7, 1-16.
Chuang, R. (2002). An examination of Taoist and Buddhist perspectives on interpersonal conflicts, emotions, and adversities. Intercultural Communication Studies, 11, 23-40.
Cole, M. (1996). Interpersonal conflict communication in Japanese cultural contexts. Unpublished dissertation, Arizona State University, Tempe.
Deutsch, M., & Coleman, P. T. (Eds.). (2000). The handbook of constructive conflict resolution: theory and practice. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Folger, J. P., Poole, M. S., & Stutman, R. K. (1993). Working through conflict: Strategies for relationship, groups, and organizations (2nd ed.) New York: Harper Collins College Publisher.
Gallois, C., Ogay, T., & Giles, H (2005). Communication Accommodation Theory—A look back and a look ahead. In W.B. GudyKunst (Ed.), Theorizing about intercultural communication (pp. 121-148). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Gao, G. (1998). An initial analysis of the effects of face and concern for“other”in Chinese interpersonal communication. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22, 467-482.
Gao, G., & Ting-Toomey, S. (1998). Communicating effectively with the Chinese. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Giles, H., & Johnson, P. (1987). Enthnolinguistic identity theory; A social psychological approach to language maintenance. International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 68, 69-99.
Goffman, E. (1959). The presentation of self in everyday life. Garden City, NY: Anchor Doubleday.
Gudykunst, W. R, & Kim, Y. Y. (2003). Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication (4th ed.): McGraw-Hill.
Gudykunst, W. B., & Kim, Y. Y. (2007). Communication with strangers: An approach to intercultural communication. Shanghai: Shanghai Foreign Language Education Press.
Guerrero, L., Andersen, P., & Afifi, W. (2001). Close encounters: Communicating in relationships. Mountain View, CA: Mayfield.
Hocker, J. L., & Wilmot, W. W. (1978). Interpersonal conflict. Dubuque, IA: William. C. Brown.
Hofstede, G. (1991). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind. London: McGraw-Hill.
Hofstede, G.(2001). Culture's consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions and organizations across nations. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Hu, H.C. (1944) The Chinese concept of“face.”American Anthropologist, 46, 45-64.
Hwang, K. K. (1997-8).“Guanxi and mientze: Conflict resolution in Chinese society.”Intercultural Communication Studies VII, 1, 17-42.
Jameson, D. (2007). Reconceptualizing cultural identity and its role in intercultural business communication. Journal of Business Communication 2007: 44-199
Jia, W. (1997). Facework as a Chinese conflict-preventive mechanism– A cultural/ discourse analysis. In G. M. Chen (Ed.), Conflict management in Chinese, A Special Issue of Intercultural Communication Studies (Vol. VII: 1).
Jehn, K. & Weldon, E. (1997). Managerial attitudes toward conflict: Cross-cultural differences in resolution styles. Journal of International Management, 34: 102-24
Keltner, J.W. (1994). The management of struggle. Cresskill. NJ: Hampton Press.
King, A.Y.C. (1988). Analysis of Renqing in interpersonal relations. In K. Yang (Ed.) Psychology of the Chinese (pp. 319-345), Taipei, Taiwan: Guihuan Press.
Leung, K. (1997). Negotiation and reward allocations across cultures. In P. C. Earley and M. Erez (Eds.), New Perspectives on international industrial and organizational psychology (pp. 640-675). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Leung, K. Harmony and conflict: Resolving disputes and promoting synergistic Relationships between East Asians and Westerners, www.sfu.ca/davidlamcentre /prf_downloads/15mar07.pdf (This website was retrieved in Feb 2011)
Leung, K., Brew, F. P., Zhang, Z. X., & Zhan, Y. (2007). Harmony and conflict: A cross-cultural investigation in China and Australia. Paper submitted for publication.
Leung, K., & Tjosvold, D. W. (Eds.) (1998). Conflict management in Asia Pacific rim. Wiley:Singapore.
Leung, K., Tremain Koch, P., & Lu, L. (2002). A dualistic model of harmony and its implications for conflict management in Asia. Asia Pacific Journal of Management, 19,201-220.
Lustig, M. W. & Koester, J. (2006), Intercultural competence: Interpersonal communication across cultures. London: Pearson Education.
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