基于多源数据的典型地貌形态特征提取方法研究
|
摘要
本文在综述国内外地貌学研究现状和信息提取方法的基础上,以典型地貌形态特征提取为主要研究内容。介绍了地貌形态自动/半自动提取过程中刻画地表形态特征的高程、坡度、坡向、剖面、起伏度、地表切割深度等参数,总结了地貌形态提取的三种方法:1)几何形态与地形环境相结合的地貌类型提取方法;2)专家知识支持的多尺度面向对象的地貌类型提取方法;3)遥感影像与数字高程模型相结合的地貌类型提取方法。然后使用遥感和DEM数据对吉林省靖宇县西南部的龙湾火山群和松花江哈尔滨段的阶地进行了形态特征提取。
在提取火山口的过程中,根据研究区内火山口仅位于熔岩台地上的特点,首先将研究区划分为平原和山地。然后,将生成的坡度与DEM高程数据相乘,这就类似对DEM数据按照地形的高低起伏进行了加权,更能突显火山口在高程数据上的表现。根据火山口“中间低,四周高”的形态特点及在DEM上的表现,建立了火山口识别模板对火山口进行识别。最后还要根据遥感影像对提取的结果进行验证和修改。
对阶地的提取是基于专家知识的面向对象地貌类型提取方法,首先将遥感影像分为水体和陆地两类。然后按照地理相关法提取出三角洲、低河漫滩、高河漫滩、阶地和平原。阶地和平原在遥感影像上表现出较高的相似性,很难进行区分,因此要进一步区分,还要使用DEM数据,对划分出的阶地和平原进行剖分。在形态特征提取的基础上,还要对各个图斑内的最大高程进行分级分类,根据地质数据对地貌的成因、次级成因和物质组成进行判别,从而最终形成能用于地貌制图的地貌数据。
使用遥感和DEM进行地貌形态提取,首先要对研究区进行比较深入的了解,然后总结出提取目标在遥感影像和DEM上的表现,选择能最佳刻画地貌形态的指标进行提取。同时提取的过程中还应该充分利用空间实体的空间展布规律和组合规律,进行分类。对最终的提取结果除了要进行平滑和概括外,还要根据有经验的专家的意见进行修改。
This paper summarizes the progress of geomorphology research and the geomorphological information extraction methods at home and abroad and takes the typical geomorphological feature extraction as its main study contents.This paper introduces the parameters which are used most in the process of automatic / semi-automatic extracting geomorphological features.The parameters include elevation,slope,profile,relief,cutting depth of the surface and etc.Then the paper sums up three methods for extracting geomorphological features:1) Using the combination of geometry and topography for extraction;2) Expert-driven object-oriented geomorphological features extracting;3) Combining the remote sensing and elevation data for extraction.Additionally,the paper takes the extraction of craters in Jingyu County,Jilin province and the extraction of geomorphological features in section of the Songhua River in Harbin as an example.
In the process of extracting craters,according to the characteristics of the study area that the craters are located on the lava platform,the study area is divided into plain and mountain.Then,the slope data is multiplied by the elevation data,which is similar to weight the elevation in accordance with the relief.It is a way to better highlight the craters in the elevation data on the performance.Take into account of the craters' form characteristics- intermediate low,around high-and their performance on the DEM,established a template for craters identification.Finally,the results of the extraction need verification and revision based the remote sensing image.
In this paper,the expert-driven object-oriented method is used for terraces extraction.Firstly,the image in the study is classified into water body and land(not water body).And then in accordance with the relationships among geographical features,the delta,low floodplain,high floodplain,terrace and plain are extracted. Terraces and plains in the remote sensing images showed high similarity,it is difficult to distinguish,for further differentiate,it is necessary to use the DEM data for classifying plains and terraces.When the form feature extraction finished,the next step is classifying the polygons according their largest elevation,according to geological data discriminating the polygons' main causes,secondary causes and.the material composition.Eventually,the geomorphological data for geomorphological are formed.
When extracting geomorphological features form DEM and remote sensing data, first of all,the study area should be understood deeply.Then sum up the extracting targets' performance on DEM and remote sensing data,choosing the best portrait of geomorphic indicators to extract patterns.At the same time,the process of extraction also should make full use of space entities the law of spatial distribution and composition of the law for the classification.In addition,the final results of the extraction not only should be smoothed and generalized,but also be modified in accordance with the views of experts who know well of the study area.
在提取火山口的过程中,根据研究区内火山口仅位于熔岩台地上的特点,首先将研究区划分为平原和山地。然后,将生成的坡度与DEM高程数据相乘,这就类似对DEM数据按照地形的高低起伏进行了加权,更能突显火山口在高程数据上的表现。根据火山口“中间低,四周高”的形态特点及在DEM上的表现,建立了火山口识别模板对火山口进行识别。最后还要根据遥感影像对提取的结果进行验证和修改。
对阶地的提取是基于专家知识的面向对象地貌类型提取方法,首先将遥感影像分为水体和陆地两类。然后按照地理相关法提取出三角洲、低河漫滩、高河漫滩、阶地和平原。阶地和平原在遥感影像上表现出较高的相似性,很难进行区分,因此要进一步区分,还要使用DEM数据,对划分出的阶地和平原进行剖分。在形态特征提取的基础上,还要对各个图斑内的最大高程进行分级分类,根据地质数据对地貌的成因、次级成因和物质组成进行判别,从而最终形成能用于地貌制图的地貌数据。
使用遥感和DEM进行地貌形态提取,首先要对研究区进行比较深入的了解,然后总结出提取目标在遥感影像和DEM上的表现,选择能最佳刻画地貌形态的指标进行提取。同时提取的过程中还应该充分利用空间实体的空间展布规律和组合规律,进行分类。对最终的提取结果除了要进行平滑和概括外,还要根据有经验的专家的意见进行修改。
This paper summarizes the progress of geomorphology research and the geomorphological information extraction methods at home and abroad and takes the typical geomorphological feature extraction as its main study contents.This paper introduces the parameters which are used most in the process of automatic / semi-automatic extracting geomorphological features.The parameters include elevation,slope,profile,relief,cutting depth of the surface and etc.Then the paper sums up three methods for extracting geomorphological features:1) Using the combination of geometry and topography for extraction;2) Expert-driven object-oriented geomorphological features extracting;3) Combining the remote sensing and elevation data for extraction.Additionally,the paper takes the extraction of craters in Jingyu County,Jilin province and the extraction of geomorphological features in section of the Songhua River in Harbin as an example.
In the process of extracting craters,according to the characteristics of the study area that the craters are located on the lava platform,the study area is divided into plain and mountain.Then,the slope data is multiplied by the elevation data,which is similar to weight the elevation in accordance with the relief.It is a way to better highlight the craters in the elevation data on the performance.Take into account of the craters' form characteristics- intermediate low,around high-and their performance on the DEM,established a template for craters identification.Finally,the results of the extraction need verification and revision based the remote sensing image.
In this paper,the expert-driven object-oriented method is used for terraces extraction.Firstly,the image in the study is classified into water body and land(not water body).And then in accordance with the relationships among geographical features,the delta,low floodplain,high floodplain,terrace and plain are extracted. Terraces and plains in the remote sensing images showed high similarity,it is difficult to distinguish,for further differentiate,it is necessary to use the DEM data for classifying plains and terraces.When the form feature extraction finished,the next step is classifying the polygons according their largest elevation,according to geological data discriminating the polygons' main causes,secondary causes and.the material composition.Eventually,the geomorphological data for geomorphological are formed.
When extracting geomorphological features form DEM and remote sensing data, first of all,the study area should be understood deeply.Then sum up the extracting targets' performance on DEM and remote sensing data,choosing the best portrait of geomorphic indicators to extract patterns.At the same time,the process of extraction also should make full use of space entities the law of spatial distribution and composition of the law for the classification.In addition,the final results of the extraction not only should be smoothed and generalized,but also be modified in accordance with the views of experts who know well of the study area.
引文
1.柴宗新.按相对高度划分地貌基本形态的建议.中国地理学会,地貌研究文集,北京:科学出版社,1983:90-97.
2.陈楠,王钦敏,汤国安.自DEM由不同算法提取坡度的对比分析.测绘工程,2006,15(1):6-9.
3.陈述彭.自然区划与制图实践,1962.
4.陈志明.区域地貌的某些分类问题及其制图的分析方法.河南大学学报,1988,1:35-40.
5.陈志明.中国及其毗邻地区地貌图(1:400万).科学出版社,1993.
6.陈志明.论中国地貌图的研制原则、内容与方法-以1:400万全国地貌图为例.地理学报,1993,48(2):105-113.
7.程维明博士后出站报告.中国1:100万地貌-地表覆被-景观生态制图方法研究.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,2006.
8.邓辉,黄润秋.InSAR技术在地形测量和地质灾害研究中的应用.山地学报,2003.21(3):373-377.
9.甘淑,袁希平.澜沧江流域地理信息处理与地貌形态特征分析.云南地理环境研究,2005,4(17):1-5.
10.宫会玲,冉勇康,陈立春.基于DEM的阶地分析方法——以安宁河断裂紫马跨地区为例.地震学报,2008,30(1):339-348.
11.景可.我国地貌学回顾与展望.地貌-环境-发展(2004丹霞山会议文集),中国地理学会地貌与第四纪专业委员会编,2004,12.
12.郎玲玲,程维明等.多尺度DEM提取中国基本地貌类型的对比分析-以福建低山丘陵区为例.地球信息科学,2007,9(6):1-8.
13.李炳元.中国地貌图(1:400万).科学出版社,1994.
14.李钜章.中国地貌形态基本类型数量指标初探.地理学报,1982,37(1):17-26.
15.李钜章.中国地貌基本形态划分的探讨.地理科学,1987,6(2):32-39.
16.刘嘉麒,中国火山.科学出版社,1999.
17.刘玉梓.河南地貌及其遥感制图应用研究.地域研究与开发.1989,8(5):67-20.
18.龙恩,程维明等.基于SRTM-DEM与遥感的长白山基本地貌类型提取方法.山地学报,2007,25(5):557-565.
19.闾国年,钱亚东,陈钟明.基于栅格数字高程模型自动提取黄土地貌沟沿线技术研究.地理科学,1998,18(6):567-573.
20.闾国年,钱亚东,陈钟明.基于栅格数字高程模型提取特征地貌技术研究.地理学报,1998,53(6):562-568.
21.麦显.配合遥感图像分析广西区域地貌特征.广西水利水电(遥感应用),1987(1):47-59.
22.秦承志博士后出站报告.基于栅格DEM的数字地形分析模型与方法研究.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,2006.
23.单新建,宋晓宁等.星载InSAR技术在不同地形地貌区域的DEM提取及其应用评价.科学通报,2001,46(24):2074-2079.
24.沈玉昌.中国地貌的类型与区划问题的商榷.中国第四纪研究,1958,1(1):33-41.
25.沈玉昌.三十年来我国地貌学研究的进展.地理学报,1980,35(1):1-13.
26.沈玉昌,苏时雨,尹泽生.中国地貌分类、区划与制图研究工作的回顾与展望.地理科学,1982,2(2):97-105.
27.斯皮里顿诺大.地貌制图学.北京:地质出版社,1956.
28.汤国安,杨勤科,张勇等.不同比例尺DEM提取地面坡度的精度研究——以在黄土丘陵沟壑区的试验为例.水土保持通报,2001,21(1):53-56.
29.汤国安,杨玮莹,杨昕等.对DEM地形定量因子挖掘中若干问题的探讨.测绘科学,2003,28(1):28-32.
30.汤国安,刘学年,闾国年.数字高程模型及地学分析的原理与方法.北京:科学出版社,2005.
31.汤国安,宋佳.基于DEM坡度图制图中坡度分级方法的比罗研究.水土保持学报,2006,20(2):157-192.
32.涂汉明,刘振东.中国地势起伏度最佳统计单元的求证.湖北大学学报(自然科学版),1990,12(3):265-271.
33.涂汉明,刘振东.中国地势起伏度研究.测绘学报,1991,20(4):311-318.
34.王璟璐.松花江哈尔滨段的阶地研究.地理科学.1993,13(1):87-90.
35.魏富朝,王洪峰.利用LiDAR技术获取大比例尺DEM应用实践.山西建筑,2007,33(19):359-360.
36.许仲路.四川富顺——南溪地区地貌特征与经济开发的1:10万TM图像判读.环境遥感,1994,9(2):129-137.
37.畅景春.中国地貌特征与演化.海洋出版社,1993.
38.杨景春.李有利.地貌学原理.北京大学出版社,2001.
39.杨晓平.基于TM遥感图像的流域地貌研究.科技通报,2003,2(19):150-153.
40.姚智,罗孝桓,况顺达.贵州西部峨眉山玄武岩的遥感影像特征.贵州地质,2004,21(3):156-160.
41.袁国强.桐柏大别山区地貌结构特征及其演化.地域研究与开发,1990,9(7):69-72.
42.曾昭璇.中国的地形.广东科技出版社,1985.
43.詹云军,薛重生.长江荆江河段古决口扇遥感专题分析及成因研究.地质科技情报,2002,21(4):55-59.
44.张永民,周成虎,张肠.图像数据融合的地貌类型识别分类与制图.地球信息科学,2006,2(8):131-136.
45.中国科学院地理研究所,中国1:100万地貌制图规范(征求意见稿),科学出版社,1987.
46.中华人民共和国1:100万数字地貌图制图规范(征求意见稿).中科院地理科学与资源研究所(资源与环境信息系统国家重点实验室),2005.
47.周成虎.地貌学辞典.中国水利水电出版社,2006.
48.周启鸣,刘学军.数字地形分析.北京:科学出版社,2006.
49.Adedirana A.O.,Parcharidisb I.,Poscolieric M.et al.Computer-assisted discrimination of morphological units on north-central Crete(Greece) by applying multivariate statistics to local relief gradients.Geomorphology 2004,58:357-370.
50.B.J.Irvin,S.J.Ventura,B.K.Slater,Fuzzy and isodata classification of landform elements from digital terrain data in Pleasant Valley,Wisconsin,Geoderma,1997(77):137-154.
51.Chaplot V.,Darboux F.,Bourennane H..Accuracy of interpolation techniques for the derivation of digital elevation models in relation to landform types and data density.Geomorphology,2006.77(1-2):126-141.
52.Dikau,R.Derivatives from detailed geoscientific maps using computer methods.Z. Geomorphol.1990.80:45-55.
53.Dikau,R.,Brabb,E.E.,Mark,R.M.,1991.Landform classification of New Mexico by computer.U.S.Department of the Interior.U.S.Geological Survey.Open-file report.
54.Dikau,R.The application of a digital relief model to landform analysis in geomorphology.In:Paper,J.(Ed),Three Dimensional Application in Geographic Information Systems.Taylor & Francis,London,1989.pp.51-57.
55.David R.Montgomery.Predicting landscape-scale erosion rates using digital elevation models.G.Bocco,M.Mendoza,A.Velazquez.Remote sensing and GIS-based regional geomorphological mapping-a tool for land use planning in developing countries,Geomorphology,2001(39):211-219.
56.G.Ch.Miliaresis,D.P.Argialas,Segmentation of physiographic features from the global digital elevation model/GTOPO30,Computers & Geosciences,1999 (25):715-728.
57.G.Ch.Miliaresis,Geomorphometric mapping of Zagros Ranges at regional scale.Computers & Geosciences,2001(27):775-786.
58.G.Ch.Miliaresis,P.Iliopoulou,Clustering of Zagros Ranges from the Globe DEM representation,International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation,2004 (5):17-28.
59.George Ch.Miliaresis,Extraction of bajadas from digital elevation models and satellite imagery,Computers & Geosciences,2001 (27):1157-1167.
60.G.Jordan et al.,Extraction of morphotectonic features from DEMs:Development and applications for study areas in Hungary and NW Greece,International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation,2005.
61.Hossein Saadat,Robert Bonnell.Landform classification from a digital elevation model and satellite imagery.Geomorphology,2008,100:453-464.
62.J.Demek et al.,International Geomorphological Map of Europe (1:2,500,000,Sheet 10),1976.
63.Jochen Schmidt,Allan Hewitt.Fuzzy land element classification from DTMs based on geometry and terrain position.Geoderma,2004,121:243-256.
64.John Gallant,Multiscale Methods in Terrain Analysis,Proceedings of International Symposium on Terrain Analysis and Digital Terrain Modelling,2006,Nanjing.
65.Kanisawa,S.,Yoshida,T.,Yokoyama,R.,Sirasawa,M.,Kikuchi,Y.,Ohguchi,T,2000.Digital maps synthesized from 50m-mesh DEM:(2) Examples of typical geological information.The Joint Meeting of Earth and Planetary Science.
66.Lucian Dragut,Thomas Blaschke.Automated classification of landform elements using object-based image analysis.Geomorphology,2006,81:330-344.
67.M.J.Smith,J.Rose,S.Booth.Geomorphological mapping of glacial and forms from remotely sensed data:An evaluation of the principal data sources and an assessment of their quality.Geomorphology.2005:1-18.
68.M.P.Bishop,John E,Jr.Shroder,J.D.Colby,Remote sensing and geomorphometry for studying relief production in high mountains,Geomorphology,2003,55:345—361.
69.MacMillan R.A,Pettapieceb W.W.,Nolanc and S.C.et al.A generic procedure for automatically segmenting landforms into landform elements using DEMs,heuristic rules and fuzzy logic.Fuzzy Sets and Systems,2000,113(1):81-109.
70.Moore I D,R B Grayson,A R Ladson.Digital terrain modeling:a review of hydrological, geomorphological,and biological applications.Hydrological Processes,1991,5(1):3-30.
71.Oky Dicky Ardiansyah Prima,Ayako Echigo,Ryuzo Yokoyama et.al.Supervised landform classification of Northeast Honshu from DEM-derived thematic maps.Geomorphology,2006.
72.Pennock D J,B J Zebarth,E DeJone.Landform classification and soil distribution in hummocky terrain,Saskatchewan,Canada.Geoderma,1987,40:297-315.
73.Pennock D J,D W Anderson,E DeJone.Landscape changes in indicators of soil quality due to cultivation in Saskatchewan,Canada.Geoderma,1994,64:1～19.
74.Philip T.Giles.Steven E.Franklin.An automated approach to the classification of the slope units using digital data.Geomorphology.1998(21):251～264.
75.R.S.Murthy,S.Pandey,L.R.Hirekerur et al.Feasibility study in using multiband photography for studies in geomorphology,soils and land use.Remote Sensing of Environment,1977,6 (2):139～146.
76.S.van Asselen,A.C.Seijmonsbergen.Expert-driven semi-automated geomorphological mapping for a mountainous area using a laser DTM.Geomorphology,2006.78:309-320.
77.Tachikawa Y,T Takasao,M Shiba.TIN-based topographic modeling and runoff prediction using a basin geomorphic information system.LAHS Pubication,1996:225 232.
78.Wood,J.,1996.The geomorphological characterization of digital elevation models.PhD Thesis,University of Leicester,UK.Web publication available at this URL address:http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/～two/phd/.
2.陈楠,王钦敏,汤国安.自DEM由不同算法提取坡度的对比分析.测绘工程,2006,15(1):6-9.
3.陈述彭.自然区划与制图实践,1962.
4.陈志明.区域地貌的某些分类问题及其制图的分析方法.河南大学学报,1988,1:35-40.
5.陈志明.中国及其毗邻地区地貌图(1:400万).科学出版社,1993.
6.陈志明.论中国地貌图的研制原则、内容与方法-以1:400万全国地貌图为例.地理学报,1993,48(2):105-113.
7.程维明博士后出站报告.中国1:100万地貌-地表覆被-景观生态制图方法研究.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,2006.
8.邓辉,黄润秋.InSAR技术在地形测量和地质灾害研究中的应用.山地学报,2003.21(3):373-377.
9.甘淑,袁希平.澜沧江流域地理信息处理与地貌形态特征分析.云南地理环境研究,2005,4(17):1-5.
10.宫会玲,冉勇康,陈立春.基于DEM的阶地分析方法——以安宁河断裂紫马跨地区为例.地震学报,2008,30(1):339-348.
11.景可.我国地貌学回顾与展望.地貌-环境-发展(2004丹霞山会议文集),中国地理学会地貌与第四纪专业委员会编,2004,12.
12.郎玲玲,程维明等.多尺度DEM提取中国基本地貌类型的对比分析-以福建低山丘陵区为例.地球信息科学,2007,9(6):1-8.
13.李炳元.中国地貌图(1:400万).科学出版社,1994.
14.李钜章.中国地貌形态基本类型数量指标初探.地理学报,1982,37(1):17-26.
15.李钜章.中国地貌基本形态划分的探讨.地理科学,1987,6(2):32-39.
16.刘嘉麒,中国火山.科学出版社,1999.
17.刘玉梓.河南地貌及其遥感制图应用研究.地域研究与开发.1989,8(5):67-20.
18.龙恩,程维明等.基于SRTM-DEM与遥感的长白山基本地貌类型提取方法.山地学报,2007,25(5):557-565.
19.闾国年,钱亚东,陈钟明.基于栅格数字高程模型自动提取黄土地貌沟沿线技术研究.地理科学,1998,18(6):567-573.
20.闾国年,钱亚东,陈钟明.基于栅格数字高程模型提取特征地貌技术研究.地理学报,1998,53(6):562-568.
21.麦显.配合遥感图像分析广西区域地貌特征.广西水利水电(遥感应用),1987(1):47-59.
22.秦承志博士后出站报告.基于栅格DEM的数字地形分析模型与方法研究.中国科学院地理科学与资源研究所,2006.
23.单新建,宋晓宁等.星载InSAR技术在不同地形地貌区域的DEM提取及其应用评价.科学通报,2001,46(24):2074-2079.
24.沈玉昌.中国地貌的类型与区划问题的商榷.中国第四纪研究,1958,1(1):33-41.
25.沈玉昌.三十年来我国地貌学研究的进展.地理学报,1980,35(1):1-13.
26.沈玉昌,苏时雨,尹泽生.中国地貌分类、区划与制图研究工作的回顾与展望.地理科学,1982,2(2):97-105.
27.斯皮里顿诺大.地貌制图学.北京:地质出版社,1956.
28.汤国安,杨勤科,张勇等.不同比例尺DEM提取地面坡度的精度研究——以在黄土丘陵沟壑区的试验为例.水土保持通报,2001,21(1):53-56.
29.汤国安,杨玮莹,杨昕等.对DEM地形定量因子挖掘中若干问题的探讨.测绘科学,2003,28(1):28-32.
30.汤国安,刘学年,闾国年.数字高程模型及地学分析的原理与方法.北京:科学出版社,2005.
31.汤国安,宋佳.基于DEM坡度图制图中坡度分级方法的比罗研究.水土保持学报,2006,20(2):157-192.
32.涂汉明,刘振东.中国地势起伏度最佳统计单元的求证.湖北大学学报(自然科学版),1990,12(3):265-271.
33.涂汉明,刘振东.中国地势起伏度研究.测绘学报,1991,20(4):311-318.
34.王璟璐.松花江哈尔滨段的阶地研究.地理科学.1993,13(1):87-90.
35.魏富朝,王洪峰.利用LiDAR技术获取大比例尺DEM应用实践.山西建筑,2007,33(19):359-360.
36.许仲路.四川富顺——南溪地区地貌特征与经济开发的1:10万TM图像判读.环境遥感,1994,9(2):129-137.
37.畅景春.中国地貌特征与演化.海洋出版社,1993.
38.杨景春.李有利.地貌学原理.北京大学出版社,2001.
39.杨晓平.基于TM遥感图像的流域地貌研究.科技通报,2003,2(19):150-153.
40.姚智,罗孝桓,况顺达.贵州西部峨眉山玄武岩的遥感影像特征.贵州地质,2004,21(3):156-160.
41.袁国强.桐柏大别山区地貌结构特征及其演化.地域研究与开发,1990,9(7):69-72.
42.曾昭璇.中国的地形.广东科技出版社,1985.
43.詹云军,薛重生.长江荆江河段古决口扇遥感专题分析及成因研究.地质科技情报,2002,21(4):55-59.
44.张永民,周成虎,张肠.图像数据融合的地貌类型识别分类与制图.地球信息科学,2006,2(8):131-136.
45.中国科学院地理研究所,中国1:100万地貌制图规范(征求意见稿),科学出版社,1987.
46.中华人民共和国1:100万数字地貌图制图规范(征求意见稿).中科院地理科学与资源研究所(资源与环境信息系统国家重点实验室),2005.
47.周成虎.地貌学辞典.中国水利水电出版社,2006.
48.周启鸣,刘学军.数字地形分析.北京:科学出版社,2006.
49.Adedirana A.O.,Parcharidisb I.,Poscolieric M.et al.Computer-assisted discrimination of morphological units on north-central Crete(Greece) by applying multivariate statistics to local relief gradients.Geomorphology 2004,58:357-370.
50.B.J.Irvin,S.J.Ventura,B.K.Slater,Fuzzy and isodata classification of landform elements from digital terrain data in Pleasant Valley,Wisconsin,Geoderma,1997(77):137-154.
51.Chaplot V.,Darboux F.,Bourennane H..Accuracy of interpolation techniques for the derivation of digital elevation models in relation to landform types and data density.Geomorphology,2006.77(1-2):126-141.
52.Dikau,R.Derivatives from detailed geoscientific maps using computer methods.Z. Geomorphol.1990.80:45-55.
53.Dikau,R.,Brabb,E.E.,Mark,R.M.,1991.Landform classification of New Mexico by computer.U.S.Department of the Interior.U.S.Geological Survey.Open-file report.
54.Dikau,R.The application of a digital relief model to landform analysis in geomorphology.In:Paper,J.(Ed),Three Dimensional Application in Geographic Information Systems.Taylor & Francis,London,1989.pp.51-57.
55.David R.Montgomery.Predicting landscape-scale erosion rates using digital elevation models.G.Bocco,M.Mendoza,A.Velazquez.Remote sensing and GIS-based regional geomorphological mapping-a tool for land use planning in developing countries,Geomorphology,2001(39):211-219.
56.G.Ch.Miliaresis,D.P.Argialas,Segmentation of physiographic features from the global digital elevation model/GTOPO30,Computers & Geosciences,1999 (25):715-728.
57.G.Ch.Miliaresis,Geomorphometric mapping of Zagros Ranges at regional scale.Computers & Geosciences,2001(27):775-786.
58.G.Ch.Miliaresis,P.Iliopoulou,Clustering of Zagros Ranges from the Globe DEM representation,International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation,2004 (5):17-28.
59.George Ch.Miliaresis,Extraction of bajadas from digital elevation models and satellite imagery,Computers & Geosciences,2001 (27):1157-1167.
60.G.Jordan et al.,Extraction of morphotectonic features from DEMs:Development and applications for study areas in Hungary and NW Greece,International Journal of Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation,2005.
61.Hossein Saadat,Robert Bonnell.Landform classification from a digital elevation model and satellite imagery.Geomorphology,2008,100:453-464.
62.J.Demek et al.,International Geomorphological Map of Europe (1:2,500,000,Sheet 10),1976.
63.Jochen Schmidt,Allan Hewitt.Fuzzy land element classification from DTMs based on geometry and terrain position.Geoderma,2004,121:243-256.
64.John Gallant,Multiscale Methods in Terrain Analysis,Proceedings of International Symposium on Terrain Analysis and Digital Terrain Modelling,2006,Nanjing.
65.Kanisawa,S.,Yoshida,T.,Yokoyama,R.,Sirasawa,M.,Kikuchi,Y.,Ohguchi,T,2000.Digital maps synthesized from 50m-mesh DEM:(2) Examples of typical geological information.The Joint Meeting of Earth and Planetary Science.
66.Lucian Dragut,Thomas Blaschke.Automated classification of landform elements using object-based image analysis.Geomorphology,2006,81:330-344.
67.M.J.Smith,J.Rose,S.Booth.Geomorphological mapping of glacial and forms from remotely sensed data:An evaluation of the principal data sources and an assessment of their quality.Geomorphology.2005:1-18.
68.M.P.Bishop,John E,Jr.Shroder,J.D.Colby,Remote sensing and geomorphometry for studying relief production in high mountains,Geomorphology,2003,55:345—361.
69.MacMillan R.A,Pettapieceb W.W.,Nolanc and S.C.et al.A generic procedure for automatically segmenting landforms into landform elements using DEMs,heuristic rules and fuzzy logic.Fuzzy Sets and Systems,2000,113(1):81-109.
70.Moore I D,R B Grayson,A R Ladson.Digital terrain modeling:a review of hydrological, geomorphological,and biological applications.Hydrological Processes,1991,5(1):3-30.
71.Oky Dicky Ardiansyah Prima,Ayako Echigo,Ryuzo Yokoyama et.al.Supervised landform classification of Northeast Honshu from DEM-derived thematic maps.Geomorphology,2006.
72.Pennock D J,B J Zebarth,E DeJone.Landform classification and soil distribution in hummocky terrain,Saskatchewan,Canada.Geoderma,1987,40:297-315.
73.Pennock D J,D W Anderson,E DeJone.Landscape changes in indicators of soil quality due to cultivation in Saskatchewan,Canada.Geoderma,1994,64:1～19.
74.Philip T.Giles.Steven E.Franklin.An automated approach to the classification of the slope units using digital data.Geomorphology.1998(21):251～264.
75.R.S.Murthy,S.Pandey,L.R.Hirekerur et al.Feasibility study in using multiband photography for studies in geomorphology,soils and land use.Remote Sensing of Environment,1977,6 (2):139～146.
76.S.van Asselen,A.C.Seijmonsbergen.Expert-driven semi-automated geomorphological mapping for a mountainous area using a laser DTM.Geomorphology,2006.78:309-320.
77.Tachikawa Y,T Takasao,M Shiba.TIN-based topographic modeling and runoff prediction using a basin geomorphic information system.LAHS Pubication,1996:225 232.
78.Wood,J.,1996.The geomorphological characterization of digital elevation models.PhD Thesis,University of Leicester,UK.Web publication available at this URL address:http://www.soi.city.ac.uk/～two/phd/.