超级电容器储能应用于分布式发电系统的能量管理及稳定性研究
|
摘要
双电层超级电容器兼具蓄电池能量密度大和电解电容器功率密度大的优点,循环寿命长、储能效率高、充放电速度快、高低温性能好、环境友好,具有卓越的储能潜力。本文以光伏系统为例,研究了超级电容器储能以及超级电容器蓄电池混合储能在分布式发电系统中的应用;并探讨了超级电容器对分布式电力系统小信号稳定性的改善作用。
介绍了太阳能电池及光伏系统的特性,给出了一种基于dP dD的最大功率点跟踪控制策略及其理论依据。介绍了超级电容器工程用等效电路模型,构建了超级电容器储能独立光伏系统,并进行控制环节和能量管理过程设计。仿真及实验表明,超级电容器的充放电效率高达92.5%,所用的MPPT方法具有较好的跟踪速度和精度,系统在光伏发电功率波动和负载功率脉动时,呈现出良好的稳定性。
建立了超级电容器蓄电池直接并联储能的等效模型,针对脉动负载,分析了储能系统的性能改善及其影响因素。对三种混合储能结构进行了理论分析、仿真和实验。在有源式混合储能结构中,采用了一种蓄电池近似恒流放电控制策略,蓄电池只以脉动负载的平均功率输出,放电过程具有明显的优化效果。
提出了将超级电容器蓄电池混合储能应用于光伏等分布式发电系统,以优化蓄电池的充放电过程。将光伏阵列及充电控制器等效为脉动电流源,分析了混合储能的响应。提出了一种无源式混合储能方案,可以较好地优化蓄电池的充放电过程。给出了一种有源式混合储能方案,并提出了一种蓄电池优化充电控制策略。对两种储能结构进行了仿真分析和实验验证。
分析了混合储能的技术经济性。驱动脉动负载时,蓄电池的输出电流峰值远小于负载的脉动电流峰值,可以减少蓄电池组的配置容量,降低安装成本。利用超级电容器的储能能力和并联控制器的变流控制作用,可以减少蓄电池的充放电小循环次数,减小放电深度,延长蓄电池的使用寿命,降低运行成本。
探讨了直流分布式电力系统的小信号稳定性问题。分析了恒功率负载的负阻性以及各种功率模块之间较强的相互作用对系统稳定性的影响。介绍了稳定性的阻抗分析法,包括稳定禁止区域、阻抗规范,以及稳定裕度的测试等。超级电容器的等效源阻抗很小,本文提出,将超级电容器与系统中的直流母线并联,以降低源输出阻抗,使系统环路增益的奈氏曲线远离禁止区域,从而提高稳定性能或带载能力。并以光伏系统的实例分析证实了可行性。
As a promising energy storage element, Electric Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) has thevirtues of both high energy density of battery and high power density of electrolytic capacitor.Moreover, it has long cycle life, high storage efficiency, sound temperature adaptability andenvironmental character. EDLC storage system and EDLC/Battery hybrid storage system andtheir application in Distributed Generation (DG) systems were studied in the paper with stand-alone Photovoltaic (PV) system as an example. Small signal stability improvement of
Distributed Power System (DPS) with EDLC was explored in the paper.The character of solar cell and PV system were introduced. An effective MaximumPower Point Tracking (MPPT) method ( dP dD)and its theoretic basis were presented. Anengineering-oriented simplified equivalent model of EDLC was given and then the equivalentmodel of stand-alone PV system with EDLC as energy storage was set up. The control loopand energy management process were designed. Simulation and experiment results show thatthe charging/discharging cycle efficiency of EDLC is as high as 92.5% and PV array canoperate on the maximum power point quickly and precisely. System is very stable when thegenerating power of PV array or the load power fluctuating.
The equivalent model of directly paralleled EDLC/Battery hybrid was setup and theperformance and its influence factors were analyzed quantificationally with pulsant load as anexample. Three hybrid structures including passive and actively controlled hybrids wereexplored including theoretic analysis, simulation, experiment, and character comparison. As tothe actively controlled hybrid, a method was presented which can make the discharge currentof battery nearly constant and its output power equal to the average power of the pulsant load.
The discharge process of battery is optimized markedly.The idea of EDLC/Battery hybrid as the storage of stand-alone PV system was advancedin the paper to optimize the operating process of battery and then lengthen its lifetime. Theperformance of the hybrid was analyzed quantificationally taking PV array and its chargecontroller as pulsant power supply in an uttermost situation. A passive hybrid structure wasbrought forward originally which can optimize the charge/discharge process of battery. Anactively controlled hybrid structure was also given which can make the energy managementflexible through the control of parallel controller. As to the actively controlled structure,battery can be charged with optimized current under a special method advanced in the paper.
The economic performance of the EDLC/Battery hybrid was analyzed. When drivingpulsant load, the battery capacitance and cost can be reduced greatly since battery just afford
the average power of the load. The charging and discharging cycles can be reduced thanks tothe long cycle life of EDLC and the power converter between EDLC and battery. As a result,the life of battery is prolonged and then the operating cost is lessened.The small signal stability of DC DPS was explored. Two factors influencing systemstability including the negative impedance of constant power converter and the interactionsamong converters were analyzed. The method for checking small signal stability wasintroduced including forbidden region, impedance specification and stability marginmeasurement. The idea was brought forward that the small signal stability of DC DPS can beimproved with EDLC paralleled connected to the DC BUS. Due to the small equivalentimpedance, the output source impedance is reduced and the Nyquist curve of the system loopgain is far from the forbidden area. It was proved proper in a PV system.
介绍了太阳能电池及光伏系统的特性,给出了一种基于dP dD的最大功率点跟踪控制策略及其理论依据。介绍了超级电容器工程用等效电路模型,构建了超级电容器储能独立光伏系统,并进行控制环节和能量管理过程设计。仿真及实验表明,超级电容器的充放电效率高达92.5%,所用的MPPT方法具有较好的跟踪速度和精度,系统在光伏发电功率波动和负载功率脉动时,呈现出良好的稳定性。
建立了超级电容器蓄电池直接并联储能的等效模型,针对脉动负载,分析了储能系统的性能改善及其影响因素。对三种混合储能结构进行了理论分析、仿真和实验。在有源式混合储能结构中,采用了一种蓄电池近似恒流放电控制策略,蓄电池只以脉动负载的平均功率输出,放电过程具有明显的优化效果。
提出了将超级电容器蓄电池混合储能应用于光伏等分布式发电系统,以优化蓄电池的充放电过程。将光伏阵列及充电控制器等效为脉动电流源,分析了混合储能的响应。提出了一种无源式混合储能方案,可以较好地优化蓄电池的充放电过程。给出了一种有源式混合储能方案,并提出了一种蓄电池优化充电控制策略。对两种储能结构进行了仿真分析和实验验证。
分析了混合储能的技术经济性。驱动脉动负载时,蓄电池的输出电流峰值远小于负载的脉动电流峰值,可以减少蓄电池组的配置容量,降低安装成本。利用超级电容器的储能能力和并联控制器的变流控制作用,可以减少蓄电池的充放电小循环次数,减小放电深度,延长蓄电池的使用寿命,降低运行成本。
探讨了直流分布式电力系统的小信号稳定性问题。分析了恒功率负载的负阻性以及各种功率模块之间较强的相互作用对系统稳定性的影响。介绍了稳定性的阻抗分析法,包括稳定禁止区域、阻抗规范,以及稳定裕度的测试等。超级电容器的等效源阻抗很小,本文提出,将超级电容器与系统中的直流母线并联,以降低源输出阻抗,使系统环路增益的奈氏曲线远离禁止区域,从而提高稳定性能或带载能力。并以光伏系统的实例分析证实了可行性。
As a promising energy storage element, Electric Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC) has thevirtues of both high energy density of battery and high power density of electrolytic capacitor.Moreover, it has long cycle life, high storage efficiency, sound temperature adaptability andenvironmental character. EDLC storage system and EDLC/Battery hybrid storage system andtheir application in Distributed Generation (DG) systems were studied in the paper with stand-alone Photovoltaic (PV) system as an example. Small signal stability improvement of
Distributed Power System (DPS) with EDLC was explored in the paper.The character of solar cell and PV system were introduced. An effective MaximumPower Point Tracking (MPPT) method ( dP dD)and its theoretic basis were presented. Anengineering-oriented simplified equivalent model of EDLC was given and then the equivalentmodel of stand-alone PV system with EDLC as energy storage was set up. The control loopand energy management process were designed. Simulation and experiment results show thatthe charging/discharging cycle efficiency of EDLC is as high as 92.5% and PV array canoperate on the maximum power point quickly and precisely. System is very stable when thegenerating power of PV array or the load power fluctuating.
The equivalent model of directly paralleled EDLC/Battery hybrid was setup and theperformance and its influence factors were analyzed quantificationally with pulsant load as anexample. Three hybrid structures including passive and actively controlled hybrids wereexplored including theoretic analysis, simulation, experiment, and character comparison. As tothe actively controlled hybrid, a method was presented which can make the discharge currentof battery nearly constant and its output power equal to the average power of the pulsant load.
The discharge process of battery is optimized markedly.The idea of EDLC/Battery hybrid as the storage of stand-alone PV system was advancedin the paper to optimize the operating process of battery and then lengthen its lifetime. Theperformance of the hybrid was analyzed quantificationally taking PV array and its chargecontroller as pulsant power supply in an uttermost situation. A passive hybrid structure wasbrought forward originally which can optimize the charge/discharge process of battery. Anactively controlled hybrid structure was also given which can make the energy managementflexible through the control of parallel controller. As to the actively controlled structure,battery can be charged with optimized current under a special method advanced in the paper.
The economic performance of the EDLC/Battery hybrid was analyzed. When drivingpulsant load, the battery capacitance and cost can be reduced greatly since battery just afford
the average power of the load. The charging and discharging cycles can be reduced thanks tothe long cycle life of EDLC and the power converter between EDLC and battery. As a result,the life of battery is prolonged and then the operating cost is lessened.The small signal stability of DC DPS was explored. Two factors influencing systemstability including the negative impedance of constant power converter and the interactionsamong converters were analyzed. The method for checking small signal stability wasintroduced including forbidden region, impedance specification and stability marginmeasurement. The idea was brought forward that the small signal stability of DC DPS can beimproved with EDLC paralleled connected to the DC BUS. Due to the small equivalentimpedance, the output source impedance is reduced and the Nyquist curve of the system loopgain is far from the forbidden area. It was proved proper in a PV system.
引文
[1] http://news.xinhuanet.com/misc/2006-03/16/content_4309517.htm.
[2] http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2005-02/28/content_2631209.htm.
[3] 郑健超. 电力前沿技术的现状和前景[J]. 中国电力,1999,32(10):9-14.
[4] 李蓓,李兴源. 分布式发电及其对配电网的影响[J]. 电网技术,2005,9(3):45-49.
[5] 黄琦,陈志刚,黄珂等. 分布式发电及其集成技术[J]. 热力发电,2005(10):7-12.
[6] 王辉,邱毓昌,李汝彪. 分布式发电技术发展概况[J]. 西北电力技术,2005(3):39-41.
[7] Chalmers S M , Anderson P M , Vogt P L. The effect of photovoltaic generation on utility operation[J]. IEEE Trans on Power Apparatus and systems,Mar 1985,104(3):524-530.
[8] Kalaitzakis K C,Vachtsevanos G J. On the control and stability of grid connected photovoltaic sources[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,Dec 1987,2(4):556-562.
[9] 程华,徐政. 分布式发电中的储能技术[J]. 高压电器,6,2003,39(3):53-56.
[10] 程时杰,文劲宇,孙海顺. 储能技术及其在现代电力系统中的应用[J]. 电气应用,2005,24(3):1-8.
[11] 王健,康龙云,曹秉刚. 新能源分布式发电系统的能量互补控制研究[J]. 系统仿真学报,2005,17(6):1438-1444.
[12] Belkhayat M,Cooley R,Witulski A. Large signal stability criteria for distributed systems with constant power loads[J]. Power Electronics Specialists Conference,1995. 26th Annual IEEE,18-22 June 1995,2 :1333-1338.
[13] Karlsson P. DC Distributed Power Systems——Analysis,design and control for a renewable energy system[D]. PH.D. dissertation. Lund University,2002.
[14] 王菊芬,李宣富,杨海平等. 光伏发电系统中影响蓄电池寿命分析[J]. 蓄电池,2002,2:51-54.
[15] 毛贤仙,项文敏,唐征. 太阳能光伏系统用VRLA电池技术性能探讨[J]. 蓄电池,2003,1:22-24.
[16] 刘业东,王长贵. 太阳能光伏电站蓄电池技术要求探讨[J]. 太阳能,2002,5:25-26.
[17] Smith T A,Mars J P,Turner G A. Using Supercapacitors to Improve Battery Performance[C]. IEEE Conference 2002:124-128.
[18] 王长贵,王斯成. 太阳能光伏发电实用技术[M]. 北京:化学工业出版社,2005.
[19] 钟海云,李荐,戴艳阳等. 新型能源器件——超级电容器发展最新动态[J]. 电源技术,Oct 2001,25(5):367-370.
[20] 马仁志,魏秉庆,徐才录等. 应用于超级电容器的碳纳米管电极的几个特点[J]. 清华大学学报(自然科学版),2000,40(8):7-10.
[21] 马仁志,魏秉庆,徐才录等. 基于碳纳米管的超级电容器[J]. 中国科学(E辑),2000,30(2):112-116.
[22] Linzen D,Buller S,Karden E et al. Analysis and evaluation of charge-balancing circuits on performance, reliability, and lifetime of supercapacitor systems[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Sept-Oct 2005,41(5):1135-1141.
[23] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Optimization of double-layer capacitor arrays[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Jan-Feb 2000,36(1):194-198.
[24] Andrew B. Ultracapacitors:Why,How,and Where is the Technology[J]. Journal of Power Sources 91,2000:37-50.
[25] Barker P P. Ultracapacitors for use in power quality and distributed resource applications[C]. Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting IEEE,21-25 July 2002,1:316-320.
[26] 集星科技. 超大容量电容器——用户手册[Z]. 北京集星联合电子科技有限公司,2003.
[27] Cegnar E J,Hess H L,Johnson B K. A purely ultracapacitor energy storage system hybrid electric vehicles utilizing a based DC-DC boost converter[C]. Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition 19th Annual IEEE,2004,2:1160-1164.
[28] 韦文生,梁吉,徐才录等. 碳纳米管超大容量电容器在光伏系统中的应用[J]. 太阳能学报,2002,23(2):223-226.
[29] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Classical equivalent circuit parameters for a double-layer capacitor[J]. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,July 2000,36(3) :829-836.
[30] Khan N,Mariun N,Zaki M et al. Transient analysis of pulsed charging in supercapacitors[C]. TENCON 2000 Proceedings,24-27 Sept 2000,3:193-199.
[31] 中国电池工业协会. 产业资讯[Z]. 2003,5.
[32] 唐西胜,齐智平. 基于超级电容器储能的独立光伏系统研究[J]. 太阳能学报,2006,27(11).
[33] Dougal R A,Liu S,White R E. Power and Life Extension of Battery-Ultracapacitor Hybrids[J]. IEEE Trans on Components and Packaging Technologies,Mar 2002,25(1):120-131.
[34] Gao L,Dougal R A. Liu S. Power Enhancement of an Actively Controlled Battery/Ultracapacitor Hybrid[J]. IEEE Trans on Power Electronics,Jan 2005,20(1):236-243.
[35] Zheng J P,Jow T R,Ding M S. Hybrid power sources for pulsed current applications[J]. IEEE Trans on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,Jan 2001,37(1):288-292.
[36] Zheng C. High pulse power system through engineering battery-capacitor combination[C]. Energy Conversion Engineering Conference and Exhibit,2000,24-28 July 2000,2:752-755.
[37] Holland C E,Weidner J W,Dougal R A et al. Experimental characterization of hybrid power systems under pulse current loads[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2002,109:32-37.
[38] 张宜楠,胡树清,杜志忠. 高比功率符合电源[J]. 电源技术,2002,26(5):341-343.
[39] Palma L,Enjeti P,Howze J W. An Approach to Improve Battery Run-time in Mobile Applications with Supercapacitors[C]. IEEE Conference 2003:918-923.
[40] Gao L,Dougal R A,Liu S. Active Power Sharing in Hybrid Battery/Capacitor Power Sources[C]. IEEE Conference,2003:497-503.
[41] 邓梅根,杨邦朝,胡永达. 基于碳纳米管-聚苯胺纳米复合物的超级电容器研究[J]. 化学学报,2005,63(12):1127-1130.
[42] Emmenegger Ch,Mauron Ph,Sudan P et al. Investigation of electrochemical double-layer (ECDL) capacitors electrodes based on carbon nanotubes and activated carbon materials[J]. Journal of Power Sources 124 (2003):321-329.
[43] http://www.maxwell.com/.
[44] http://www.nesscap.com/.
[45] 国产超级电容器已进入实用化阶段[Z]. 电池工业,第 9 卷第 6 期,12,2004:331.
[46] Nguyen B D. Performance of supercapacitors as energy storage alternatives[D]. PH.D. dissertation. Department of Electrical Engineering California State University,Long Beach,May 2003.
[47] 王晓峰. 用于GSM移动通讯的碳纳米管超级电容器符合电源的研制[J]. 高技术通讯,2005,3:56-59.
[48] 王晓峰,王大志,梁吉等. 双电层电容器及其复合电源系统的研制[J]. 电子学报,2002,8:1100-1103.
[49] 乔治 托马斯,乔治娜 莫尔. 混合式储能系统[P]. 中国专利,CN96197286.6,摩托罗拉公司.
[50] 佐佐木浩. 电源电路和具有该电源电路的通信设备[P]. 中国发明专利,CN200310104582.X,NEC 东金株社会社.
[51] Do Y J,Young H K. Development of ultracapacitor modules for 42-V automotive electrical systems[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2003,114:366-373.
[52] Cegnar E J,Hess H L,Johnson B K. A purely ultracapacitor energy storage system hybrid electric vehicles utilizing a based DC-DC boost converter[C]. Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition,2004. Nineteenth Annual IEEE,2004,2:1160-1164.
[53] Faggioli E , Rena P, Danel V et al. Supercapacitors for the energy management of electric vehicles[J]. Journal of Power Sources 84,1999:261-269.
[54] Dixon J W,Ortuzar M E. Ultracapacitors + DC-DC converters in regenerative braking system[J]. Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine IEEE,Aug 2002,17(8):16-21.
[55] Mellor P H , Schofield N , Howe D. Flywheel and supercapacitor peak power buffer technologies[C]. Electric,Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles,IEE Seminar 11,Apr 2000:8/1 -8/5.
[56] Burke A F,Hardin J E,Dowgiallo E J. Application of ultracapacitors in electric vehicle propulsion systems[J]. Power Sources Symposium, 1990,Proceedings of the 34th International 25-28 June 1990 :328-333.
[57] Pay S,Baghzouz Y. Effectiveness of Battery-Supercapacitor Combination in Electric Vehicles[C]. IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conference,23-26 June 2003,3:6.
[58] Rufer A , Barrade P. A supercapacitor-based energy-storage system for elevators with soft commutated interface[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Sept-Oct 2002,38(5):1151-1159.
[59]Thomas E. Super-capacitor energy storage unit for elevator installations[P]. United States Patent,US6742630B2,June 1,2004,Morristown,NJ(US).
[60] 杉本重幸,香田勋等. 使用大容量双电层电容器的电力储存系统的试制[J]. 日本电气学会论文志B,1997,119(8/9):973-981.
[61] 商淼,张建成,李庚银等. 超级电容器储能系统短时供电控制技术研究[J]. 中国科技论文在线,http://www.paper.edu.cn/.
[62] Ribeiro P F , Johnson B K , Crow M L et al. Energy storage systems for advanced power applications[J]. Proceedings of the IEEE,Dec 2001,89(12):1744-1756.
[63] Casadei D,Grandi G,Rossi C. A supercapacitor-based power conditioning system for power quality improvement and uninterruptible power supply[J]. Industrial Electronics,2002. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Symposium,8-11 July 2002,4:1247-1252.
[64] Nozaki Y,Akiyama K,Kawaguchi H et al. An improved method for controlling an EDLC-battery hybrid stand-alone photovoltaic power system[C]. APEC 2000,2:781-786.
[65] Nozaki Y,Akiyama K,Kurokawa H K et al. Evaluation of an EDLC-Battery Hybrid Stand-alone Photovoltaic Power system[C]. Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,2000. Conference Record of the Twenty-Eighth IEEE,15-22 Sept 2000:1634-1637.
[66] Akiyama K,Nozaki Y,Kudo Y et al. Ni-MH Battery and EDLCs Hybrid Stand-alone Photovoltaic Power system for Digital Access Equipment[C]. Telecommunications Energy Conference,2000. INTELEC. Twenty-second International,10-14 Sept 2000:387-393.
[67] 王国庆,王然. 一种太阳能道钉[P]. 中国专利实用新型,CN03228120.X,上海奥威科技开发有限公司.
[68] Muehl W W. Photovoltaic power without batteries for continuous cathodic protection and an alternate photovoltaic/ultracapacitor combined power source[C]. Photovoltaic Energy Conversion,1994,Conference Record of the Twenty Fourth,IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference 1994,1994 IEEE First World Conference,5-9 Dec 1994,1:1153-1156.
[69] 新山信一郎,中村宏一等. 采用新型电力储能装置ECS的PV-ECS系统的开发[J]. 日本电气学会论文志B,120(2):264-270.
[70] Toshiharu M,Ichiro T,Hisao N. A collaborative operation method between new energy-type dispersed power supply and EDLC[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,Sept 2004,19(3):590-598.
[71] Rahman S,Tam K. A Feasibility Study of Photovoltaic-Fuel Cell Hybrid Energy System[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,1988,3(3):50-55.
[72] Shinohara M,Monai T. A study on autonomous operation of the home power supply system using fuel cell and electric double layer capacitor[J]. 2003:1441-1446.
[73] Jarvis L P,Atwate T B,Cygan P J. Hybrid power sources for Land Warrior scenario[J]. Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine IEEE,Sept 2000,15(9):37-41.
[74] 唐西胜. 野战电台开关电源模块化技术体制研究[D]. 硕士论文. 解放军重庆通信学院,2003.
[75] Halpin S M,Nelms R M,Schatz J E. Characterization of double-layer capacitor application issues for commercial and military applications[C]. 23rd International Conference on IECON 97,9-14 Nov 1997,3 :1074-1079.
[76] Gully J H. Power supply technology for electric guns[J]. IEEE Trans on Magnetics,Jan 1991,27(1):329-334.
[77] 王莹,马富学. 新概念武器原理[M]. 北京:兵器工业出版社,1997.
[78] http://www.edu.cn/20030409/3081933.shtml.
[79] 孟丽囡,陈永真,宁武. 超级电容器串联应用[J]. 辽宁工学院学报,Feb 2005,25(1):1-2.
[80] Barrade P,Pittet S,Rufer A. Energy storage system using series connection of supercapacitors,with an active device for equalizing the voltages[C]. EPFL , Swiss Federal Inst Technol ,Lausanne,Switzerland,2000.
[81] Barrade P , Rufer A. Considerations on the energy efficiency of a supercapacitive tank[C]. MAGLEV 2002 International Conference on Magnetically Levitated Systems and Linear Drives,Lausanne,Switzerland,3-5 Sept 2002.
[82] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Double layer capacitor/DC-DC converter system applied to constant power loads[C]. Energy Conversion Engineering Conference,1996. Proceedings of the 31st Intersociety,11-16 Aug 1996,1:255-259.
[2] http://news.xinhuanet.com/newscenter/2005-02/28/content_2631209.htm.
[3] 郑健超. 电力前沿技术的现状和前景[J]. 中国电力,1999,32(10):9-14.
[4] 李蓓,李兴源. 分布式发电及其对配电网的影响[J]. 电网技术,2005,9(3):45-49.
[5] 黄琦,陈志刚,黄珂等. 分布式发电及其集成技术[J]. 热力发电,2005(10):7-12.
[6] 王辉,邱毓昌,李汝彪. 分布式发电技术发展概况[J]. 西北电力技术,2005(3):39-41.
[7] Chalmers S M , Anderson P M , Vogt P L. The effect of photovoltaic generation on utility operation[J]. IEEE Trans on Power Apparatus and systems,Mar 1985,104(3):524-530.
[8] Kalaitzakis K C,Vachtsevanos G J. On the control and stability of grid connected photovoltaic sources[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,Dec 1987,2(4):556-562.
[9] 程华,徐政. 分布式发电中的储能技术[J]. 高压电器,6,2003,39(3):53-56.
[10] 程时杰,文劲宇,孙海顺. 储能技术及其在现代电力系统中的应用[J]. 电气应用,2005,24(3):1-8.
[11] 王健,康龙云,曹秉刚. 新能源分布式发电系统的能量互补控制研究[J]. 系统仿真学报,2005,17(6):1438-1444.
[12] Belkhayat M,Cooley R,Witulski A. Large signal stability criteria for distributed systems with constant power loads[J]. Power Electronics Specialists Conference,1995. 26th Annual IEEE,18-22 June 1995,2 :1333-1338.
[13] Karlsson P. DC Distributed Power Systems——Analysis,design and control for a renewable energy system[D]. PH.D. dissertation. Lund University,2002.
[14] 王菊芬,李宣富,杨海平等. 光伏发电系统中影响蓄电池寿命分析[J]. 蓄电池,2002,2:51-54.
[15] 毛贤仙,项文敏,唐征. 太阳能光伏系统用VRLA电池技术性能探讨[J]. 蓄电池,2003,1:22-24.
[16] 刘业东,王长贵. 太阳能光伏电站蓄电池技术要求探讨[J]. 太阳能,2002,5:25-26.
[17] Smith T A,Mars J P,Turner G A. Using Supercapacitors to Improve Battery Performance[C]. IEEE Conference 2002:124-128.
[18] 王长贵,王斯成. 太阳能光伏发电实用技术[M]. 北京:化学工业出版社,2005.
[19] 钟海云,李荐,戴艳阳等. 新型能源器件——超级电容器发展最新动态[J]. 电源技术,Oct 2001,25(5):367-370.
[20] 马仁志,魏秉庆,徐才录等. 应用于超级电容器的碳纳米管电极的几个特点[J]. 清华大学学报(自然科学版),2000,40(8):7-10.
[21] 马仁志,魏秉庆,徐才录等. 基于碳纳米管的超级电容器[J]. 中国科学(E辑),2000,30(2):112-116.
[22] Linzen D,Buller S,Karden E et al. Analysis and evaluation of charge-balancing circuits on performance, reliability, and lifetime of supercapacitor systems[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Sept-Oct 2005,41(5):1135-1141.
[23] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Optimization of double-layer capacitor arrays[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Jan-Feb 2000,36(1):194-198.
[24] Andrew B. Ultracapacitors:Why,How,and Where is the Technology[J]. Journal of Power Sources 91,2000:37-50.
[25] Barker P P. Ultracapacitors for use in power quality and distributed resource applications[C]. Power Engineering Society Summer Meeting IEEE,21-25 July 2002,1:316-320.
[26] 集星科技. 超大容量电容器——用户手册[Z]. 北京集星联合电子科技有限公司,2003.
[27] Cegnar E J,Hess H L,Johnson B K. A purely ultracapacitor energy storage system hybrid electric vehicles utilizing a based DC-DC boost converter[C]. Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition 19th Annual IEEE,2004,2:1160-1164.
[28] 韦文生,梁吉,徐才录等. 碳纳米管超大容量电容器在光伏系统中的应用[J]. 太阳能学报,2002,23(2):223-226.
[29] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Classical equivalent circuit parameters for a double-layer capacitor[J]. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,July 2000,36(3) :829-836.
[30] Khan N,Mariun N,Zaki M et al. Transient analysis of pulsed charging in supercapacitors[C]. TENCON 2000 Proceedings,24-27 Sept 2000,3:193-199.
[31] 中国电池工业协会. 产业资讯[Z]. 2003,5.
[32] 唐西胜,齐智平. 基于超级电容器储能的独立光伏系统研究[J]. 太阳能学报,2006,27(11).
[33] Dougal R A,Liu S,White R E. Power and Life Extension of Battery-Ultracapacitor Hybrids[J]. IEEE Trans on Components and Packaging Technologies,Mar 2002,25(1):120-131.
[34] Gao L,Dougal R A. Liu S. Power Enhancement of an Actively Controlled Battery/Ultracapacitor Hybrid[J]. IEEE Trans on Power Electronics,Jan 2005,20(1):236-243.
[35] Zheng J P,Jow T R,Ding M S. Hybrid power sources for pulsed current applications[J]. IEEE Trans on Aerospace and Electronic Systems,Jan 2001,37(1):288-292.
[36] Zheng C. High pulse power system through engineering battery-capacitor combination[C]. Energy Conversion Engineering Conference and Exhibit,2000,24-28 July 2000,2:752-755.
[37] Holland C E,Weidner J W,Dougal R A et al. Experimental characterization of hybrid power systems under pulse current loads[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2002,109:32-37.
[38] 张宜楠,胡树清,杜志忠. 高比功率符合电源[J]. 电源技术,2002,26(5):341-343.
[39] Palma L,Enjeti P,Howze J W. An Approach to Improve Battery Run-time in Mobile Applications with Supercapacitors[C]. IEEE Conference 2003:918-923.
[40] Gao L,Dougal R A,Liu S. Active Power Sharing in Hybrid Battery/Capacitor Power Sources[C]. IEEE Conference,2003:497-503.
[41] 邓梅根,杨邦朝,胡永达. 基于碳纳米管-聚苯胺纳米复合物的超级电容器研究[J]. 化学学报,2005,63(12):1127-1130.
[42] Emmenegger Ch,Mauron Ph,Sudan P et al. Investigation of electrochemical double-layer (ECDL) capacitors electrodes based on carbon nanotubes and activated carbon materials[J]. Journal of Power Sources 124 (2003):321-329.
[43] http://www.maxwell.com/.
[44] http://www.nesscap.com/.
[45] 国产超级电容器已进入实用化阶段[Z]. 电池工业,第 9 卷第 6 期,12,2004:331.
[46] Nguyen B D. Performance of supercapacitors as energy storage alternatives[D]. PH.D. dissertation. Department of Electrical Engineering California State University,Long Beach,May 2003.
[47] 王晓峰. 用于GSM移动通讯的碳纳米管超级电容器符合电源的研制[J]. 高技术通讯,2005,3:56-59.
[48] 王晓峰,王大志,梁吉等. 双电层电容器及其复合电源系统的研制[J]. 电子学报,2002,8:1100-1103.
[49] 乔治 托马斯,乔治娜 莫尔. 混合式储能系统[P]. 中国专利,CN96197286.6,摩托罗拉公司.
[50] 佐佐木浩. 电源电路和具有该电源电路的通信设备[P]. 中国发明专利,CN200310104582.X,NEC 东金株社会社.
[51] Do Y J,Young H K. Development of ultracapacitor modules for 42-V automotive electrical systems[J]. Journal of Power Sources,2003,114:366-373.
[52] Cegnar E J,Hess H L,Johnson B K. A purely ultracapacitor energy storage system hybrid electric vehicles utilizing a based DC-DC boost converter[C]. Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition,2004. Nineteenth Annual IEEE,2004,2:1160-1164.
[53] Faggioli E , Rena P, Danel V et al. Supercapacitors for the energy management of electric vehicles[J]. Journal of Power Sources 84,1999:261-269.
[54] Dixon J W,Ortuzar M E. Ultracapacitors + DC-DC converters in regenerative braking system[J]. Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine IEEE,Aug 2002,17(8):16-21.
[55] Mellor P H , Schofield N , Howe D. Flywheel and supercapacitor peak power buffer technologies[C]. Electric,Hybrid and Fuel Cell Vehicles,IEE Seminar 11,Apr 2000:8/1 -8/5.
[56] Burke A F,Hardin J E,Dowgiallo E J. Application of ultracapacitors in electric vehicle propulsion systems[J]. Power Sources Symposium, 1990,Proceedings of the 34th International 25-28 June 1990 :328-333.
[57] Pay S,Baghzouz Y. Effectiveness of Battery-Supercapacitor Combination in Electric Vehicles[C]. IEEE Bologna Power Tech Conference,23-26 June 2003,3:6.
[58] Rufer A , Barrade P. A supercapacitor-based energy-storage system for elevators with soft commutated interface[J]. IEEE Trans on Industry Applications,Sept-Oct 2002,38(5):1151-1159.
[59]Thomas E. Super-capacitor energy storage unit for elevator installations[P]. United States Patent,US6742630B2,June 1,2004,Morristown,NJ(US).
[60] 杉本重幸,香田勋等. 使用大容量双电层电容器的电力储存系统的试制[J]. 日本电气学会论文志B,1997,119(8/9):973-981.
[61] 商淼,张建成,李庚银等. 超级电容器储能系统短时供电控制技术研究[J]. 中国科技论文在线,http://www.paper.edu.cn/.
[62] Ribeiro P F , Johnson B K , Crow M L et al. Energy storage systems for advanced power applications[J]. Proceedings of the IEEE,Dec 2001,89(12):1744-1756.
[63] Casadei D,Grandi G,Rossi C. A supercapacitor-based power conditioning system for power quality improvement and uninterruptible power supply[J]. Industrial Electronics,2002. Proceedings of the 2002 IEEE International Symposium,8-11 July 2002,4:1247-1252.
[64] Nozaki Y,Akiyama K,Kawaguchi H et al. An improved method for controlling an EDLC-battery hybrid stand-alone photovoltaic power system[C]. APEC 2000,2:781-786.
[65] Nozaki Y,Akiyama K,Kurokawa H K et al. Evaluation of an EDLC-Battery Hybrid Stand-alone Photovoltaic Power system[C]. Photovoltaic Specialists Conference,2000. Conference Record of the Twenty-Eighth IEEE,15-22 Sept 2000:1634-1637.
[66] Akiyama K,Nozaki Y,Kudo Y et al. Ni-MH Battery and EDLCs Hybrid Stand-alone Photovoltaic Power system for Digital Access Equipment[C]. Telecommunications Energy Conference,2000. INTELEC. Twenty-second International,10-14 Sept 2000:387-393.
[67] 王国庆,王然. 一种太阳能道钉[P]. 中国专利实用新型,CN03228120.X,上海奥威科技开发有限公司.
[68] Muehl W W. Photovoltaic power without batteries for continuous cathodic protection and an alternate photovoltaic/ultracapacitor combined power source[C]. Photovoltaic Energy Conversion,1994,Conference Record of the Twenty Fourth,IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference 1994,1994 IEEE First World Conference,5-9 Dec 1994,1:1153-1156.
[69] 新山信一郎,中村宏一等. 采用新型电力储能装置ECS的PV-ECS系统的开发[J]. 日本电气学会论文志B,120(2):264-270.
[70] Toshiharu M,Ichiro T,Hisao N. A collaborative operation method between new energy-type dispersed power supply and EDLC[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,Sept 2004,19(3):590-598.
[71] Rahman S,Tam K. A Feasibility Study of Photovoltaic-Fuel Cell Hybrid Energy System[J]. IEEE Trans on Energy Conversion,1988,3(3):50-55.
[72] Shinohara M,Monai T. A study on autonomous operation of the home power supply system using fuel cell and electric double layer capacitor[J]. 2003:1441-1446.
[73] Jarvis L P,Atwate T B,Cygan P J. Hybrid power sources for Land Warrior scenario[J]. Aerospace and Electronic Systems Magazine IEEE,Sept 2000,15(9):37-41.
[74] 唐西胜. 野战电台开关电源模块化技术体制研究[D]. 硕士论文. 解放军重庆通信学院,2003.
[75] Halpin S M,Nelms R M,Schatz J E. Characterization of double-layer capacitor application issues for commercial and military applications[C]. 23rd International Conference on IECON 97,9-14 Nov 1997,3 :1074-1079.
[76] Gully J H. Power supply technology for electric guns[J]. IEEE Trans on Magnetics,Jan 1991,27(1):329-334.
[77] 王莹,马富学. 新概念武器原理[M]. 北京:兵器工业出版社,1997.
[78] http://www.edu.cn/20030409/3081933.shtml.
[79] 孟丽囡,陈永真,宁武. 超级电容器串联应用[J]. 辽宁工学院学报,Feb 2005,25(1):1-2.
[80] Barrade P,Pittet S,Rufer A. Energy storage system using series connection of supercapacitors,with an active device for equalizing the voltages[C]. EPFL , Swiss Federal Inst Technol ,Lausanne,Switzerland,2000.
[81] Barrade P , Rufer A. Considerations on the energy efficiency of a supercapacitive tank[C]. MAGLEV 2002 International Conference on Magnetically Levitated Systems and Linear Drives,Lausanne,Switzerland,3-5 Sept 2002.
[82] Spyker R L,Nelms R M. Double layer capacitor/DC-DC converter system applied to constant power loads[C]. Energy Conversion Engineering Conference,1996. Proceedings of the 31st Intersociety,11-16 Aug 1996,1:255-259.