新疆2004～2008年流感监测分析
摘要
目的探讨新疆流感流行规律,便于做好流行性感冒的预防与控制工作。方法通过流感监测系统,对流感进行流行病学、病原学和血清学监测。结果通过对新疆2004～2008年监测资料进行分析,发现新疆4家国家级流感监测哨点医院的呼吸道感染病例占门诊总病例数的4.33%～7.52%。ILI流行高峰主要集中在11月至次年1月。4年中发生23起流感暴发疫情,各年度暴发疫情优势株不同,且2005和2006年的流感暴发疫情漏报率过高。2004～2008年度共分离到230株流感病毒,病毒分离率以2005～2006年度最高(34.1%),2006～2007年度骤然降低(4.7%),各年度流感优势株均不相同。新疆一般人群H1N1、H3N2亚型、B型(Victoria系)和B型(Yamagata系)抗体阳性率分别为82.79%, 86.74%, 57.91%和55.81%。喀什市各型流感抗体阳性率均高于伊宁市,且高年龄组抗体阳性率要高于低年龄组。结论通过流感监测系统发现,新疆流感活动高峰时间为每年冬、春季,各年度流感流行优势株不同。根据流感毒株变化趋势发现每年引起春季流感暴发的流行株会成为当年冬季流感流行的优势株,因此预测2008～2009年度流感流行优势株为A1(H1N1)亚型。人群中A型流感抗体水平均较高并达到人群保护水平,B型流感抗体没有达到保护水平,出现暴发疫情危险依然存在。根据新疆流感监测结果、流感高发季节和疫苗保护期,建议疫苗最佳接种时间为9月～11月。样本的采集质量严重影响病毒分离率,采集合格的样本是病毒分离的基础;同样,由于2005年和2006年流感暴发疫情漏报率过高,导致暴发规模无法准确分析,所以今后的预防控制工作还需要进一步加强。自2003年以来新疆共发生动物禽流感疫情13起,并于2006年发生一起人感染禽流感病毒(H5N1亚型)死亡病例,禽流感病毒是否有可能变为全球大流行株需要密切关注,这些决定了新疆开展流感监测的意义非常重大。
Objective To explore the law of influenza activity for the control and prevention of influenza. Methods Monitor influenza epidemiologically, etiologically, serologically by influenza surveillance system. Results After epidemiological surveillance from2004 to 2008, it was found that 4.33%～7.52% of the total outpatients from 2004～2008 were respiratory infection cases in 4 monitor hospitals in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region by using the surveillance system. According with the popularity in wintertime and springtime of north area, The ILI reached the peak in November and January of the secondary year, There were 23 outbreaks reported during the 4 years, and the missing report rate of outbreaks in 2005～2006 was relevantly high. During the pathogenic surveillance in 2004～2008, 230 strains of influenza viruses were isolated, and the positive rate of the isolated viruses reached the peak in 2005～2006(34.1%), and decreased fiercely in 2006～2007(4.7%). The predominance strain was different in each year. Through the serological surveillance, the positive rates of antibodies against H1N1, H3N2, B (Victoria) and B (Yamagata) in general group were 82.79%, 86.74%, 57.91%, and 55.81% respectively. The positive rates of antibodies in Kashi City was higher than in Yining City, and the positive in the high age groups rate were higher than in the low age groups. Conclusion Through influenza surveillance, it can be predicted accurately that the activity of influenza reached the peak in wintertime and springtime every year. The predominance strain was different in each year, and the outbreaks of predominance strain in springtime would also be popular strain in winter in the same year. Therefore, it can be safely predicted that the popular strain would be the subtype of A1(H1N1).The level of A-type influenza antibodies was high and reached the average level of human population protection, however, the level of B-type influenza antibodies did not reached the average level, so the outbreak of influenza may be possible. According to the Xinjiang influenza surveillance, the law of influenza outbreak and the period of validity of vaccine protection, it can be suggested that the reasonable inoculated time was from September to November. Through the research, it can be found that the sample quality could influence the virus isolation rate, so qualified sample was the basis of virus isolation. Likewise, during the ILI surveillance, the scope of outbreaks in 2005 and 2006 was not estimate because of high missing report rates of influenza. The prevention and control work must be strengthened in the future. From 2003, 13 avian influenza (H5N1) outbreaks were reported in Xinjiang with 1 human avian dead case. Whether the avian flu virus would become a pandemic strain in human has become a matter of global concern. Therefore, influenza surveillance in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is very important.
Objective To explore the law of influenza activity for the control and prevention of influenza. Methods Monitor influenza epidemiologically, etiologically, serologically by influenza surveillance system. Results After epidemiological surveillance from2004 to 2008, it was found that 4.33%～7.52% of the total outpatients from 2004～2008 were respiratory infection cases in 4 monitor hospitals in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region by using the surveillance system. According with the popularity in wintertime and springtime of north area, The ILI reached the peak in November and January of the secondary year, There were 23 outbreaks reported during the 4 years, and the missing report rate of outbreaks in 2005～2006 was relevantly high. During the pathogenic surveillance in 2004～2008, 230 strains of influenza viruses were isolated, and the positive rate of the isolated viruses reached the peak in 2005～2006(34.1%), and decreased fiercely in 2006～2007(4.7%). The predominance strain was different in each year. Through the serological surveillance, the positive rates of antibodies against H1N1, H3N2, B (Victoria) and B (Yamagata) in general group were 82.79%, 86.74%, 57.91%, and 55.81% respectively. The positive rates of antibodies in Kashi City was higher than in Yining City, and the positive in the high age groups rate were higher than in the low age groups. Conclusion Through influenza surveillance, it can be predicted accurately that the activity of influenza reached the peak in wintertime and springtime every year. The predominance strain was different in each year, and the outbreaks of predominance strain in springtime would also be popular strain in winter in the same year. Therefore, it can be safely predicted that the popular strain would be the subtype of A1(H1N1).The level of A-type influenza antibodies was high and reached the average level of human population protection, however, the level of B-type influenza antibodies did not reached the average level, so the outbreak of influenza may be possible. According to the Xinjiang influenza surveillance, the law of influenza outbreak and the period of validity of vaccine protection, it can be suggested that the reasonable inoculated time was from September to November. Through the research, it can be found that the sample quality could influence the virus isolation rate, so qualified sample was the basis of virus isolation. Likewise, during the ILI surveillance, the scope of outbreaks in 2005 and 2006 was not estimate because of high missing report rates of influenza. The prevention and control work must be strengthened in the future. From 2003, 13 avian influenza (H5N1) outbreaks were reported in Xinjiang with 1 human avian dead case. Whether the avian flu virus would become a pandemic strain in human has become a matter of global concern. Therefore, influenza surveillance in Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region is very important.
引文
[1]郭元吉,程小雯.流行性感冒病毒及其实验技术[M].北京:中国三峡出版社,1997,48-49.
[2]甘盂侯主编.禽流感(第二版)[M].北京:北京农业大学出版社,2002,25-27.
[3]黄祯祥.医学病毒学基础及实验技术[M].北京:北京科技出社,1990,670-675.
[4]郭元吉.流行性感冒引起高危人群的超额死亡问题[J].中国结核与呼吸杂志,2002,25(11):643-644.
[5]郭元吉.流行性感冒引起高危人群的超额死亡问题[J].中国结核与呼吸杂志, 2002,25(11):643-644.
[6] Claudia Alvarado dela Barrera and Gustavo Reyes-Teran.Influenza: Forecast for a Pandemic[J].Archives of Medical Research,2005,36:628-636.
[7] Times Online.Bird flu death toll reaches 12 in Asia. Feb 2,2004.[OL].http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article1009480.ece(accessed March 25, 2008).
[8] Wang H,Feng Z,Shu Y,et al. Probable limited person-to-person transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in China.Lancet 2008;published online April 8.DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736 (08)60493-6.
[9] Iita Kongchanagul,Ornpreya Suptawiwat, Pumaree Kanrai,et al. Positive selection at the receptor-binding site of haemagglutinin H5 in viral sequences derived from human tissues.Jen Virol 89 (2008), 1805-1810;DOI:10.1099/vir.0.2008/002469-0.
[10]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报26期(S).2008,26:2-3.
[11]郭元吉.禽流感的十大热点问题[J].科学,2006,1:24-29.
[12]全球可能暴发禽流感疫情.[OL].http://www.funeasy.cn/action-viewnews-itemid -186.
[13]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.禽H9N2亚型流感病毒能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13(2):105-108.
[14]郭元吉,王敏,郭俊峰,等.从我国人群中再次分离到H9N2亚型流感病毒[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2000,14(3):209-212.
[15] Wan H,Sorrell EM,Song H,Hossain MJ,Ramirez-Nieto G,et al. (2008) Replication and Transmission of H9N2 Influenza Viruses in Ferrets: evaluation of pandemic potential. PLoS ONE 3(8):e2923. DOI: 10.1371 /journal. Pone. 0002923.
[16]卫生部应对流感大流行准备计划与应急预案(试行)(S).2005:2-4.
[17] KY Yuen, SSY Wong.Human infection by avian influenza A H5N1 [J].Hong Kong Med J,2005,11:189-199.
[18]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.禽H9N2亚型流感病毒能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13(2):105-108.
[19] Colin A.Russell, Terry C.Jones, Ian G.Barr,et al.The Global Circulation of Seasonal Influenza A (H3N2) Viruses [J]. Science 2008, 320:340-345.
[20]黄建始,任赘静.对禽流感流行及有关传染病应对策略的思考[J].中华预防医学杂志,2004,38(2):125-127.
[21] World Health Organization.Ten things you need to know about epandemic
[22] Influenza [EB]/OL.Published at www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/ pandemic things/en/2005-10-14
[23] Taubenberger J K,Reid A H,Lourens R M,et al. Characterization of the 1918 inflrenza virus polymerase genes.Nature,2005,437:889-893.
[24] Reid A H,Fanning T GM Janczewski T A,et al. Norel oringin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nueleoprotein gene.J Virol,2004,78:12462-12470.
[25] Both GW, Sleigh MJ,Cox NJ,et al.Antigenic drift influenza virus H3.Hemagglutinin from 1968 to1980: Multiple evolutionary pathways and sequential amino acid changes at key antigenicsites [J].Jen Virol,1983, 48:52-60.
[26] Cox NJ. The Proceeding of“The option for the control of influenzaⅡ”.Elsevier Biomedical Press,1993.
[27] Cox NJ, Black RA,Kendal AP,et al. Pathways of evolution of influenza A (HIN1) viruses from 1977-1986 as determined by nucleotide mapping and sequencing studies [J].Jen Virol,1989,70:299-313.
[28]流感样病例暴发疫情报告及调查处理指南(试行)(S).2006:1-2.
[29]中华人民共和国卫生部.流行性感冒诊断标准及处理原则(S).GB2004:11-12.
[30]世界卫生组织( WHO )大流行流感疫苗法规指南.[OL].http//www.nicpbp. org.cn/SHW/nicpbp.nsf/svdocs/562711c41db727ee4825.
[31]张静,杨维中,郭元吉,等.中国2001～2003年流行性感冒流行特征分析[J].中华流行病学杂志,2004,6:461-465.
[32]中国流感样病例监测情况[OL]. http://www.pandemicflu.ac.cn/n3520543 /n3520809/20961.html.
[33] Melanie Besculides, Richard Heffernan, Farzad Mostashari,et al. Evaluation of school absenteeism data for early outbreak detection, New York City.DOI:BMC Public Health,2005,5:105.
[34]李燕婷,陈健,孔利群,等.上海市1999～2003年流行病感冒流行特征分析[J].中国公共卫生,2005,21(1):127-128.
[35]徐翠玲,向妮娟,张烨,等.2004～2005年中国A(H1N1)亚型流感病毒抗原性及基因特性研究[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):27-29.
[36] Ansaldi F,D Agaro P,De FlorentiisD,et al.Molecular character-ization of influenza B viruses circulating in northern Italy during the 2001-2002 epidemic season [J].Med Virol,2003,70(3):463-469.
[37] Wolf YI,Viboud C,Holmes EC, et al. Long intervals of stasis punctuated by bursts of positive selection in the seasonal evolution of influenza A virus [J]. BiolDirect,2006,34(1):1-19.
[38]朱大方,祖荣强,潘浩,等.江苏省2004-2007年流行性感冒监测分析[J].中国公共卫生2008,24(2):232-234.
[39]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报23期(S).2008,23:13-15.
[40] Nobusawa E, Nakajima K. Amino acid substituton of position 226 of the hemagglutinin molecule of influenza (H1N1) virus affects receptor binding activity but not fusion activity. Virology, 1988, 167:8-14.
[41] Isabelle H, Yan L, Michael B,et al. Molecular evlution of influenza A/H3N2 viruses in the provinces of Quebec (Canada) during the 1997-2000 period.Virus Rese, 2001, 77:89-96.
[42]刘传楠,洪浩,陈芬,等.1995-2000武汉市甲1型流感病毒流行概况[J].预防医学情报杂志,2001,17(4):26-41.
[43]赵群,秦明芳,李桂云,等.昆明市2000年一般人群流感抗体水平分析[J].疾病监测,2001,16(5):174-176.
[44]单爱兰,高璐,李琳,等.天津市流感样病例流行强度及危害分析[J].中国公共卫生,2007,23(9):1145-1146.
[45] WHO.Influenza.Weekly Epidemiological Record, 2001, 76(40):309- 316.
[46] Lee SY, Mak HK, Wta SA. The avian flu(H5N1):one year on.Public Health & Epidemiology Bulletin,1999,8(1):1-7.
[47] Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization pratiees (ACIP). Prevention and Control of Influenza[J].Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR),2002,51(RR03):1-3.
[1] Dennis J, Alexander M A review of avian influenza in different bird species [J]. Veterinary Microbiology,2000,(74):3-13.
[2] Nobusawa E, Nakajima K. Amino acid substituton of position 226 of the hemagglutinin molecule of influenza (H1N1) virus affects receptor binding activity but not fusion activity.Virology,1988,167:8-14.
[3] Isabelle H,Yan L,Michael B,et al. Molecular evlution of influenza A/H3N2 viruses in the provinces of Quebec (Canada) during the 1997-2000 period.Virus Rese,2001, 77: 89-96.
[4]徐翠玲,向妮娟,张烨,等.2004～2005年中国A(H1N1)亚型流感病毒抗原性及基因特性研究[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):27-29.
[5]秦爱建,邵红霞,钱辊,等.抗禽流感病毒H5和H9亚型血凝素特异性单克隆抗体的研制及应用[J].中国预防兽医学报,2003,23(5):161-163.
[6] Wolf YI, Viboud C,Holmes EC,et al.Long intervals of stasis punctuated by bursts of positive selection in the seasonal evolution of influenza A virus[J].Biology Direct, 2006,1:34.
[7]王勇,陈淑霞,薛颖,等.H3N2亚型人流行性感冒病毒血凝素的蛋白序列同源性比较、变异规律及结构与功能的分析[J].病毒学报,2002,18(2):118-125.
[8]张欣,倪汉忠,邓爱萍,等.2006年广东省流感病毒流行的分子基础[J].热带医学杂志,2007,7(6):525-528.
[9] Subbarao K,Klimov A,Katz J,et al. Charaeterization lf na avian influenza A(H5N1) virus isolaled from a child with a fhtal respiratory illness.Science,1998,279:393- 396.
[10] Webster R G, Petursso G G, Skimisson K. Conjunctivitis in human beings caused by infouenza A virus of seals.N Engl J Med,1981,304:911.
[11]郭元吉,李建国,程小雯,等.禽H9N2亚型能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13:105-108.
[12]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报26期(S).2008,26:2-3.
[13] Taubenberger J K,Reid A H, Lourens R M,et al. Characterization of the 1918 inflrenza virus polymerase genes.Nature,2005,437:889-893.
[14] Reid A H,Fanning T GM Janczewski T A,et al. Norel oringin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nueleoprotein gene.J Virol,2004,78:12462-12470.
[15] Hua Wang,Zijian Feng,Yuelong Shu,et al.bable limited person-to-person transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in China, [J]. Lancet.2008 Apr 26;371(9622):1392-4.
[16] Times Online. Bird flu death toll reaches 12 in Asia.Feb 2,2004 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article1009480. Ece (accessed March 25, 2008).
[17] lita Kongchanagul,Ornpreya Suptawiwat,Pumaree Kanrai,et al.Positive selection at the receptor-binding site of haemagglutinin H5 in viral sequences derived from human tissues.J en Virol 89 (2008),1805-1810;DOI 10.1099/vir.0.2008/002469-0.
[18] Wan H, Sorrell EM, Song H, Hossain MJ, Ramirez-Nieto G, et al.(2008) Replication and Transmission of H9N2 Influenza Viruses in Ferrets: Evaluation of Pandemic Potential. PLoS ONE 3(8):e2923.doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0002923.
[19]吕常荣,温家洪,尹占娥,等.全球高致病性禽流感灾害的时空变异[J].灾害学,2007,27(2);25-30.
[20] Stubbs E L.Fowl Dlague. In: Biester HE and Schwarte LH,eds. 5th ed,Iowa State Univ.Press, Ames,1965:913-822.
[21]郭元吉.高致病性禽(H5N1)流感研究进展[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):90-93.
[22] Van R A, Hinshaw VS. Micro neuraminidase inhibition assay for classification of influenza A virus neuraminidases [M].Avian Dis,1983,27(3):745-750.
[23]李海燕,辛晓光,田国斌,等.间接酶联免疫吸附试验检测禽流感抗体的最佳工作时间条件[J].中国禽传染病,1998,20(4):223-235.
[24]赵增连,林祥海,崔向东,等.聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳法在禽流感病诊断中的应用[J].中国进出境动植检,1998,4:33-34.
[25]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.单扩溶血技术在禽H5N1流感诊断中的应用[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):3-7.
[26]李海燕,于康震,辛晓光,等.禽流感病毒重组核酸蛋白ELISA诊断技术的研究[J].中国预防兽医学报,2000,22(3):321-325.
[27]黄庚明,辛朝安.PCR制备地高辛标记的探针检测禽流感病毒核酸[J]中国兽医杂志,2001,37(12):3-7.
[28] Li J,Chen S,Evan SD.H1Typing and subtyping influenza virus using DNA microarrays and multiplex reverse transcriptase PCR [J] J Clin Microbio, 2001, 39 (2):696-7041.
[29] Ehles M, Moller M, Marangon S, et al. The use of geographic information system (GIS) in the frame of the contingency plan implemented during the 1999-2001 avian influenza (AI) epidemic in Italy [J].Avian Dis, 2003, 47:1010-1014.
[30]方立群,曹春香.地理信息系统应用于中国大陆高致病性禽流感的空间分布及环境因素分析[J].中华流行病学杂志,2005,11:839-842.
[31]王建华,郭跃,杨华.基于Arc GIS的禽流感疫情监测信息系统设计与建立[J].重庆师范大学学报(自然科学版),2007,1:46-49.
[32]王靖飞,崔尚金,刘文斌,等.应用地理信息系统(GIS)进行疫病控制及流行病学研究[J].畜牧兽医科技信息,2003,10:4-7.
[33]孙根年,杨欢欢.基于Internet与GIS的全球禽流感时空动态分析[J].地理与地理信息科学,2006,6:24-28.
[34]罗扬珩,向昆,等.应用灰色预警技术分析禽流感流行趋势[J].中国公共卫生管理,2007,23(4):368-370.
[35] Euro Surveill.2007 Jul 1:12(7):5-6.
[2]甘盂侯主编.禽流感(第二版)[M].北京:北京农业大学出版社,2002,25-27.
[3]黄祯祥.医学病毒学基础及实验技术[M].北京:北京科技出社,1990,670-675.
[4]郭元吉.流行性感冒引起高危人群的超额死亡问题[J].中国结核与呼吸杂志,2002,25(11):643-644.
[5]郭元吉.流行性感冒引起高危人群的超额死亡问题[J].中国结核与呼吸杂志, 2002,25(11):643-644.
[6] Claudia Alvarado dela Barrera and Gustavo Reyes-Teran.Influenza: Forecast for a Pandemic[J].Archives of Medical Research,2005,36:628-636.
[7] Times Online.Bird flu death toll reaches 12 in Asia. Feb 2,2004.[OL].http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article1009480.ece(accessed March 25, 2008).
[8] Wang H,Feng Z,Shu Y,et al. Probable limited person-to-person transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in China.Lancet 2008;published online April 8.DOI:10.1016/S0140-6736 (08)60493-6.
[9] Iita Kongchanagul,Ornpreya Suptawiwat, Pumaree Kanrai,et al. Positive selection at the receptor-binding site of haemagglutinin H5 in viral sequences derived from human tissues.Jen Virol 89 (2008), 1805-1810;DOI:10.1099/vir.0.2008/002469-0.
[10]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报26期(S).2008,26:2-3.
[11]郭元吉.禽流感的十大热点问题[J].科学,2006,1:24-29.
[12]全球可能暴发禽流感疫情.[OL].http://www.funeasy.cn/action-viewnews-itemid -186.
[13]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.禽H9N2亚型流感病毒能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13(2):105-108.
[14]郭元吉,王敏,郭俊峰,等.从我国人群中再次分离到H9N2亚型流感病毒[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2000,14(3):209-212.
[15] Wan H,Sorrell EM,Song H,Hossain MJ,Ramirez-Nieto G,et al. (2008) Replication and Transmission of H9N2 Influenza Viruses in Ferrets: evaluation of pandemic potential. PLoS ONE 3(8):e2923. DOI: 10.1371 /journal. Pone. 0002923.
[16]卫生部应对流感大流行准备计划与应急预案(试行)(S).2005:2-4.
[17] KY Yuen, SSY Wong.Human infection by avian influenza A H5N1 [J].Hong Kong Med J,2005,11:189-199.
[18]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.禽H9N2亚型流感病毒能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13(2):105-108.
[19] Colin A.Russell, Terry C.Jones, Ian G.Barr,et al.The Global Circulation of Seasonal Influenza A (H3N2) Viruses [J]. Science 2008, 320:340-345.
[20]黄建始,任赘静.对禽流感流行及有关传染病应对策略的思考[J].中华预防医学杂志,2004,38(2):125-127.
[21] World Health Organization.Ten things you need to know about epandemic
[22] Influenza [EB]/OL.Published at www.who.int/csr/disease/influenza/ pandemic things/en/2005-10-14
[23] Taubenberger J K,Reid A H,Lourens R M,et al. Characterization of the 1918 inflrenza virus polymerase genes.Nature,2005,437:889-893.
[24] Reid A H,Fanning T GM Janczewski T A,et al. Norel oringin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nueleoprotein gene.J Virol,2004,78:12462-12470.
[25] Both GW, Sleigh MJ,Cox NJ,et al.Antigenic drift influenza virus H3.Hemagglutinin from 1968 to1980: Multiple evolutionary pathways and sequential amino acid changes at key antigenicsites [J].Jen Virol,1983, 48:52-60.
[26] Cox NJ. The Proceeding of“The option for the control of influenzaⅡ”.Elsevier Biomedical Press,1993.
[27] Cox NJ, Black RA,Kendal AP,et al. Pathways of evolution of influenza A (HIN1) viruses from 1977-1986 as determined by nucleotide mapping and sequencing studies [J].Jen Virol,1989,70:299-313.
[28]流感样病例暴发疫情报告及调查处理指南(试行)(S).2006:1-2.
[29]中华人民共和国卫生部.流行性感冒诊断标准及处理原则(S).GB2004:11-12.
[30]世界卫生组织( WHO )大流行流感疫苗法规指南.[OL].http//www.nicpbp. org.cn/SHW/nicpbp.nsf/svdocs/562711c41db727ee4825.
[31]张静,杨维中,郭元吉,等.中国2001～2003年流行性感冒流行特征分析[J].中华流行病学杂志,2004,6:461-465.
[32]中国流感样病例监测情况[OL]. http://www.pandemicflu.ac.cn/n3520543 /n3520809/20961.html.
[33] Melanie Besculides, Richard Heffernan, Farzad Mostashari,et al. Evaluation of school absenteeism data for early outbreak detection, New York City.DOI:BMC Public Health,2005,5:105.
[34]李燕婷,陈健,孔利群,等.上海市1999～2003年流行病感冒流行特征分析[J].中国公共卫生,2005,21(1):127-128.
[35]徐翠玲,向妮娟,张烨,等.2004～2005年中国A(H1N1)亚型流感病毒抗原性及基因特性研究[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):27-29.
[36] Ansaldi F,D Agaro P,De FlorentiisD,et al.Molecular character-ization of influenza B viruses circulating in northern Italy during the 2001-2002 epidemic season [J].Med Virol,2003,70(3):463-469.
[37] Wolf YI,Viboud C,Holmes EC, et al. Long intervals of stasis punctuated by bursts of positive selection in the seasonal evolution of influenza A virus [J]. BiolDirect,2006,34(1):1-19.
[38]朱大方,祖荣强,潘浩,等.江苏省2004-2007年流行性感冒监测分析[J].中国公共卫生2008,24(2):232-234.
[39]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报23期(S).2008,23:13-15.
[40] Nobusawa E, Nakajima K. Amino acid substituton of position 226 of the hemagglutinin molecule of influenza (H1N1) virus affects receptor binding activity but not fusion activity. Virology, 1988, 167:8-14.
[41] Isabelle H, Yan L, Michael B,et al. Molecular evlution of influenza A/H3N2 viruses in the provinces of Quebec (Canada) during the 1997-2000 period.Virus Rese, 2001, 77:89-96.
[42]刘传楠,洪浩,陈芬,等.1995-2000武汉市甲1型流感病毒流行概况[J].预防医学情报杂志,2001,17(4):26-41.
[43]赵群,秦明芳,李桂云,等.昆明市2000年一般人群流感抗体水平分析[J].疾病监测,2001,16(5):174-176.
[44]单爱兰,高璐,李琳,等.天津市流感样病例流行强度及危害分析[J].中国公共卫生,2007,23(9):1145-1146.
[45] WHO.Influenza.Weekly Epidemiological Record, 2001, 76(40):309- 316.
[46] Lee SY, Mak HK, Wta SA. The avian flu(H5N1):one year on.Public Health & Epidemiology Bulletin,1999,8(1):1-7.
[47] Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization pratiees (ACIP). Prevention and Control of Influenza[J].Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report (MMWR),2002,51(RR03):1-3.
[1] Dennis J, Alexander M A review of avian influenza in different bird species [J]. Veterinary Microbiology,2000,(74):3-13.
[2] Nobusawa E, Nakajima K. Amino acid substituton of position 226 of the hemagglutinin molecule of influenza (H1N1) virus affects receptor binding activity but not fusion activity.Virology,1988,167:8-14.
[3] Isabelle H,Yan L,Michael B,et al. Molecular evlution of influenza A/H3N2 viruses in the provinces of Quebec (Canada) during the 1997-2000 period.Virus Rese,2001, 77: 89-96.
[4]徐翠玲,向妮娟,张烨,等.2004～2005年中国A(H1N1)亚型流感病毒抗原性及基因特性研究[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):27-29.
[5]秦爱建,邵红霞,钱辊,等.抗禽流感病毒H5和H9亚型血凝素特异性单克隆抗体的研制及应用[J].中国预防兽医学报,2003,23(5):161-163.
[6] Wolf YI, Viboud C,Holmes EC,et al.Long intervals of stasis punctuated by bursts of positive selection in the seasonal evolution of influenza A virus[J].Biology Direct, 2006,1:34.
[7]王勇,陈淑霞,薛颖,等.H3N2亚型人流行性感冒病毒血凝素的蛋白序列同源性比较、变异规律及结构与功能的分析[J].病毒学报,2002,18(2):118-125.
[8]张欣,倪汉忠,邓爱萍,等.2006年广东省流感病毒流行的分子基础[J].热带医学杂志,2007,7(6):525-528.
[9] Subbarao K,Klimov A,Katz J,et al. Charaeterization lf na avian influenza A(H5N1) virus isolaled from a child with a fhtal respiratory illness.Science,1998,279:393- 396.
[10] Webster R G, Petursso G G, Skimisson K. Conjunctivitis in human beings caused by infouenza A virus of seals.N Engl J Med,1981,304:911.
[11]郭元吉,李建国,程小雯,等.禽H9N2亚型能感染人的发现[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,1999,13:105-108.
[12]全国人禽流感和流感监测与防治工作简报26期(S).2008,26:2-3.
[13] Taubenberger J K,Reid A H, Lourens R M,et al. Characterization of the 1918 inflrenza virus polymerase genes.Nature,2005,437:889-893.
[14] Reid A H,Fanning T GM Janczewski T A,et al. Norel oringin of the 1918 pandemic influenza virus nueleoprotein gene.J Virol,2004,78:12462-12470.
[15] Hua Wang,Zijian Feng,Yuelong Shu,et al.bable limited person-to-person transmission of highly pathogenic avian influenza A (H5N1) virus in China, [J]. Lancet.2008 Apr 26;371(9622):1392-4.
[16] Times Online. Bird flu death toll reaches 12 in Asia.Feb 2,2004 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/health/article1009480. Ece (accessed March 25, 2008).
[17] lita Kongchanagul,Ornpreya Suptawiwat,Pumaree Kanrai,et al.Positive selection at the receptor-binding site of haemagglutinin H5 in viral sequences derived from human tissues.J en Virol 89 (2008),1805-1810;DOI 10.1099/vir.0.2008/002469-0.
[18] Wan H, Sorrell EM, Song H, Hossain MJ, Ramirez-Nieto G, et al.(2008) Replication and Transmission of H9N2 Influenza Viruses in Ferrets: Evaluation of Pandemic Potential. PLoS ONE 3(8):e2923.doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0002923.
[19]吕常荣,温家洪,尹占娥,等.全球高致病性禽流感灾害的时空变异[J].灾害学,2007,27(2);25-30.
[20] Stubbs E L.Fowl Dlague. In: Biester HE and Schwarte LH,eds. 5th ed,Iowa State Univ.Press, Ames,1965:913-822.
[21]郭元吉.高致病性禽(H5N1)流感研究进展[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):90-93.
[22] Van R A, Hinshaw VS. Micro neuraminidase inhibition assay for classification of influenza A virus neuraminidases [M].Avian Dis,1983,27(3):745-750.
[23]李海燕,辛晓光,田国斌,等.间接酶联免疫吸附试验检测禽流感抗体的最佳工作时间条件[J].中国禽传染病,1998,20(4):223-235.
[24]赵增连,林祥海,崔向东,等.聚丙烯酰胺凝胶电泳法在禽流感病诊断中的应用[J].中国进出境动植检,1998,4:33-34.
[25]郭元吉,王敏,张烨,等.单扩溶血技术在禽H5N1流感诊断中的应用[J].中华实验和临床病毒学杂志,2006,20(2):3-7.
[26]李海燕,于康震,辛晓光,等.禽流感病毒重组核酸蛋白ELISA诊断技术的研究[J].中国预防兽医学报,2000,22(3):321-325.
[27]黄庚明,辛朝安.PCR制备地高辛标记的探针检测禽流感病毒核酸[J]中国兽医杂志,2001,37(12):3-7.
[28] Li J,Chen S,Evan SD.H1Typing and subtyping influenza virus using DNA microarrays and multiplex reverse transcriptase PCR [J] J Clin Microbio, 2001, 39 (2):696-7041.
[29] Ehles M, Moller M, Marangon S, et al. The use of geographic information system (GIS) in the frame of the contingency plan implemented during the 1999-2001 avian influenza (AI) epidemic in Italy [J].Avian Dis, 2003, 47:1010-1014.
[30]方立群,曹春香.地理信息系统应用于中国大陆高致病性禽流感的空间分布及环境因素分析[J].中华流行病学杂志,2005,11:839-842.
[31]王建华,郭跃,杨华.基于Arc GIS的禽流感疫情监测信息系统设计与建立[J].重庆师范大学学报(自然科学版),2007,1:46-49.
[32]王靖飞,崔尚金,刘文斌,等.应用地理信息系统(GIS)进行疫病控制及流行病学研究[J].畜牧兽医科技信息,2003,10:4-7.
[33]孙根年,杨欢欢.基于Internet与GIS的全球禽流感时空动态分析[J].地理与地理信息科学,2006,6:24-28.
[34]罗扬珩,向昆,等.应用灰色预警技术分析禽流感流行趋势[J].中国公共卫生管理,2007,23(4):368-370.
[35] Euro Surveill.2007 Jul 1:12(7):5-6.