超细水雾灭火有效性的模拟实验研究
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摘要
针对电气设备场所的消防系统在消防工程方面有着一定的特殊性。过去,气体灭火系统如哈龙系列、二氧化碳等常被应用于这类场所。然而,气体灭火系统存在一些缺点：密闭空间内,气体灭火系统的误动作会威胁到里面人员的生命安全；在紧急情况下的灭火启动,需要人员疏散,影响启动时间。不少研究人员针对这类场所开展了细水雾灭火有效性的实验研究,但是常规细水雾也存在以下缺陷：难于熄灭小火、难于熄灭障碍物火、对于障碍物火,提高细水雾流量的效果不明显、对电气设备带来水泽危害。常规细水雾的这些局限性与重力引起的较高液滴沉降率有关,液滴沉降将会降低水雾的浓度,尤其是降低远离雾化锥的区域的水雾浓度。因此,需要一种新型的雾化技术,可以产生出具有气体流动特性的超细水雾。前人的研究发现超声雾化可以产生粒径不大于10μm的超细水雾；这种细水雾类似于气体,可以绕过障碍物而没有较大的水雾损失。因此,本文主要研究了超细水雾的灭火有效性,增强超细水雾系统灭火有效性的方法和超细水雾的流动特性。
本文的主要工作和贡献总结如下：
1)超细水雾临界灭火浓度的理论与实验研究：分别基于极限氧气浓度和燃烧极限温度建立了超细水雾临界灭火浓度的预测模型。通过对比分析两个预测模型的预测值,得出了超细水雾的吸热作用较氧气稀释在熄灭火焰方面潜在的效能更高。然后,在修改的杯型燃烧器中开展了超细水雾的灭火实验。同一个工况的实验重复多次以记录灭火时间的平均值和标准差。在临界灭火浓度方面,实验结果与基于极限氧气浓度的预测模型吻合较好,而与基于燃烧极限温度的预测模型不吻合。实验结果与基于燃烧极限温度预测模型不吻合的原因是超细水雾在火焰附近具有不同于气体的流动特性：a)超细水雾在火焰附近完全蒸发,无法进入火焰燃烧的核心区域；b)只有在蒸发的水蒸气在卷吸气流作用下进入火焰,与火焰相互作用。超细水雾的浓度应该高于临界值才能获得较为稳定的灭火时间。然而,没有必要进一步提高超细水雾的浓度,因为再提高浓度却无法显著提高超细水雾的灭火有效性。由于更具潜力的灭火机理无法发挥作用,因此超细水雾的灭火有效性有待提高。合理的增大超细水雾的粒径可以提高超细水雾在火焰周围的存活时间,使得大颗粒水雾可能进入火焰。使用超细水雾添加剂可以在超细水雾完全蒸发后生产子颗粒,子颗粒可以进入在卷吸气流作用下进入火焰燃烧核心区域。
2)含添加剂超细水雾的灭火有效性研究：基于超声雾化液滴粒径分布和液滴在气流中的受力分析,建立了预测超细水雾有效质量分数的模型。该模型表明超细水雾的有效质量分数将随着溶液表面张力的升高而降低,还表明溶液温度的升高将增加超细水雾的有效质量分数。接着,开展了测量超细水雾有效质量流率的实验。实验结果与理论分析较为吻合,实验表明增加金属盐的浓度将降低超细水雾的有效质量流率,添加表面活性剂可以升高超细水雾的有效质量流率。最后,开展了含添加剂超细水雾的灭火实验。灭火实验结果表面升高水温可以提高超细水雾系统的灭火有效性,这与理论分析非常吻合。灭火实验还表明,添加少量金属盐就可以显著提高超细水雾系统的灭火有效性,然而进一步提高添加剂浓度的边际效果却显著降低,这是由于表明张力的升高降低了水雾的流率。基于所需的超声雾化器数量和添加剂在溶液中的质量分数,各添加剂灭火有效性的排序为：K2C2O4> K2CO3>KCl>KHCO3>NaCl>CH3COONa>KH2PO3>Urea.实验发现,尿素会引起火焰的燃烧强化。最后,提出了提高超细水雾灭火有效性的,多组分添加剂方法,即同时添加金属盐和表面活性剂。
3)超细水雾与扩散火焰相互作用的数值模拟研究：FDS中基于氧气浓度的预测火焰熄灭的经验模型不能用于确定灭火结果；由于缺少有效模拟火焰附近颗粒传输和蒸发的模型,缺少有效的火焰熄灭模型。SIMTEC中修改的EDC燃烧模型可以捕捉到火焰的熄灭过程。但是该模型不能预测超细水雾的临界灭火浓度。采用有限速率化学反应模型,考虑详细化学反应机理的基于FLUENT的模拟,可以模拟火焰的熄灭过程,能够较好的预测超细水雾的临界灭火浓度。基于FLUENT的模拟研究发现,超细水雾灭火的主导机理是氧气稀释,这与实验吻合较好。基于FLUENT的模拟研究也发现了NH3和HNCO引起的燃烧强化现象。NH3引起燃烧强化的机理是：a) NH3+H=NH2+H2,b) NH3+O=NH2+OH; HNCO引起燃烧强化的机理是：HNCO+O=NCO+OH, b) HNCO+H=NH2+CO, c) HNCO+OH=NCO+H2O.4)超细水雾在灭火过程中的流动与传输特性研究：采用离散相模型进行数值模拟时并不能反应出超细水雾在动量较低时的输运和流动特性,而采用重气体模型对超细水雾的输运和流动特性进行模拟预测时则可以得到与实验较为吻合的结果。在受限腔室空间中大尺度火灾更容易被熄灭,这是由于大尺度火源本身就能促进超细水雾在受限空间中的流动和输运。然而在隧道空间中则出现了截然不同的结果,此时大尺度火灾由于其会阻止超细水雾从火源的一侧输运到另一侧,因此将更难被熄灭。障碍物对灭火效果的影响取决于其所在的位置。如果障碍物位于火源和细水雾入口之间,他将削弱超细水雾的灭火效果；如果障碍物位于火源相对于超细水雾的下游部位,它将强化超细水雾的灭火效果。
Fire protection for electrical equipment space is a special problem in fire engineering. In the past, Gas fire-extinguishing systems (GFES), such as halons, carbon dioxide, etc. were widely used to protect these kinds of space. However, these systems have some deficiencies:false actuation of GFES in enclosed space may threaten the safety of occupants such as, emergency fire-fighting need evacuation. Many studies focus on the extinguishing efficiency of water mist in these kinds of space. Conventional water mist system has limitations:1) Difficulty to extinguish small fires;2) Difficulty to extinguish shielded or obstructed fires;3) The increases of flow rate of water mist had little, if any, effect on fire extinguishment capabilities of water mist system against shielded or obstructed fires;4) Cause water damage to equipment, particularly in electronics spaces or data center sub-floors. These limitation is mainly associated with high droplets-fallout rates due to gravity that tend to significantly decrease the mist concentration especially in regions away from the nozzle spray patterns. Hence, new atomization technologies which can generate water mist with gas-like transport characteristics are needed. Previous studies discovered that ultra-sonic atomization could generate gas-like water mist (<10μum) which has the ability to transport around obstructions without great loss of water mist. Therefore, the present study focus on the fire-extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist (UFM), the method of improving its fire-extinguishing performance and the flow behaviour of UFM.
The work and contributions of this study can be summarised as follows:
1) On minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist:The minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist was modeled based on limiting oxygen concentration and combustion limit temperature, respectively. By analyzing minimum extinguishing concentration from the two models, it is concluded that heat absorption is a way more potential than oxygen dilution in extinguishing fire for ultra-fine water mist. Fire extinguishment experiment was then carried out in a modified cupburner. Tests using the same scenario were repeated many times to record the average and the standard deviation of extinguishing times. For minimum extinguishing concentration, experimental results agree well with the model based on limiting oxygen concentration, and disagree with the model based on combustion limit temperature, the reason of which is flow behavior of ultra fine water mist:a) Ultra-fine water mist totally evaporate around flame and hardly enter flame core; b) And only water vapor generated near flame followed the entraining flow and interacted with the lame. The mist concentration should be higher than a critical value to be able to extinguish the fire with a stable fire extinguishing time. However, there is no need to a mist concentration over certain quantity because it will not improve the efficiency of fire extinguishing system. Because the more potential mechanism cannot be activated, the fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist need improve. Reasonably increasing droplets size may improve the residence time of ultra-fine water mist in flame. Adding chemical additives can lead to the generation of sub-particles after total evaporation, and the sub-particles may penetrate into flame to improve the performance of ultra-fine water mist.
2) On fire extinguishing performance of ultra fine water mist system:with additives Based on the analysis of droplets size distribution of ultrasonic atomization and the drag force of a droplet in airflow, effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist was modeled. The model indicated that the effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist would decrease with the increase of solution surface tension, and that the increase of water temperature can increase fire extinguishing effectiveness of ultra-fine water mist. A simple test was conducted to measure the change of effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist. Experiment agrees well with the theoretical analysis, which showed that the increase of the concentration of metal salt will decrease the mass of ultra-fine water mist, and that the adding of surfactant can increase the mass of ultra-fine water mist. Fire extinguishment experiment was then carried out. Experiment showed the increase of water temperature can increase fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist system, which agrees with theoretical analysis. The adding a small quantity of certain saline to the ultrafine water mist could significantly improve the fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist system. However, the increase of the fire extinguishing efficiency by the further increase of saline would not so obvious, which result from ultrafine water mist mass was decreased by the increase of surface tension of water solution. Based on the number of ultrasonic atomizer needed, on a mass fraction basis, the following order of effectiveness is:K2C2O4> K2CO3> KCl> KHCO3> NaCl> CH3COONa>KH2PO3> Urea. The adding of urea will lead to combustion enhancement. a multi-component method was proposed to improve the fire-extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist. The method is adding both a type of metal salt and a surfactant.
3) Numerical study on the interaction diffusion flame with ultra-fine water mist: The empirical model for predicting local extinction based on the oxygen concentration in FDS, is unable to determine fire extinguishing in the study. The reasons of that are lack of model for simulating droplets transportation and evaporation around flame, and lack of model for fire extinction. The EDC-modified model in SIMTEC can capture the extinguishment of flame. But the model cannot predict the minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist. Finite-rate model with detailed chemical reaction in FLUENT, can simulate flame extinguishment, and predict the minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist. The primary mechanism of fire extinction in the simulation using FLUENT is oxygen displacement, which agree with experiment. Fire intensification was observed in the simulation using FLUENT. The mechanism of fire intensification by NH3and HNCO is a) NH3+H=NH2+H2, b) NH3+O=NH2+OH; and that the primary mechanism of fire intensification by HNCO is a) HNCO+O=NCO+OH, b) HNCO+H=NH2+CO, c) HNCO+OH=NCo+H2o.
4)CFD simulation and experiment study on flow behavior of ultra-fine water mist: The CFD simulations using DPM cannot simulate the transport and flow behavior of the low momentum UFM. The dense gas model showed a significant improvement in predicting the UFM transportation and flow behavior. Larger size of fire is easier to extinguish in compartment space, which can promote the transportation of UFM in compartment. However, larger size of fire is more difficult to extinguish in tunnel space, which prevent UFM transport to the other side of fire. The effect of obstruction in extinguishing efficiency depends on the location of obstruction. If obstruction was located between fire source and mist source, the obstruction would decrease the extinguishing efficiency of UFM. If obstruction was located behind fire source, the obstruction would improve the extinguishing efficiency of UFM.
本文的主要工作和贡献总结如下：
1)超细水雾临界灭火浓度的理论与实验研究：分别基于极限氧气浓度和燃烧极限温度建立了超细水雾临界灭火浓度的预测模型。通过对比分析两个预测模型的预测值,得出了超细水雾的吸热作用较氧气稀释在熄灭火焰方面潜在的效能更高。然后,在修改的杯型燃烧器中开展了超细水雾的灭火实验。同一个工况的实验重复多次以记录灭火时间的平均值和标准差。在临界灭火浓度方面,实验结果与基于极限氧气浓度的预测模型吻合较好,而与基于燃烧极限温度的预测模型不吻合。实验结果与基于燃烧极限温度预测模型不吻合的原因是超细水雾在火焰附近具有不同于气体的流动特性：a)超细水雾在火焰附近完全蒸发,无法进入火焰燃烧的核心区域；b)只有在蒸发的水蒸气在卷吸气流作用下进入火焰,与火焰相互作用。超细水雾的浓度应该高于临界值才能获得较为稳定的灭火时间。然而,没有必要进一步提高超细水雾的浓度,因为再提高浓度却无法显著提高超细水雾的灭火有效性。由于更具潜力的灭火机理无法发挥作用,因此超细水雾的灭火有效性有待提高。合理的增大超细水雾的粒径可以提高超细水雾在火焰周围的存活时间,使得大颗粒水雾可能进入火焰。使用超细水雾添加剂可以在超细水雾完全蒸发后生产子颗粒,子颗粒可以进入在卷吸气流作用下进入火焰燃烧核心区域。
2)含添加剂超细水雾的灭火有效性研究：基于超声雾化液滴粒径分布和液滴在气流中的受力分析,建立了预测超细水雾有效质量分数的模型。该模型表明超细水雾的有效质量分数将随着溶液表面张力的升高而降低,还表明溶液温度的升高将增加超细水雾的有效质量分数。接着,开展了测量超细水雾有效质量流率的实验。实验结果与理论分析较为吻合,实验表明增加金属盐的浓度将降低超细水雾的有效质量流率,添加表面活性剂可以升高超细水雾的有效质量流率。最后,开展了含添加剂超细水雾的灭火实验。灭火实验结果表面升高水温可以提高超细水雾系统的灭火有效性,这与理论分析非常吻合。灭火实验还表明,添加少量金属盐就可以显著提高超细水雾系统的灭火有效性,然而进一步提高添加剂浓度的边际效果却显著降低,这是由于表明张力的升高降低了水雾的流率。基于所需的超声雾化器数量和添加剂在溶液中的质量分数,各添加剂灭火有效性的排序为：K2C2O4> K2CO3>KCl>KHCO3>NaCl>CH3COONa>KH2PO3>Urea.实验发现,尿素会引起火焰的燃烧强化。最后,提出了提高超细水雾灭火有效性的,多组分添加剂方法,即同时添加金属盐和表面活性剂。
3)超细水雾与扩散火焰相互作用的数值模拟研究：FDS中基于氧气浓度的预测火焰熄灭的经验模型不能用于确定灭火结果；由于缺少有效模拟火焰附近颗粒传输和蒸发的模型,缺少有效的火焰熄灭模型。SIMTEC中修改的EDC燃烧模型可以捕捉到火焰的熄灭过程。但是该模型不能预测超细水雾的临界灭火浓度。采用有限速率化学反应模型,考虑详细化学反应机理的基于FLUENT的模拟,可以模拟火焰的熄灭过程,能够较好的预测超细水雾的临界灭火浓度。基于FLUENT的模拟研究发现,超细水雾灭火的主导机理是氧气稀释,这与实验吻合较好。基于FLUENT的模拟研究也发现了NH3和HNCO引起的燃烧强化现象。NH3引起燃烧强化的机理是：a) NH3+H=NH2+H2,b) NH3+O=NH2+OH; HNCO引起燃烧强化的机理是：HNCO+O=NCO+OH, b) HNCO+H=NH2+CO, c) HNCO+OH=NCO+H2O.4)超细水雾在灭火过程中的流动与传输特性研究：采用离散相模型进行数值模拟时并不能反应出超细水雾在动量较低时的输运和流动特性,而采用重气体模型对超细水雾的输运和流动特性进行模拟预测时则可以得到与实验较为吻合的结果。在受限腔室空间中大尺度火灾更容易被熄灭,这是由于大尺度火源本身就能促进超细水雾在受限空间中的流动和输运。然而在隧道空间中则出现了截然不同的结果,此时大尺度火灾由于其会阻止超细水雾从火源的一侧输运到另一侧,因此将更难被熄灭。障碍物对灭火效果的影响取决于其所在的位置。如果障碍物位于火源和细水雾入口之间,他将削弱超细水雾的灭火效果；如果障碍物位于火源相对于超细水雾的下游部位,它将强化超细水雾的灭火效果。
Fire protection for electrical equipment space is a special problem in fire engineering. In the past, Gas fire-extinguishing systems (GFES), such as halons, carbon dioxide, etc. were widely used to protect these kinds of space. However, these systems have some deficiencies:false actuation of GFES in enclosed space may threaten the safety of occupants such as, emergency fire-fighting need evacuation. Many studies focus on the extinguishing efficiency of water mist in these kinds of space. Conventional water mist system has limitations:1) Difficulty to extinguish small fires;2) Difficulty to extinguish shielded or obstructed fires;3) The increases of flow rate of water mist had little, if any, effect on fire extinguishment capabilities of water mist system against shielded or obstructed fires;4) Cause water damage to equipment, particularly in electronics spaces or data center sub-floors. These limitation is mainly associated with high droplets-fallout rates due to gravity that tend to significantly decrease the mist concentration especially in regions away from the nozzle spray patterns. Hence, new atomization technologies which can generate water mist with gas-like transport characteristics are needed. Previous studies discovered that ultra-sonic atomization could generate gas-like water mist (<10μum) which has the ability to transport around obstructions without great loss of water mist. Therefore, the present study focus on the fire-extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist (UFM), the method of improving its fire-extinguishing performance and the flow behaviour of UFM.
The work and contributions of this study can be summarised as follows:
1) On minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist:The minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist was modeled based on limiting oxygen concentration and combustion limit temperature, respectively. By analyzing minimum extinguishing concentration from the two models, it is concluded that heat absorption is a way more potential than oxygen dilution in extinguishing fire for ultra-fine water mist. Fire extinguishment experiment was then carried out in a modified cupburner. Tests using the same scenario were repeated many times to record the average and the standard deviation of extinguishing times. For minimum extinguishing concentration, experimental results agree well with the model based on limiting oxygen concentration, and disagree with the model based on combustion limit temperature, the reason of which is flow behavior of ultra fine water mist:a) Ultra-fine water mist totally evaporate around flame and hardly enter flame core; b) And only water vapor generated near flame followed the entraining flow and interacted with the lame. The mist concentration should be higher than a critical value to be able to extinguish the fire with a stable fire extinguishing time. However, there is no need to a mist concentration over certain quantity because it will not improve the efficiency of fire extinguishing system. Because the more potential mechanism cannot be activated, the fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist need improve. Reasonably increasing droplets size may improve the residence time of ultra-fine water mist in flame. Adding chemical additives can lead to the generation of sub-particles after total evaporation, and the sub-particles may penetrate into flame to improve the performance of ultra-fine water mist.
2) On fire extinguishing performance of ultra fine water mist system:with additives Based on the analysis of droplets size distribution of ultrasonic atomization and the drag force of a droplet in airflow, effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist was modeled. The model indicated that the effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist would decrease with the increase of solution surface tension, and that the increase of water temperature can increase fire extinguishing effectiveness of ultra-fine water mist. A simple test was conducted to measure the change of effective mass fraction of ultra-fine water mist. Experiment agrees well with the theoretical analysis, which showed that the increase of the concentration of metal salt will decrease the mass of ultra-fine water mist, and that the adding of surfactant can increase the mass of ultra-fine water mist. Fire extinguishment experiment was then carried out. Experiment showed the increase of water temperature can increase fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist system, which agrees with theoretical analysis. The adding a small quantity of certain saline to the ultrafine water mist could significantly improve the fire extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist system. However, the increase of the fire extinguishing efficiency by the further increase of saline would not so obvious, which result from ultrafine water mist mass was decreased by the increase of surface tension of water solution. Based on the number of ultrasonic atomizer needed, on a mass fraction basis, the following order of effectiveness is:K2C2O4> K2CO3> KCl> KHCO3> NaCl> CH3COONa>KH2PO3> Urea. The adding of urea will lead to combustion enhancement. a multi-component method was proposed to improve the fire-extinguishing performance of ultra-fine water mist. The method is adding both a type of metal salt and a surfactant.
3) Numerical study on the interaction diffusion flame with ultra-fine water mist: The empirical model for predicting local extinction based on the oxygen concentration in FDS, is unable to determine fire extinguishing in the study. The reasons of that are lack of model for simulating droplets transportation and evaporation around flame, and lack of model for fire extinction. The EDC-modified model in SIMTEC can capture the extinguishment of flame. But the model cannot predict the minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist. Finite-rate model with detailed chemical reaction in FLUENT, can simulate flame extinguishment, and predict the minimum extinguishing concentration of ultra-fine water mist. The primary mechanism of fire extinction in the simulation using FLUENT is oxygen displacement, which agree with experiment. Fire intensification was observed in the simulation using FLUENT. The mechanism of fire intensification by NH3and HNCO is a) NH3+H=NH2+H2, b) NH3+O=NH2+OH; and that the primary mechanism of fire intensification by HNCO is a) HNCO+O=NCO+OH, b) HNCO+H=NH2+CO, c) HNCO+OH=NCo+H2o.
4)CFD simulation and experiment study on flow behavior of ultra-fine water mist: The CFD simulations using DPM cannot simulate the transport and flow behavior of the low momentum UFM. The dense gas model showed a significant improvement in predicting the UFM transportation and flow behavior. Larger size of fire is easier to extinguish in compartment space, which can promote the transportation of UFM in compartment. However, larger size of fire is more difficult to extinguish in tunnel space, which prevent UFM transport to the other side of fire. The effect of obstruction in extinguishing efficiency depends on the location of obstruction. If obstruction was located between fire source and mist source, the obstruction would decrease the extinguishing efficiency of UFM. If obstruction was located behind fire source, the obstruction would improve the extinguishing efficiency of UFM.
引文
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